1.
Kevin Mitnick
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Mitnicks pursuit, arrest, trial, and sentence along with the associated journalism, books and films were all controversial. He now runs the security firm Mitnick Security Consulting, LLC which helps test companies security strengths, weaknesses, Mitnick grew up in Los Angeles into a Jewish family and attended James Monroe High School. He was enrolled at Los Angeles Pierce College and USC, for a time, he worked as a receptionist for Stephen S. Wise Temple. At age 13, Mitnick used social engineering and dumpster diving to bypass the punch card system used in the Los Angeles bus system, social engineering later became his primary method of obtaining information, including user-names and passwords and modem phone numbers. He broke into DECs computer network and copied their software, a crime he was charged with and he was sentenced to 12 months in prison followed by three years of supervised release. Near the end of his release, Mitnick hacked into Pacific Bell voice mail computers. After a warrant was issued for his arrest, Mitnick fled, according to the U. S. Department of Justice, Mitnick gained unauthorized access to dozens of computer networks while he was a fugitive. He used cloned cellular phones to hide his location and, among other things, copied valuable proprietary software from some of the countrys largest cellular telephone, Mitnick also intercepted and stole computer passwords, altered computer networks, and broke into and read private e-mails. He was found with cloned cellular phones, more than 100 clone cellular phone codes and he was sentenced to 46 months in prison plus 22 months for violating the terms of his 1989 supervised release sentence for computer fraud. He admitted to violating the terms of supervised release by hacking into PacBell voicemail and other systems and to associating with known computer hackers, in addition, a number of media outlets reported on the unavailability of Kosher meals at the prison where he was incarcerated. He was released on January 21,2000, during his supervised release, which ended on January 21,2003, he was initially forbidden to use any communications technology other than a landline telephone. Mitnick fought this decision in court, eventually winning a ruling in his favor, under the plea deal, Mitnick was also prohibited from profiting from films or books based on his criminal activity for seven years, under a special judicial Son of Sam law variation. In December 2002 an FCC Judge ruled that Mitnick was sufficiently rehabilitated to possess a federally issued amateur radio license, Mitnicks criminal activities, arrest, and trial, along with the associated journalism, were all controversial. In his 2002 book, The Art of Deception, Mitnick states that he compromised computers solely by using passwords and he claims he did not use software programs or hacking tools for cracking passwords or otherwise exploiting computer or phone security. John Markoff and Tsutomu Shimomura, who had both been part of the pursuit, wrote the book Takedown about Mitnicks capture, the case against Mitnick tested the new laws that had been enacted for dealing with computer crime, and it raised public awareness of security involving networked computers. The controversy remains, however, and the Mitnick story is often cited today as an example of the influence that mainstream newspapers can have on the law enforcement personnel, since 2000, Mitnick has been a paid security consultant, public speaker and author. In 2000, Skeet Ulrich and Russell Wong portrayed Kevin Mitnick and Tsutomu Shimomura in the movie Track Down, the DVD was released in September 2004. A documentary named Freedom Downtime was produced by 2600, The Hacker Quarterly in response to Takedown, on August 18,2011, Mitnick appeared on The Colbert Report to talk about his new book, Ghost in the Wires
2.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
3.
ASCII
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ASCII, abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character encoding standard. ASCII codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices, most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they support many additional characters. ASCII was developed from telegraph code and its first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began on October 6,1960, the first edition of the standard was published in 1963, underwent a major revision during 1967, and experienced its most recent update during 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting of lists, and added features for other than teleprinters. Originally based on the English alphabet, ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart above. The characters encoded are numbers 0 to 9, lowercase letters a to z, uppercase letters A to Z, basic punctuation symbols, control codes that originated with Teletype machines, for example, lowercase j would become binary 1101010 and decimal 106. ASCII includes definitions for 128 characters,33 are non-printing control characters that affect how text and space are processed and 95 printable characters, of these, the IANA encourages use of the name US-ASCII for Internet uses of ASCII. The ASA became the United States of America Standards Institute and ultimately the American National Standards Institute, there was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters rather than the lowercase alphabet. The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting, the X3 committee made other changes, including other new characters, renaming some control characters and moving or removing others. ASCII was subsequently updated as USAS X3. 4-1967, then USAS X3. 4-1968, ANSI X3. 4-1977 and they proposed a 9-track standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some punched card formats. The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems, like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols. This allows digital devices to communicate each other and to process, store. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters,10 numerical digits, ITA2 were in turn based on the 5-bit telegraph code Émile Baudot invented in 1870 and patented in 1874. The committee debated the possibility of a function, which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a six-bit code. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is reliable for data transmission. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code, the committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary-coded decimal
4.
Latin alphabet
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The Latin alphabet is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world. It is the script of the English language and is often referred to simply as the alphabet in English. It is an alphabet which originated in the 7th century BC in Italy and has changed continually over the last 2500 years. It has roots in the Semitic alphabet and its offshoot alphabets, the Phoenician, Greek, the phonetic values of some letters changed, some letters were lost and gained, and several writing styles developed. Two such styles, the minuscule and majuscule hands, were combined into one script with alternate forms for the lower and upper case letters, due to classicism, modern uppercase letters differ only slightly from their classical counterparts. The Latin alphabet started out as uppercase serifed letters known as roman square capitals, the lowercase letters evolved through cursive styles that developed to adapt the formerly inscribed alphabet to being written with a pen. Throughout the ages, many stylistic variations of each letter have evolved that are still identified as being the same letter. From the Cumae alphabet, the Etruscan alphabet was derived, the Latins ultimately adopted 21 of the original 26 Etruscan letters. Gaius Julius Hyginus, who recorded much Roman mythology, mentions in Fab, the Parcae, Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos invented seven Greek letters — A B H T I Y. Others say that Mercury invented them from the flight of cranes, which, palamedes, too, son of Nauplius, invented eleven letters, Simonides, too, invented four letters — Ó E Z PH, Epicharmus of Sicily, two — P and PS. The Greek letters Mercury is said to have brought to Egypt, Cadmus in exile from Arcadia, took them to Italy, and his mother Carmenta changed them to Latin to the number of 15. Apollo on the added the rest. The original Latin alphabet was, The oldest Latin inscriptions do not distinguish between /ɡ/ and /k/, representing both by C, K and Q according to position, K was used before A, Q was used before O or V, C was used elsewhere. This is explained by the fact that the Etruscan language did not make this distinction, C originated as a turned form of Greek Gamma and Q from Greek Koppa. In later Latin, K survived only in a few such as Kalendae, Q survived only before V. G was later invented to distinguish between /ɡ/ and /k/, it was simply a C with an additional diacritic. C stood for /ɡ/ I stood for both /i/ and /j/, V stood for both /u/ and /w/. K was marginalized in favour of C, which stood for both /ɡ/ and /k/
5.
