1.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
2.
Lawyer
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A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts
3.
Admiralty court
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Admiralty courts, also known as maritime courts, are courts exercising jurisdiction over all maritime contracts, torts, injuries, and offenses. Englands Admiralty Courts date to at least the 1360s, during the reign of Edward III, at that time there were three such Courts, appointed by Admirals responsible for waters to the north, south and west of England. In 1483 these local courts were amalgamated into a single High Court of Admiralty, the Lord High Admiral directly appointed judges to the court, and could remove them at will. From its inception in 1483 until 1657 the Court sat in a church in Southwark, and from then until 1665 in Montjoy House. In order to escape the Great Plague of London in 1665, the plague threat having subsided by 1666, the Court returned to London and until 1671 was located at Exeter House on The Strand before returning to Montjoy House near St Pauls. During the period after the French and Indian War, Admiralty Courts became an issue that was a part of the tension between the British Parliament and their American Colonies. Starting with the Proclamation of 1763, these courts were given jurisdiction over a number of laws affecting the colonies, the jurisdiction was expanded in later acts of the Parliament, such as the Stamp Act of 1765. The colonists objections were based on several factors, the courts could try a case anywhere in the British Empire. Cases involving New York or Boston merchants were frequently heard in Nova Scotia, the fact that judges were paid based in part on the fines that they levied and naval officers were paid for bringing successful cases led to abuses. There was no trial by jury, and evidence standards were weaker than in criminal courts, the governments objective was to improve the effectiveness of revenue and excise tax laws. In many past instances, smugglers would avoid taxes, even when they were caught and brought to trial, local judges frequently acquitted the popular local merchants whom they perceived as being unfairly accused by an unpopular tax collector. Cases were decided by judges rather than juries, in 1875, the High Court of Admiralty governing England and Wales was absorbed into the new Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court. When these judges sat, it became convenient to call the sitting the Admiralty Court, today Admiralty jurisdiction is exercised by the United Kingdoms High Court of Justice. The admiralty laws which are applied in this court is based upon the civil law-based Law of the Sea, with statutory, the Admiralty court is now housed in the Rolls Building. The Scottish Courts earliest records, held in West Register House in Edinburgh, from 1702 the Judge of the court was also authorised to appoint deputies to hear lesser matters or to deputise during his absence. The Scottish Courts workload was small until the mid-eighteenth century, with judges hearing no more than four matters in each sitting, after the 1750s the volume of cases rose until by 1790 it was necessary to maintain a daily log of decisions. Cases reflected Scotlands principal marine industries including the transshipment of sugar and tobacco, a smaller number of cases related to smuggling, principally brandy, and to salvage rights for ships wrecked on Scottish shores. The Court ceased operation in 1832 and its functions were subsumed into the Court of Session and this office is normally held by a High Court Judge who holds the appointment of Admiralty Judge
4.
Treaties of Nijmegen
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The Treaties of Peace of Nijmegen were a series of treaties signed in the Dutch city of Nijmegen between August 1678 and December 1679. The treaties ended various interconnected wars among France, the Dutch Republic, Spain, Brandenburg, Sweden, Denmark, the Prince-Bishopric of Münster, and the Holy Roman Empire. The most significant of the treaties was the first, which established peace between France and the Dutch Republic, and placed the border of France in very nearly its modern position. The Franco-Dutch War of 1672–78 was the source of all the wars that were ended formally at Nijmegen. Separate peace treaties were arranged for conflicts like the Third Anglo-Dutch War and the Scanian War, but all of them had directly caused by, and form part of. England initially participated in the war on the French side, Peace negotiations had begun as early as 1676, but nothing was agreed to and signed before 1678. These treaties did not result in a lasting peace, some of the countries involved signed peace deals elsewhere, such as the Treaty of Celle, Treaty of Saint-Germain and Treaty of Fontainebleau. 10 August 1678 – France and the Dutch Republic made peace, Sweden was not part of the treaty, but a paragraph in the treaty forced the Dutch Republic to take a neutral approach toward Sweden, with whom they had been at war since 1675. 19 September 1678 – France and Spain made peace,26 January 1679 – France made peace with the Holy Roman Empire. 26 January 1679 – Sweden made peace with the Holy Roman Empire,19 March 1679 – Sweden made peace with the Prince-Bishopric of Münster. The treaty also called for all of Münsters soldiers in Danish war-service to be withdrawn,2 October 1679 – Sweden made peace with the Dutch Republic. The Franco–Dutch War ended with a treaty which gave France control over the region of the Franche-Comté, France also gained further territories of the Spanish Netherlands, adding to those it had annexed under the 1659 Peace of the Pyrenees and 1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. In turn, the French king ceded the town of Maastricht. The French forces withdrew from occupied territories in northern Flanders. Emperor Leopold I had to accept the French occupation of the towns of Freiburg, marc-Antoine Charpentier wrote a Te Deum for this occasion. The prelude of the Te Deum is also known as the Eurovision Song Contest theme
5.