Glyph
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In typography, a glyph /ˈɡlɪf/ is an elemental symbol within an agreed set of symbols, intended to represent a readable character for the purposes of writing. In Turkish, however, it is not a glyph because that language has two versions of the letter i, with and without a dot. In Japanese syllabaries, a number of the characters are made up of more than one separate mark, however, in some cases, additional marks fulfill the role of diacritics, to differentiate distinct characters. In general, a diacritic is a glyph, even if it is contiguous with the rest of the character, two or more glyphs which have the same significance, whether used interchangeably or chosen depending on context, are called allographs of each other. The term has been used in English since 1727, borrowed from glyphe, from the Greek γλυφή, glyphē, carving, and the verb γλύφειν, glýphein, to hollow out, engrave, carve. The word glyph first came to widespread European attention with the engravings, in archaeology, a glyph is a carved or inscribed symbol. It may be a pictogram or ideogram, or part of a system such as a syllable. In 1897 Dana Evans discovered glyphs written on rocks in the Colorado Desert and these ancient characters have been called the most enlightening discovery in Native American History in the 19th Century. In typography, a glyph has a different definition, it is the specific shape, design. The same is true in computing, in computing as well as typography, the term character refers to a grapheme or grapheme-like unit of text, as found in natural language writing systems. The range of glyphs required increases correspondingly, in summary, in typography and computing, a glyph is a graphical unit. In graphonomics, the glyph is used for a noncharacter. Most typographic glyphs originate from the characters of a typeface, in the mobile text input technologies, Glyph is a family of text input methods based on the decomposition of letters into basic shapes. In role-playing games, the glyph is sometimes used alongside the word rune in describing magical drawings or etchings. Runes often refer to placing the image on an object or person to empower it, whereas the magic in a glyph lies dormant and is only triggered when the glyph is read or approached
6.
Reflection (mathematics)
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In mathematics, a reflection is a mapping from a Euclidean space to itself that is an isometry with a hyperplane as a set of fixed points, this set is called the axis or plane of reflection. The image of a figure by a reflection is its image in the axis or plane of reflection. For example the image of the small Latin letter p for a reflection with respect to a vertical axis would look like q. Its image by reflection in a horizontal axis would look like b, a reflection is an involution, when applied twice in succession, every point returns to its original location, and every geometrical object is restored to its original state. The term reflection is used for a larger class of mappings from a Euclidean space to itself. Such isometries have a set of fixed points that is an affine subspace, for instance a reflection through a point is an involutive isometry with just one fixed point, the image of the letter p under it would look like a d. This operation is known as a central inversion, and exhibits Euclidean space as a symmetric space. In a Euclidean vector space, the reflection in the point situated at the origin is the same as vector negation, other examples include reflections in a line in three-dimensional space. Typically, however, unqualified use of the term reflection means reflection in a hyperplane, a figure that does not change upon undergoing a reflection is said to have reflectional symmetry. Some mathematicians use flip as a synonym for reflection, in a plane geometry, to find the reflection of a point drop a perpendicular from the point to the line used for reflection, and extend it the same distance on the other side. To find the reflection of a figure, reflect each point in the figure, step 2, construct circles centered at A′ and B′ having radius r. P and Q will be the points of intersection of two circles. Point Q is then the reflection of point P through line AB, the matrix for a reflection is orthogonal with determinant −1 and eigenvalues −1,1,1. The product of two matrices is a special orthogonal matrix that represents a rotation. Every rotation is the result of reflecting in an number of reflections in hyperplanes through the origin. Thus reflections generate the group, and this result is known as the Cartan–Dieudonné theorem. Similarly the Euclidean group, which consists of all isometries of Euclidean space, is generated by reflections in affine hyperplanes, in general, a group generated by reflections in affine hyperplanes is known as a reflection group. The finite groups generated in this way are examples of Coxeter groups, note that the second term in the above equation is just twice the vector projection of v onto a
7.
Elite
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Elite, is a term that originates from Latin eligere. In political and sociological theory for a group of powerful people that controls a disproportionate amount of wealth. Insofar as national events are decided, the elite are those who decide them. Mills states that the elite members recognize other members mutual exalted position in society. As a rule, hey accept one another, understand one another, marry one another, tend to work and to think and it is a well-regulated existence where education plays a critical role. These memberships in turn pave the way to the prominent social clubs located in all major cities, the Military Circle, In Mills time a heightened concern about warfare existed, making top military leaders and such issues as defense funding and personnel recruitment very important. Most prominent corporate leaders and politicians were strong proponents of military spending and these two groups tended to be mutually supportive. Unlike the ruling class, a formation based on heritage and social ties. According to Mills, the power elite rose from the reorganization of the propertied classes into the more or less unified stratum of the corporate rich. Domhoff further clarified the differences in the two terms, The upper class as a whole does not do the ruling, Power elite is a term used by American sociologist C. Wright Mills to describe a relatively small, loosely connected group of individuals who dominate American policymaking. The basis for membership of a power élite is institutional power, one study of power élites in the United States under President George W. Bush identified 7,314 institutional positions of power encompassing 5,778 individuals. A later study of U. S. Ethnicity White Anglo-Saxons dominate in the power élite, with Protestants representing about 80 percent of the top business leaders, education Nearly all the leaders have a college education, with almost half graduating with advanced degrees. About 54 percent of the leaders and 42% of the government élite graduated from just 12 prestigious universities with large endowments. Social clubs Most holders of top positions in the power élite possess exclusive membership in one or more social clubs. About a third belong to a number of especially prestigious clubs in major cities like London, New York City, Chicago, Boston. In the 1970s an organized set of policies promoted reduced taxes, especially for the wealthy, starting with legislation in the 1980s, the wealthy banking community successfully lobbied for reduced regulation. Doing so would hopefully alleviate various destructive conditions affecting large numbers of affluent citizens. Mills determined that there is a core of the power elite involving individuals that are able to move from one seat of institutional power to another
8.
Symbol
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A symbol is a mark, sign, or word that indicates, signifies, or is understood as representing an idea, object, or relationship. Symbols allow people to go beyond what is known or seen by creating linkages between otherwise very different concepts and experiences, all communication is achieved through the use of symbols. Symbols take the form of words, sounds, gestures, ideas or visual images and are used to other ideas. For example, a red octagon may be a symbol for STOP, on a map, a blue line might represent a river. Alphabetic letters may be symbols for sounds, personal names are symbols representing individuals. A red rose may symbolize love and compassion, the variable x, in a mathematical equation, may symbolize the position of a particle in space. In cartography, a collection of symbols forms a legend for a map The word derives from the Greek symbolon meaning token or watchword. It is an amalgam of syn- together + bole a throwing, a casting, the sense evolution in Greek is from throwing things together to contrasting to comparing to token used in comparisons to determine if something is genuine. The meaning something which stands for something else was first recorded in 1590, later, expanding on what he means by this definition Campbell says, a symbol, like everything else, shows a double aspect. We must distinguish, therefore between the sense and the meaning of the symbol. The term meaning can only to the first two but these, today, are in the charge of science – which is the province as we have said, not of symbols. The ineffable, the unknowable, can be only sensed. Heinrich Zimmer gives an overview of the nature, and perennial relevance. Concepts and words are symbols, just as visions, rituals, through all of these a transcendent reality is mirrored. They are so many metaphors reflecting and implying something which, though thus variously expressed, is ineffable, though thus rendered multiform, Symbols hold the mind to truth but are not themselves the truth, hence it is delusory to borrow them. Each civilisation, every age, must bring forth its own, in the book Signs and Symbols, it is stated that A symbol. Is a visual image or sign representing an idea -- a deeper indicator of a universal truth, Symbols are a means of complex communication that often can have multiple levels of meaning. This separates symbols from signs, as signs have only one meaning, human cultures use symbols to express specific ideologies and social structures and to represent aspects of their specific culture
9.
Substitution cipher
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The receiver deciphers the text by performing the inverse substitution. Substitution ciphers can be compared with transposition ciphers, in a transposition cipher, the units of the plaintext are rearranged in a different and usually quite complex order, but the units themselves are left unchanged. By contrast, in a cipher, the units of the plaintext are retained in the same sequence in the ciphertext. There are a number of different types of substitution cipher, if the cipher operates on single letters, it is termed a simple substitution cipher, a cipher that operates on larger groups of letters is termed polygraphic. Substitution of single letters separately—simple substitution—can be demonstrated by writing out the alphabet in order to represent the substitution. This is termed a substitution alphabet, the cipher alphabet may be shifted or reversed or scrambled in a more complex fashion, in which case it is called a mixed alphabet or deranged alphabet. Traditionally, mixed alphabets may be created by first writing out a keyword, removing repeated letters in it, using this system, the keyword zebras gives us the following alphabets, A message of flee at once. These blocks are called groups, and sometimes a group count is given as an additional check and these can be any characters that decrypt to obvious nonsense, so the receiver can easily spot them and discard them. The ciphertext alphabet is different from the plaintext alphabet, for example, in the pigpen cipher. In lists and catalogues for salespeople, a simple encryption is sometimes used to replace numeric digits by letters. Example, MAT would be used to represent 120, a disadvantage of this method of derangement is that the last letters of the alphabet tend to stay at the end. A stronger way of constructing a mixed alphabet is to perform a columnar transposition on the alphabet using the keyword. Although the number of keys is very large, this cipher is not very strong. Provided the message is of length, the cryptanalyst can deduce the probable meaning of the most common symbols by analyzing the frequency distribution of the ciphertext. This allows formation of words, which can be tentatively filled in. Many people solve such ciphers for recreation, as with cryptogram puzzles in the newspaper, according to the unicity distance of English,27.6 letters of ciphertext are required to crack a mixed alphabet simple substitution. In practice, typically about 50 letters are needed, although some messages can be broken with fewer if unusual patterns are found. In other cases, the plaintext can be contrived to have a flat frequency distribution
10.
Dialect
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That happens, for example, across large parts of India or the Maghreb. Historically, it happened in various parts of Europe such as between Portugal, southern Belgium and southern Italy, and between Flanders and Austria. Leonard Bloomfield used the dialect area. It is analogous to a species in evolutionary biology. Dialect continua typically occur in long-settled agrarian populations, as innovations spread from their various points of origin as waves, in this situation, hierarchical classifications of varieties are impractical. Instead, dialectologists map variation of language features across a dialect continuum. The influential Atlas linguistique de la France pioneered the use of a trained fieldworker and these atlases typically consist of display maps, each showing local forms of a particular item at the survey locations. Secondary studies may include maps, showing the areal distribution of various variants. A common tool in these maps is an isogloss, a line separating areas where different variants of a particular feature predominate, in a dialect continuum, isoglosses for different features are typically spread out, reflecting the gradual transition between varieties. A bundle of coinciding isoglosses indicate a stronger dialect boundary, as might occur at geographical obstacles or long-standing political boundaries, in other cases, intersecting isoglosses and more complex patterns are found. Standard varieties may be developed and codified from one or more locations in a continuum, in such cases the local variety is said to be dependent on, or heteronomous with respect to, the standard variety. The Scandinavian languages, Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, are cited as examples. Conversely, a defined in this way may include local varieties that are mutually unintelligible. The choice of standard is determined by a political boundary. As a results, speakers on either side of the boundary may use almost identical varieties, but treat them as dependent on different standards, the choice may be a matter of national, regional or religious identity, and may be controversial. In the Yugoslav republic of Macedonia, a standard was developed from local varieties within a continuum with Serbia to the north, the standard was deliberately based on varieties from the west of the republic that were most different from standard Bulgarian. Now known as Macedonian, it is the standard of the independent Republic of Macedonia. Europe provides several examples of dialect continua, the largest of which involve the Germanic, Romance and Slavic branches of the Indo-European language family
11.
Hacker culture
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The hacker culture is a subculture of individuals who enjoy the intellectual challenge of creatively overcoming limitations of software systems to achieve novel and clever outcomes. The act of engaging in activities in a spirit of playfulness, however, the defining characteristic of a hacker is not the activities performed themselves, but the manner in which it is done and whether it is something exciting and meaningful. Therefore, the hacker culture originally emerged in academia in the 1960s around the Massachusetts Institute of Technology s Tech Model Railroad Club, Richard Stallman explains about hackers who program, What they had in common was mainly love of excellence and programming. They wanted to make their programs that they used be as good as they could and they also wanted to make them do neat things. They wanted to be able to do something in an exciting way than anyone believed possible. I bet you didnt believe this could be done, as documented in the Jargon File, these hackers are disappointed by the mass media and general publics usage of the word hacker to refer to security breakers, calling them crackers instead. The word hacker derives from the word of a lusty laborer who harvested fields by dogged. Although the idea of hacking has existed long before the term hacker—with the most notable example of Lightning Ellsworth, in fact, many of the first programmers were from engineering or physics backgrounds. With this definition in mind, it can be clear where the negative implications of the word hacker, some common nicknames among this culture include crackers who are unskilled thieves who mainly rely on luck. Others include phreak—which refers to a type of skilled crackers and warez d00dz—which is a kind of cracker that acquires reproductions of copyrighted software, within all hackers are tiers of hackers such as the samurai who are hackers that hire themselves out for legal electronic locksmith work. Furthermore, there are other hackers who are hired to test security, the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, the University of California, Berkeley and Carnegie Mellon University were particularly well-known hotbeds of early hacker culture. Over time, the hacker subculture has tended to become more conscious, more cohesive. The concentration of academic hacker subculture has paralleled and partly driven by the commoditization of computer and networking technology. Many of the values and tenets of the free and open software movement stem from the hacker ethics that originated at MIT. Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not bogus criteria such as degrees, age, race and you can create art and beauty on a computer. Computers can change your life for the better, Hacker ethics are concerned primarily with sharing, openness, collaboration, and engaging in the hands-on imperative. Hack value is the used by hackers to express that something is worth doing or is interesting. This is something that often feel intuitively about a problem or solution
12.