Cowbridge
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Cowbridge is a market town in the Vale of Glamorgan in Wales, approximately 7 miles west of Cardiff. Cowbridge is twinned with Clisson in the Loire-Atlantique department in northwestern France, Cowbridge is part of the Cowbridge with Llanblethian community which elects a Town Council. The town lies on the site of a Roman settlement identified by scholars as the fort of Bovium. Recent excavations have revealed extensive Roman settlement, the town lies alongside a Roman road, there are 17th century references to a cow-bridge over a tributary of the river Thaw but Cowbridges Welsh name, Y Bont-faen, means literally the stone bridge. The town centre is arranged on its medieval plan, with one long street divided into burgage plots. It is one of very few medieval walled towns in Wales, on 13 March 1254, Cowbridge received its first borough charter from Richard de Clare, the Lord of Glamorgan. Richard de Clare was one of the most powerful Barons of the day, having huge estates stretching across much of South Wales, the town walls were built following this, sometime in the latter half of the 13th century. In Llanblethian he founded the town of Cowbridge and in Miskin he founded the castle, the largely medieval church of the Holy Cross was initially a chapel of ease to the parish church at Llanblethian. In 1307 Earl Gilbert de Clare, grandson of Richard de Clare, the Battle of Stalling Down was fought near Cowbridge between an English army, serving King Henry IV of England, and a combined force of French and Welsh soldiers under Owain Glyndŵr in 1403. Details of the battle, its site and its outcome are scant. It was just outside the town that he held the first meeting of the Gorsedd, Cowbridge Grammar School was founded in 1608 and had close links with Jesus College, Oxford through its later benefactor, Dr Leoline Jenkins. Its famous pupils included the poet Alun Lewis and the actor Sir Anthony Hopkins, the New Palladian Town Hall was built in 1830 by Isaiah Verity of Ash Hall who in gratitude was made a Freeman of Cowbridge. The money for the reconstruction was raised by public subscription, eight of the original prison cells are still intact, six of which house the exhibits of Cowbridge Museum. The remainder of the building is used by the town council, the main street contains a number of Georgian houses, including the former town houses of important local families such as the Edmondes and Carnes. The Carnes town house is known as Great House, a Grade 2* listed property of Medieval origin, Cowbridge contains the following inns, the Bear Hotel, the Horse and Groom, the Edmondes Arms, the Duke of Wellington and the Vale of Glamorgan. The latter is located at the premises of the former Vale of Glamorgan Brewery, closely attached to the town of Cowbridge is the village of Aberthin. Aberthin contains two inns, The Hare and Hounds and The Farmers Arms, Cowbridge once had a railway station, which opened in 1865 and closed in 1951. On the 21 March 1950 a Bristol Freighter on a test flight took off from Bristol Filton Airport, the aircraft crashed near Cowbridge after a structural failure of the fuselage
6.