Bulletin board system
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A bulletin board system, or BBS, is a computer server running software that allows users to connect to the system using a terminal program. Many BBSes also offer on-line games, in users can compete with each other. Bulletin board systems were in many ways a precursor to the form of the World Wide Web, social networks. Low-cost, high-performance modems drove the use of services and BBSes through the early 1990s. Infoworld estimated there were 60,000 BBSes serving 17 million users in the United States alone in 1994, over the next year, many of the leading BBS software providers went bankrupt and tens of thousands of BBSes disappeared. Today, BBSing survives largely as a hobby in most parts of the world. Most BBSes are now accessible over Telnet and typically offer free email accounts, FTP services, IRC, some offer access through packet switched networks, or packet radio connections. A precursor to the bulletin board system was Community Memory, started in August 1973 in Berkeley. Useful microcomputers did not exist at that time, and modems were both expensive and slow, Community Memory therefore ran on a mainframe computer and was accessed through terminals located in several San Francisco Bay Area neighborhoods. The poor quality of the original modem connecting the terminals to the mainframe prompted a user to invent the Pennywhistle modem, Community Memory allowed the user to type messages into a computer terminal after inserting a coin, and offered a pure bulletin board experience with public messages only. It did offer the ability to tag messages with keywords, which the user could use in searches, the system acted primarily in the form of a buy and sell system with the tags taking the place of the more traditional classifications. But users found ways to express themselves outside these bounds, unfortunately, the system was expensive to operate, and when their host machine became unavailable and a new one could not be found, the system closed in January 1975. Similar functionality was available to most mainframe users, which might be considered a sort of ultra-local BBS when used in this fashion. Commercial systems, expressly intended to offer features to the public, became available in the late 1970s. Early modems were very simple devices using acoustic couplers to handle telephone operation. The user would first pick up the phone, dial a number, disconnecting at the end of a call required the user to pick up the handset and return it to the phone. With the introduction of microcomputers with expansion slots, like the S-100 bus machines and Apple II, it possible for the modem to communicate instructions. A number of modems of this sort were available by the late 1970s
13.
Cult of the Dead Cow
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Cult of the Dead Cow, also known as cDc or cDc Communications, is a computer hacker and DIY media organization founded in 1984 in Lubbock, Texas. The group maintains a weblog on its site, also titled Cult of the Dead Cow, New media are released first through the blog, which also features thoughts and opinions of the groups members. The group was formed in June 1984 at the Farm Pac slaughterhouse by Grandmaster Ratte, Franken Gibe, Sid Vicious, the slaughterhouse, a hangout of many Lubbock youth, was burned in 1996. In the 1980s the Cult of the Dead Cow organized and maintained a collective of affiliated BBSs across the US. It was during this time that the cDc is credited with coining the term 31337 as a spelling of Eleet or Elite. In December 1990, cDc member Drunkfux – the pseudonym of Jesse Dryden, hoHoCon, usually held in Houston, Texas, was the first hacker conference which invited the participation of both journalists and law enforcement. In all, dFx hosted five annual HoHoCons, in 1991, cDc was named Sassiest Underground Computer Group by Sassy magazine. Also in 1991, the group began distributing music in the form of cassette tape albums sold through its post office box, many of these albums are now available online in their entirety. October 1994 saw the creation of the cDcs Usenet newsgroup, alt. fan. cult-dead-cow and it was thus the first hacking group to have its own Usenet newsgroup. In November of that year, the group claimed responsibility for giving Ronald Reagan Alzheimers disease, the cDc declared war on the Church of Scientology in 1995 during the alt. religion. scientology controversy, stating In 1997, the cDc began distributing original MP3-format music on its website. In February 2000, the cDc was the subject of an 11-minute documentary short entitled Disinformation, also in February 2000, cDc member Mudge briefed President Bill Clinton on Internet security. CDc communications is the parent organisation of Cult of the Dead Cow, the other two are the Ninja Strike Force and Hacktivismo. In 1996, the cDc announced the birth of its Ninja Strike Force, a group of dedicated to achieving the goals of the cDc. The cDc opened the NSF Dojo in 2004, membership in the NSF is granted by the cDc to those individuals who stand out in their support of the cDc and its ideals. Members are recognised for their abilities, capabilities, and being the best of the best in their skills, in 2006 the Ninja Strike Force launched its own microsite. Among Hacktivismos beliefs include access to information as a human right. The organization partially shares Critical Art Ensembles belief in the value of secrecy, the cDc model is, instead, one of disruptive compliance. Disruptive, in case, refers to disruptive technology, compliance refers back to the Internet and its original intent of constructive free-flow
14.
Internet Relay Chat
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Internet Relay Chat is an application layer protocol that facilitates communication in the form of text. The chat process works on a client/server networking model, IRC clients are computer programs that a user can install on their system. These clients communicate with chat servers to transfer messages to other clients, client software is available for every major operating system that supports Internet access. IRC usage has been declining steadily since 2003, losing 60% of its users, Jarkko intended to extend the BBS software he administered, to allow news in the Usenet style, real time discussions and similar BBS features. The first part he implemented was the part, which he did with borrowed parts written by his friends Jyrki Kuoppala. The first IRC network was running on a server named tolsun. oulu. fi. Oikarinen found inspiration in a system known as Bitnet Relay. This was the first irc network, Jarkko got some friends at the Helsinki University and Tampere University to start running IRC servers when his number of users increased and other universities soon followed. At this time Jarkko realized that the rest of the BBS features probably wouldnt fit in his program, Jarkko got in touch with people at the University of Denver and Oregon State University. They had their own IRC network running and wanted to connect to the Finnish network and they had gotten the program from one of Jarkkos friends, Vijay Subramaniam—the first non-Finnish person to use IRC. IRC then grew larger and got used on the entire Finnish national network—Funet—and then connected to Nordunet, in November 1988, IRC had spread across the Internet and in the middle of 1989, there were some 40 servers worldwide. In August 1990 the first major disagreement took place in the IRC world, the A-net included a server named eris. berkeley. edu. It was all open, required no passwords and had no limit on the number of connects, as Greg wumpus Lindahl explains, it had a wildcard server line, so people were hooking up servers and nick-colliding everyone. The Eris Free Network, EFnet, made the machine the first to be Q-lined from IRC. In wumpus words again, Eris refused to remove that line and it wasnt much of a fight, I got all the hubs to join, and almost everyone else got carried along. A-net was formed with the servers, EFnet was formed with the non-eris servers. History showed most servers and users went with EFnet, once ANet disbanded, the name EFnet became meaningless, and once again it was the one and only IRC network. It is around that time that IRC was used to report on the 1991 Soviet coup détat attempt throughout a media blackout and it was previously used in a similar fashion during the Gulf War
15.
Security hacker
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A security hacker is someone who seeks to breach defenses and exploit weaknesses in a computer system or network. The subculture that has evolved around hackers is often referred to as the computer underground, there is a longstanding controversy about the terms true meaning. The black-hat meaning still prevails among the general public, in computer security, a hacker is someone who focuses on security mechanisms of computer and network systems. While including those who endeavor to strengthen such mechanisms, it is often used by the mass media. That is, the media portrays the hacker as a villain, nevertheless, parts of the subculture see their aim in correcting security problems and use the word in a positive sense. White hat is the given to ethical computer hackers, who utilize hacking in a helpful way. White hats are becoming a part of the information security field. Accordingly, the term bears strong connotations that are favorable or pejorative, the subculture around such hackers is termed network hacker subculture, hacker scene or computer underground. It initially developed in the context of phreaking during the 1960s and it is implicated with 2600, The Hacker Quarterly and the alt.2600 newsgroup. In 1980, an article in the August issue of Psychology Today used the term hacker in its title and it was an excerpt from a Stanford Bulletin Board discussion on the addictive nature of computer use. In the 1982 film Tron, Kevin Flynn describes his intentions to break into ENCOMs computer system, CLU is the software he uses for this. By 1983, hacking in the sense of breaking computer security had already been in use as computer jargon, but there was no public awareness about such activities. However, the release of the film WarGames that year, featuring a computer intrusion into NORAD, the Newsweek article appears to be the first use of the word hacker by the mainstream media in the pejorative sense. Pressured by media coverage, congressman Dan Glickman called for an investigation, as a result of these laws against computer criminality, white hat, grey hat and black hat hackers try to distinguish themselves from each other, depending on the legality of their activities. These moral conflicts are expressed in The Mentors The Hacker Manifesto, use of the term hacker meaning computer criminal was also advanced by the title Stalking the Wily Hacker, an article by Clifford Stoll in the May 1988 issue of the Communications of the ACM. Later that year, the release by Robert Tappan Morris, Jr. of the so-called Morris worm provoked the popular media to spread this usage, the popularity of Stolls book The Cuckoos Egg, published one year later, further entrenched the term in the publics consciousness. Several subgroups of the underground with different attitudes use different terms to demarcate themselves from each other. Eric S. Raymond, author of The New Hackers Dictionary, yet, those people see themselves as hackers and even try to include the views of Raymond in what they see as a wider hacker culture, a view that Raymond has harshly rejected
16.
Script kiddie
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In programming and hacking culture, a script kiddie or skiddie is an unskilled individual who uses scripts or programs developed by others to attack computer systems and networks and deface websites. However, the term does not relate to the age of the participant. The term is considered to be pejorative. Script kiddies have at their disposal a number of effective, easily downloadable programs capable of breaching computers. Script kiddies vandalize websites both for the thrill of it and to increase their reputation among their peers, some more malicious script kiddies have used virus toolkits to create and propagate the Anna Kournikova and Love Bug viruses. Script kiddies lack, or are developing, programming skills sufficient to understand the effects. Black hat hacker Exploit Hacker Lamer List of convicted computer criminals Tapeworm
17.
Newbie
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Newbie, newb or noob is a slang term for a novice or newcomer, or somebody inexperienced in any profession or activity. Contemporary use can particularly refer to a beginner or new user of computers, often concerning Internet activity and it can have derogatory connotations, but is also often used for descriptive purposes only, without a value judgment. Earliest uses probably date to late twentieth century United States Armed Forces jargon, variant forms of the noun include newby and newbee, while the related term noob is often used in online gaming. It may derive from newie, which is attested in U. S, in the 1960s–1970s the term newbie had a limited usage among U. S. troops in the Vietnam War as a slang term for a new man in a unit. Its earliest known usage on the Internet may have been on the Usenet newsgroup talk. bizarre, the term is believed to have entered online usage by 1981. Coming from a tradition, the term has variant spellings. Among alternative forms are newby, nubie, and newbee, two related terms are newb, a beginner who is willing to learn, and noob, a derogatory name for an inexperienced or under-talented hacker or gamer, who lacks the determination to learn. Noob was among candidates for the one-millionth English word selection by the Global Language Monitor, in Korean, the equivalent term is Chobo, the opposite is Gosu, or highly skilled. Gosu FNG, another term for new to a unit used in the Vietnam War Luser
18.
Emoticon
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An emoticon, is a pictorial representation of a facial expression using punctuation marks, numbers and letters, usually written to express a persons feelings or mood. In Western countries, emoticons are usually written at an angle to the direction of the text. Users from Japan popularized a kind of emoticon called kaomoji that can be understood without tilting ones head to the left and this style arose on ASCII NET of Japan in 1986. As social media has become widespread, emoticons have played a significant role in communication through technology and they offer another range of tone and feeling through texting that portrays specific emotions through facial gestures while in the midst of text-based cyber communication. The word is a word of the English words emotion and icon. In web forums, instant messengers and online games, text emoticons are often replaced with small corresponding images. Emoticons for a face, -) and sad face, - and, - From, Scott E Fahlman <Fahlman at Cmu-20c> I propose that the following character sequence for joke markers. Actually, it is more economical to mark things that are NOT jokes. For this, use, - which omits the nose is very popular. The most basic emoticons are relatively consistent in form, but each of them can be transformed by being rotated, with or without a hyphen. There are also some variations to emoticons to get new definitions, like changing a character to express a new feeling. One linguistic study has indicated that the use of a nose in an emoticon may be related to the users age and it is also common for the user to replace the rounded brackets used for the mouth with other, similar brackets, such as ] instead of ). Some variants are more common in certain countries due to keyboard layouts. For example, the smiley =) may occur in Scandinavia, where the keys for = and ) are placed right beside each other, however, the, ) variant is without a doubt the dominant one in Scandinavia, making the =) version a rarity. The letters Ö and Ü can be seen as an emoticon, as the version of, O and. Users from Japan popularized a style of emoticons that can be understood without tilting ones head to the left and this style arose on ASCII NET of Japan in 1986. Similar looking emoticons were used by Byte Information Exchange around the same time and these emoticons are usually found in a format similar to. The asterisks indicate the eyes, the character, commonly an underscore, the mouth, and the parentheses
19.
ASCII art
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The term is also loosely used to refer to text based visual art in general. ASCII art can be created with any text editor, and is used with free-form languages. Most examples of ASCII art require a fixed-width font such as Courier for presentation, among the oldest known examples of ASCII art are the creations by computer-art pioneer Kenneth Knowlton from around 1966, who was working for Bell Labs at the time. Studies in Perception I by Ken Knowlton and Leon Harmon from 1966 shows some examples of their early ASCII art, one of the main reasons ASCII art was born was because early printers often lacked graphics ability and thus characters were used in place of graphic marks. ASCII art was used in early e-mail when images could not be embedded. ASCII art can also be used for typesetting initials, since 1867 typewriters have been used for creating visual art. The oldest known preserved example of art is a picture of a butterfly made in 1898 by Flora Stacey. TTY stands for TeleTYpe or TeleTYpewriter and is known as Teleprinter or Teletype. RTTY stands for Radioteletype, character sets such as Baudot code, according to a chapter in the RTTY Handbook, text images have been sent via teletypewriter as early as 1923. However, none of the old RTTY art has been discovered yet, what is known is that text images appeared frequently on radioteletype in the 1960s and the 1970s. In the 1960s, Andries van Dam published a representation of an electronic circuit produced on an IBM1403 line printer, at the same time, Kenneth Knowlton was producing realistic images, also on line printers, by overprinting several characters on top of one another. The widespread usage of ASCII art can be traced to the bulletin board systems of the late 1970s. The limitations of computers of that time necessitated the use of text characters to represent images. Along with ASCIIs use in communication, however, it began to appear in the underground online art groups of the period. An ASCII comic is a form of webcomic which uses ASCII text to create images, in place of images in a regular comic, ASCII art is used, with the text or dialog usually placed underneath. During the 1990s, graphical browsing and variable-width fonts became increasingly popular, ASCII and more importantly, ANSI were staples of the early technological era, terminal systems relied on coherent presentation using color and control signals standard in the terminal protocols. Over the years, warez groups began to enter the ASCII art scene, warez groups usually release. nfo files with their software, cracks or other general software reverse-engineering releases. The ASCII art will usually include the groups name and maybe some ASCII borders on the outsides of the release notes
20.