Llywelyn (name)
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Llywelyn is a Welsh personal name, which has also become a family name most commonly spelled Llewellyn. The name has many variations and derivations, mainly as a result of the difficulty for non-Welsh speakers of representing the sound of the initial double ll, the name evolved from the Old British name Lugubelinos, which was a compound of two names for Celtic deities. The first, Lugus, is also the source of the first element in the names Llywarch and Lliwelydd, the second element, Belenus, evolved as an independent name into Welsh Belyn. The name Llywelyn became popular following the successes of Llywelyn the Great and this belief was further reinforced by Llywelyn the Greats adoption of his father Iorwerth ab Owains coat of arms, incorporating four lions. The association also produced another early variant of the name, Leoline, in medieval Latin manuscripts, the form Lewelinus was used. In some texts no attempt is made to find a way of writing the ll sound, an alternative strategy was to substitute a similar-sounding name. Lewis Morris is often called Llewelyn Ddu or Llewellyn Ddu o Fôn, in ALMA35 King Louis of France is called Llewelyn Ffreinig Other examples include Lewis Glyn Cothi who was known as Llywelyn y Glyn, and Lewys Morgannwg whose bardic name was Llywelyn ap Rhisiart. Three feminine forms have been derived from Llywelyn – Llywela, Llewellanne, the hypocoristic forms are always pronounced with an initial, rather than with the alveolar fricative represented in Welsh by ll. Surnames beginning Ap-, B-, or P- are based on the Welsh patronymic naming system, in some regions of England the surname Welling may derive from an English place-name, but in Welsh Marcher counties its frequency suggests that it can be traced back to welyn. More common than any of these surnames is the surname Lewis, with its related variants Lewes, Lewys, Lowys, Lowis, Llewys, Llewis, Llwys, Llewes. A Latinised variant, Leodovicus, re-entered English as Lodwick, Ludwick, Lotwick, and Lodowick, names that are especially common in South Wales. As the name Lewis was in use before the abandonment of the system in Wales
7.
Jesus College, Oxford
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Jesus College is one of the colleges of the University of Oxford in England. It is in the centre of the city, on a site between Turl Street, Ship Street, Cornmarket Street and Market Street. The college was founded by Elizabeth I on 27 June 1571 for the education of clergy, a major driving force behind the establishment of the college was Hugh Price, a churchman from Brecon in Wales. Further accommodation was built on the site to mark the 400th anniversary of the college, in 1971. The life of the college was disrupted by the English Civil War, Leoline Jenkins, who became principal after the war in 1661, put the college on a more stable financial footing. Little happened at the college during the 18th century, and the 19th century saw a decline in numbers, students academic achievements rose in the early 20th century as fellows were appointed to teach in new subjects. Women were first admitted in 1974 and now form a part of the undergraduate population. There are about 475 students at any one time, the Principal of the college is Sir Nigel Shadbolt, former students include Harold Wilson, Norman Washington Manley, T. E. Lawrence, Angus Buchanan, and Viscount Sankey. The universitys professorship of Celtic is attached to the college, a post held by such as Sir John Rhys, Ellis Evans. Past or present fellows of the include the historians Sir Goronwy Edwards and Niall Ferguson, the philosopher Galen Strawson. Jesus College was founded on 27 June 1571, when Elizabeth I issued a royal charter and it was the first Protestant college to be founded at the university, and it is the only Oxford college to date from Elizabeths reign. It was the first new Oxford college since 1555, in the reign of Queen Mary, the foundation charter named a principal, eight fellows, eight scholars, and eight commissioners to draw up the statutes for the college. The college was intended primarily for the education of clergy. The particular intention was to satisfy a need for dedicated, learned clergy to promote the Elizabethan Religious Settlement in the parishes of England, Ireland and Wales. The college has since broadened the range of subjects offered, beginning with the inclusion of medicine and law, the letters patent issued by Elizabeth I made it clear that the education of a priest in the 16th century included more than just theology, however. Price continued to be involved with the college after its foundation. On the strength of a legacy, worth £60 a year on his death, he requested and received the authority to appoint the new colleges principal, fellows. He financed early building work in the front quadrangle
8.