Internet meme
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An Internet meme is an activity, concept, catchphrase or piece of media which spreads, often as mimicry, from person to person via the Internet. Some examples include posting a photo of people lying down in public places, a meme is an idea, behavior, or style that spreads from person to person within a culture. An Internet meme may take the form of an image, hyperlink, video, website and it may be just a word or phrase, including an intentional misspelling. These small movements tend to spread person to person via social networks, blogs, direct email. They may relate to various existing Internet cultures or subcultures, often created or spread on various websites, or by Usenet boards, fads and sensations tend to grow rapidly on the Internet, because the instant communication facilitates word-of-mouth transmission. The concept of the Internet meme was first proposed by Mike Godwin in the June 1993 issue of Wired, dawkins explained that Internet memes are thus a hijacking of the original idea, the very idea of a meme having mutated and evolved in this new direction. Further, Internet memes carry an additional property that ordinary memes do not—Internet memes leave a footprint in the media through which they propagate that renders them traceable and analyzable, Internet memes are a subset that Susan Blackmore called temes—memes which live in technological artifacts instead of the human mind. Image macros are often confused with internet memes and are often miscited as such, however, there is a key distinction between the two. Primarily this distinction lies within the subjects recognizability in internet pop-culture, in the early days of the Internet, such content was primarily spread via email or Usenet discussion communities. Messageboards and newsgroups were also popular because they allowed a simple method for people to information or memes with a diverse population of internet users in a short period. They encourage communication between people, and thus between meme sets, that do not normally come in contact, furthermore, they actively promote meme-sharing within the messageboard or newsgroup population by asking for feedback, comments, opinions, etc. This format is what gave rise to internet memes, like the Hampster Dance. Another factor in the increased meme transmission observed over the internet is its interactive nature, many phenomena are also spread via web search engines, internet forums, social networking services, social news sites, and video hosting services. Much of the Internets ability to spread information is assisted from results found through search engines, an Internet meme may stay the same or may evolve over time, by chance or through commentary, imitations, parody, or by incorporating news accounts about itself. Internet memes can evolve and spread rapidly, sometimes reaching worldwide popularity within a few days. Internet memes usually are formed from some social interaction, pop culture reference and their rapid growth and impact has caught the attention of both researchers and industry. Academically, researchers model how they evolve and predict which memes will survive, commercially, they are used in viral marketing where they are an inexpensive form of mass advertising. One empirical approach studied meme characteristics and behavior independently from the networks in which they propagated, theoretical studies on media psychology and communication have aimed to characterise and analyse the concept and representations in order to make it accessible for the academic research
21.
Megatokyo
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Megatokyo is an English-language webcomic created by Fred Gallagher and Rodney Caston. Megatokyo debuted on August 14,2000, and has been written, Gallaghers style of writing and illustration is heavily influenced by Japanese manga. Megatokyo is freely available on its official website, the stated schedule for updates is Tuesday and Friday, but they typically are posted just once or twice a month on non-specific days. Recently, this schedule has slipped further, due to the issues of Sarah Gallagher. Megatokyo was also published in book-format by CMX, although the first three volumes were published by Dark Horse. For February 2005, sales of the comics third printed volume were ranked third on BookScans list of novels sold in bookstores. Set in a version of Tokyo, Megatokyo portrays the adventures of Piro, a young fan of anime and manga, and his friend Largo. The comic often parodies and comments on the archetypes and clichés of anime, manga, dating sims, arcade and video games, Megatokyo originally emphasized humor, with continuity of the story a subsidiary concern. Over time, it focused more on developing a complex plot and this transition was due primarily to Gallaghers increasing control over the comic, which led to Caston choosing to leave the project. Megatokyo has received praise from sources as The New York Times. Megatokyo began publication as a joint project between Fred Gallagher and Rodney Caston, along with a few internet acquaintances, Gallagher and Caston later became business partners, as well. According to Gallagher, the comics first two strips were drawn in reaction to Caston being convinced that he and I could do, bothering me incessantly about it, without any planning or pre-determined storyline. The comics title was derived from an Internet domain owned by Caston, according to Gallagher, Megatokyos popularity was not intended, as the project was originally an experiment to help him improve his writing and illustrating skills for his future project, Warmth. In May 2002, Caston sold his ownership of the title to Gallagher, in October of the same year, after Gallagher was laid off from his day job as an architect, he took up producing the comic as a full time profession. Castons departure from Megatokyo was not fully explained at the time, initially, Gallagher and Caston only briefly mentioned the split, with Gallagher publicly announcing Castons departure on June 17,2002. Calling Kurtzs claim mean spirited, Gallagher responded, While things were good at first, there is no fault in this, it happens. Ive never blamed Rodney for this creative falling out nor do I blame myself, not all creative relationships click, ours didnt in the long run. This was right before the MT was to go into print form, in May 2011, it was announced that Endgames was being revamped in a light novel format, with a story written by webfiction author Thomas Knapp, with four light novels planned
22.
Pwn
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Pwn is a leetspeak slang term derived from the verb own, as meaning to appropriate or to conquer to gain ownership. The term implies domination or humiliation of a rival, used primarily in the Internet-based video game culture to taunt an opponent who has just been soundly defeated. In script kiddie jargon, pwn means to compromise or control, specifically another computer, website, gateway device and it is synonymous with one of the definitions of hacking or cracking, including iOS jailbreaking. The Pwnie Awards are awarded by a group of security researchers, popularity of the term among teenagers rose in the mid-2000s, with the spread from the Internet written form to use in spoken language. Originally, pwn and its variants were pronounced /ˈoʊn/ in the way as the verb own. A notable usage of this pronunciation can be seen in the Internet distributed series Pure Pwnage, Pwnage is online identity of Samuel Anderson-Anderson, the protagonist in Nathan Hills 2017 novel The Nix. Pwnsauce was the identity of a leading hacktivist memebr of LulzSec. The dictionary definition of pwn at Wiktionary
23.
Inflection
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An inflection expresses one or more grammatical categories with a prefix, suffix or infix, or another internal modification such as a vowel change. For example, the Latin verb ducam, meaning I will lead, includes the suffix -am, expressing person, number, the use of this suffix is an inflection. In contrast, in the English clause I will lead, the lead is not inflected for any of person, number, or tense. The inflected form of a word contains both one or more free morphemes, and one or more bound morphemes. These two morphemes together form the inflected word cars and its categories can be determined only from its context. Requiring the forms or inflections of more than one word in a sentence to be compatible with each other according to the rules of the language is known as concord or agreement. For example, in the choir sings, choir is a singular noun, languages that have some degree of inflection are synthetic languages. These can be inflected, or weakly inflected. Languages that are so inflected that a sentence can consist of a highly inflected word are called polysynthetic languages. Languages such as Mandarin Chinese that never use inflections are called analytic or isolating, in English most nouns are inflected for number with the inflectional plural affix -s, and most English verbs are inflected for tense with the inflectional past tense affix -ed. English also inflects verbs by affixation to mark the person singular in the present tense. English short adjectives are inflected to mark comparative and superlative forms, in addition, English also shows inflection by ablaut and umlaut, as well as long-short vowel alternation. For example, Write, wrote, written Sing, sang, sung Foot, feet Mouse, mice Child, children For details, see English plural, English verbs, and English irregular verbs. When a given word class is subject to inflection in a particular language, words which follow such a standard pattern are said to be regular, those that inflect differently are called irregular. For instance, many languages that feature verb inflection have both regular verbs and irregular verbs, in English, regular verbs form their past tense and past participle with the ending -d, thus verbs like play, arrive and enter are regular. However, there are a few hundred verbs which follow different patterns, such as sing–sang–sung and keep–kept–kept, irregular verbs often preserve patterns which were regular in past forms of the language, but which have now become anomalous. Example, Latin dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictum > Spanish digo, decir, dije, strong vs. weak inflection—Sometimes two inflection systems exist, conventionally classified as strong and weak. Ancient Greek verbs are likewise said to have had a first aorist, suppletion—The irregular form was originally derived from a different root
24.
English verbs
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Verbs constitute one of the main word classes in the English language. Like other types of words in the language, English verbs are not heavily inflected, most combinations of tense, aspect, mood and voice are expressed periphrastically, using constructions with auxiliary verbs. Most verbs inflect in a regular fashion, although there are about 200 irregular verbs. The copula verb be has a number of different inflected forms. For details of the uses of verb tenses and other forms. For certain other topics, see the articles listed in the adjacent box. A regular English verb has only one part, from which all the forms of the verb can be derived. This is the form or dictionary form. For example, from the base form exist, all the forms of the verb can be predictably derived. The base form is called the bare infinitive, another common way of referring to verbs is to use the to-infinitive. Most irregular verbs have three parts, since the simple past and past participle are unpredictable. For example, the verb write has the principal parts write, wrote, and written, note that some irregular verbs have identical past tense and past participle forms, as with send–sent–sent. The verbs do, say and have additionally have irregular third person present tense forms. The copular verb be is irregular, with the forms be, am, is, are, was, were, been. On the other hand, modal verbs are verbs, being used only in a limited number of forms. For details on the forms of verbs of these types, see § Copular, auxiliary, the base form or plain form of a verb is not marked by any inflectional ending. There are certain suffixes that are frequently used to form verbs, such as -ate, -fy. Many verbs also contain prefixes, such un-, out-, over-, some verbs are formed from nouns and adjectives by conversion, as with the verbs snare, nose, dry, and calm
25.
Poetry
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Poetry has a long history, dating back to the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. Early poems evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the Sanskrit Vedas, Zoroastrian Gathas, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancient attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotles Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on such as repetition, verse form and rhyme. From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more generally regarded as a creative act employing language. Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretation to words, devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly figures of such as metaphor, simile and metonymy create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm. Some poetry types are specific to cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition, playing with and testing, among other things, in todays increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniques from diverse cultures and languages. Some scholars believe that the art of poetry may predate literacy, others, however, suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. The oldest surviving poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, comes from the 3rd millennium BCE in Sumer. An example of Egyptian epic poetry is The Story of Sinuhe, other forms of poetry developed directly from folk songs. The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry, the efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in poetics—the study of the aesthetics of poetry. Some ancient societies, such as Chinas through her Shijing, developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance, Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Later aestheticians identified three major genres, epic poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry, Aristotles work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, as well as in Europe during the Renaissance. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability and this romantic approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic
26.
Ampersand
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The ampersand is the logogram &, representing the conjunction word and. It originated as a ligature of the et, Latin for. The word ampersand is a corruption of the phrase and per se &, meaning and intrinsically the word, traditionally, when reciting the alphabet in English-speaking schools, any letter that could also be used as a word in itself was repeated with the Latin expression per se. This habit was useful in spelling where a word or syllable was repeated after spelling, e. g. d, o, g—dog would be clear but simply saying a—a would be confusing without the clarifying per se added. It was also common practice to add the & sign at the end of the alphabet as if it were the 27th letter, pronounced as the Latin et or later in English as and. As a result, the recitation of the alphabet would end in X, Y, Z and this last phrase was routinely slurred to ampersand and the term had entered common English usage by 1837. Through popular etymology, it has been claimed that André-Marie Ampère used the symbol in his widely read publications. The ampersand can be traced back to the 1st century A. D. during the following development of the Latin script that led up to the Carolingian minuscule the use of ligatures in general diminished. The et-ligature, however, continued to be used and gradually became more stylized, the modern italic type ampersand is a kind of et ligature that goes back to the cursive scripts developed during the Renaissance. After the advent of printing in Europe in 1455, printers made extensive use of both the italic and Roman ampersands, since the ampersands roots go back to Roman times, many languages that use a variation of the Latin alphabet make use of it. The ampersand often appeared as a letter at the end of the Latin alphabet, similarly, & was regarded as the 27th letter of the English alphabet, as used by children. An example may be seen in M. B, moores 1863 book The Dixie Primer, for the Little Folks. The popular Apple Pie ABC finishes with the lines X, Y, Z, the ampersand should not be confused with the Tironian et, which is a symbol similar to the numeral 7. Both symbols have their roots in the antiquity, and both signs were used up through the Middle Ages as a representation for the Latin word et. However, while the ampersand was in origin a common ligature in the everyday script, the Tironian et is found in old Irish language script, a Latin-based script generally only used for decorative purposes today, where it signifies agus in Irish. This symbol may have entered the language by way of monastic influence in the time of the early Christian church in Ireland. In everyday handwriting, the ampersand is sometimes simplified in design as a large lowercase epsilon or a backwards numeral 3 superimposed by a vertical line. The ampersand is also shown as a backwards 3 with a vertical line above and below it or a dot above
27.
SMS language
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Once it became popular it took on a life of its own and was often used outside of its original context. SMS language is similar to that used by those sending telegraphs that charged by the word and it seeks to use the fewest number of letters to produce ultra-concise words and sentiments in dealing with space, time and cost constraints of text messaging. This follows from how early SMS permitted only 160 characters and some carriers charge messages by the number of characters sent. It also shares some of these characteristics with Internet slang and Telex speak following from how its evolution is rather symbiotic to the evolution of use of shorthand in Internet chat rooms. Likewise, such a change sought to accommodate the number of characters allowed per message. Faramerz Dabhoiwala wrote in The Guardian in 2016, modern usages that horrify linguistic purists in fact have deep historical roots, OMG was used by a septuagenarian naval hero, admiral of the fleet Lord Fisher, in 1917. Nevertheless, the invention of mobile phone messaging is considered to be the source for the invention of SMS language, in general, SMS language thus permits the sender to type less and communicate more quickly than one could without such shortcuts. One example is the use of tomoz instead of tomorrow, nevertheless, there are no standard rules for the creation and use of SMS languages. Words can also be combined with numbers to make them shorter, some may view SMS language to be a nascent dialect of the English language, that is a dialect strongly if not completely derivative of the English language. Such generalization may have risen from the fact that mobile phones had only been able to support a number of default languages in the early stages of its conception and distribution. Researcher Mohammad Shirali-Shahreza further observes that mobile phone producers offer support of local language of the country within which their phone sets are to be distributed, nevertheless, various factors contribute as additional constraints to the use of non-English languages and scripts in SMS. On the flip side, researcher Gillian Perrett observes the de-anglicization of the English language following its use, the primary motivation for the creation and use of SMS language was to convey a comprehensible message using the fewest number of characters possible. This was for two reasons, one, telecommunication companies limited the number of characters per SMS, and also charged the user per SMS sent, to keep costs down, users had to find a way of being concise while still communicating the desired message. Two, typing on a phone is normally slower than with a keyboard, as a result, punctuation, grammar, and capitalization are largely ignored. In many countries, people now have access to unlimited text options in their plan, although this varies widely from country to country. However, screens are small and the input problem persists. Observations and classifications as to the linguistic and stylistic properties of SMS language have made and proposed by Crispin Thurlow, López Rúa. For words that have no common abbreviation, users most commonly remove the vowels from a word, omission of words, especially function words are also employed as part of the effort to overcome time and space constraints
28.
Cyberculture
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Cyberculture or computer culture is the culture that has emerged, or is emerging, from the use of computer networks for communication, entertainment, and business. Since the boundaries of cyberculture are difficult to define, the term is used flexibly and it can also embrace associated intellectual and cultural movements, such as cyborg theory and cyberpunk. The term often incorporates an implicit anticipation of the future, the Oxford English Dictionary lists the earliest usage of the term cyberculture in 1963, when A. M. Hilton wrote the following, In the era of cyberculture, all the plows pull themselves and this example, and all others, up through 1995 are used to support the definition of cyberculture as the social conditions brought about by automation and computerization. However, what both the OED and the American Heritage Dictionary miss is that cyberculture is the culture within and this cyberculture may be purely an online culture or it may span both virtual and physical worlds. This is to say, that cyberculture is an endemic to online communities, it is not just the culture that results from computer use. Another way to envision cyberculture is as the electronically enabled linkage of like-minded, Cyberculture was influenced at its genesis by those early users of the internet, frequently including the architects of the original project. These individuals were often guided in their actions by the hacker ethic, while early cyberculture was based on a small cultural sample, and its ideals, the modern cyberculture is a much more diverse group of users and the ideals that they espouse. Numerous specific concepts of cyberculture have been formulated by such authors as Lev Manovich, Arturo Escobar, however, most of these concepts concentrate only on certain aspects, and they do not cover these in great detail. Manifestations of cyberculture include various human interactions mediated by computer networks and they can be activities, pursuits, games, places and metaphors, and include a diverse base of applications. Some are supported by specialized software and others work on commonly accepted internet protocols, examples include but are not limited to, First and foremost, cyberculture derives from traditional notions of culture, as the roots of the word imply. In non-cyberculture, it would be odd to speak of a single, in cyberculture, by extension, searching for a single thing that is cyberculture would likely be problematic. The notion that there is a single, definable cyberculture is likely the complete dominance of early cyber territory by affluent North Americans, writing by early proponents of cyberspace tends to reflect this assumption. The ethnography of cyberspace is an important aspect of cyberculture that does not reflect a unified culture. It is not a monolithic or placeless cyberspace, rather, it is numerous new technologies and capabilities, used by diverse people and it is malleable, perishable, and can be shaped by the vagaries of external forces on its users. For example, the laws of physical world governments, social norms, the architecture of cyberspace, as with physical world cultures, cybercultures lend themselves to identification and study. There are several qualities that cybercultures share that make them warrant the prefix cyber-, some of those qualities are that cyberculture, Is a community mediated by ICTs. Is culture mediated by computer screens, relies heavily on the notion of information and knowledge exchange
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Cipher
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In cryptography, a cipher is an algorithm for performing encryption or decryption—a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. An alternative, less common term is encipherment, to encipher or encode is to convert information into cipher or code. In common parlance, cipher is synonymous with code, as they are both a set of steps that encrypt a message, however, the concepts are distinct in cryptography, especially classical cryptography. Codes generally substitute different length strings of characters in the output, there are exceptions and some cipher systems may use slightly more, or fewer, characters when output versus the number that were input. Codes operated by substituting according to a large codebook which linked a random string of characters or numbers to a word or phrase, for example, UQJHSE could be the code for Proceed to the following coordinates. When using a cipher the original information is known as plaintext, the ciphertext message contains all the information of the plaintext message, but is not in a format readable by a human or computer without the proper mechanism to decrypt it. The operation of a cipher usually depends on a piece of auxiliary information, the encrypting procedure is varied depending on the key, which changes the detailed operation of the algorithm. A key must be selected using a cipher to encrypt a message. Without knowledge of the key, it should be difficult, if not impossible. Most modern ciphers can be categorized in several ways By whether they work on blocks of symbols usually of a fixed size, by whether the same key is used for both encryption and decryption, or if a different key is used for each. If the algorithm is symmetric, the key must be known to the recipient and sender, if the algorithm is an asymmetric one, the enciphering key is different from, but closely related to, the deciphering key. If one key cannot be deduced from the other, the asymmetric key algorithm has the key property. The word cipher in former times meant zero and had the same origin, Middle French as cifre and Medieval Latin as cifra, cipher was later used for any decimal digit, even any number. There are many theories about how the word cipher may have come to mean encoding, the Roman number system was very cumbersome because there was no concept of zero. Cipher came to mean concealment of clear messages or encryption, the French formed the word chiffre and adopted the Italian word zero. The English used zero for 0, and cipher from the word ciphering as a means of computing, the Germans used the words Ziffer and Chiffre. The Dutch still use the word cijfer to refer to a numerical digit, the Serbians use the word cifra, which refers to a digit, or in some cases, any number. Besides cifra, they use word broj for a number, the Italians and the Spanish also use the word cifra to refer to a number
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Binary number
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The base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Because of its implementation in digital electronic circuitry using logic gates. Each digit is referred to as a bit, the modern binary number system was devised by Gottfried Leibniz in 1679 and appears in his article Explication de lArithmétique Binaire. Systems related to binary numbers have appeared earlier in multiple cultures including ancient Egypt, China, Leibniz was specifically inspired by the Chinese I Ching. The scribes of ancient Egypt used two different systems for their fractions, Egyptian fractions and Horus-Eye fractions, the method used for ancient Egyptian multiplication is also closely related to binary numbers. This method can be seen in use, for instance, in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, the I Ching dates from the 9th century BC in China. The binary notation in the I Ching is used to interpret its quaternary divination technique and it is based on taoistic duality of yin and yang. Eight trigrams and a set of 64 hexagrams, analogous to the three-bit and six-bit binary numerals, were in use at least as early as the Zhou Dynasty of ancient China. The Song Dynasty scholar Shao Yong rearranged the hexagrams in a format that resembles modern binary numbers, the Indian scholar Pingala developed a binary system for describing prosody. He used binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables, Pingalas Hindu classic titled Chandaḥśāstra describes the formation of a matrix in order to give a unique value to each meter. The binary representations in Pingalas system increases towards the right, the residents of the island of Mangareva in French Polynesia were using a hybrid binary-decimal system before 1450. Slit drums with binary tones are used to encode messages across Africa, sets of binary combinations similar to the I Ching have also been used in traditional African divination systems such as Ifá as well as in medieval Western geomancy. The base-2 system utilized in geomancy had long been applied in sub-Saharan Africa. Leibnizs system uses 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system, Leibniz was first introduced to the I Ching through his contact with the French Jesuit Joachim Bouvet, who visited China in 1685 as a missionary. Leibniz saw the I Ching hexagrams as an affirmation of the universality of his own beliefs as a Christian. Binary numerals were central to Leibnizs theology and he believed that binary numbers were symbolic of the Christian idea of creatio ex nihilo or creation out of nothing. Is not easy to impart to the pagans, is the ex nihilo through Gods almighty power. In 1854, British mathematician George Boole published a paper detailing an algebraic system of logic that would become known as Boolean algebra