Charles II of England
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Charles II was king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, Charles IIs father, Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim, after 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charless English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England, Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the treaty of Dover. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oatess revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charless brother, the crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed, Charless wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James, Charles II was born in St Jamess Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I and Henrietta Maria, Charles was their second son and child. Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day, England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, at or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, though he was never formally invested. During the 1640s, when Charles was still young, his father fought Parliamentary, by spring 1646, his father was losing the war, and Charles left England due to fears for his safety. Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646, at The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter, who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married
9.
Cavalier
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It was later adopted by the Royalists themselves. Prince Rupert, commander of much of Charles Is cavalry, is considered to be an archetypal Cavalier. Cavalier derives from the same Latin root as the French word chevalier, Cavalier is chiefly associated with the Royalist supporters of King Charles I in his struggle with Parliament in the English Civil War. Charles, in the Answer to the Petition 13 June 1642 speaks of Cavaliers as a word by what mistake soever it seemes much in disfavour, Cavalier was not understood at the time as primarily a term describing a style of dress, but a whole political and social attitude. Most Parliamentarian generals wore their hair at much the length as their Royalist counterparts. The best patrons in the nobility of Charles Is court painter Sir Anthony van Dyck, probably the most famous image identified as of a cavalier, Frans Hals Laughing Cavalier, shows a gentleman from the strongly Calvinist Dutch town of Haarlem, and is dated 1624. These derogatory terms also showed what the typical Parliamentarian thought of the Royalist side – capricious men who cared more for vanity than the nation at large. Although they did not share the same outlook on how to worship God as the English Independents of the New Model Army, if I forget Thee, do not forget me. However, the word was coined by the Roundheads as a propaganda image of a licentious, hard drinking and frivolous man. It is this image which has survived and many Royalists, for example Henry Wilmot, 1st Earl of Rochester, fitted this description to a tee. Of all his qualifications dissimulation was his masterpiece, in which he so much excelled and this sense has developed into the modern English use of cavalier to describe a recklessly nonchalant attitude, although still with a suggestion of stylishness. Likewise during Exclusion Bill crisis the term Roundhead was replaced with Whig, an example of the Cavalier style can be seen in the painting Charles I, King of England, from Three Angles by Anthony van Dyck. The mascot of Cavalier has been commonly used in the sports world. Most prominently it has been that of the professional Cleveland Cavaliers in the NBA since 1970 and it has also been adopted by smaller organizations such as Johnson County Community College, Kankakee Community College, St. Gregorys University, and the University of Virginias College at Wise. Cavaliers have been represented as a class and subclass of role-playing character since 1983 in Advanced Dungeons & Dragons, Cavalier Generals, King Charles I and His Commanders in the English Civil War, 1642–46. Going to the Wars, The Experience of the British Civil Wars 1638-1651, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Goring, George Goring, Lord. Clarendon, Edward Hyde, 1st earl of, the history of the rebellion and civil wars in England. The History of England from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution 1688, the Concise Encyclopedia of the Revolutions and Wars of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1639-1660
10.
English Civil War
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The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
11.
Samuel Pepys
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Samuel Pepys FRS was an administrator of the navy of England and Member of Parliament who is most famous for the diary that he kept for a decade while still a relatively young man. Pepys had no experience, but he rose to be the Chief Secretary to the Admiralty under both King Charles II and King James II through patronage, hard work, and his talent for administration. His influence and reforms at the Admiralty were important in the early professionalisation of the Royal Navy, the detailed private diary that Pepys kept from 1660 until 1669 was first published in the 19th century and is one of the most important primary sources for the English Restoration period. It provides a combination of personal revelation and eyewitness accounts of events, such as the Great Plague of London, the Second Dutch War. Pepys was born in Salisbury Court, Fleet Street, London on 23 February 1633, the son of John Pepys, a tailor and his great uncle Talbot Pepys was Recorder and briefly Member of Parliament for Cambridge in 1625. His fathers first cousin Sir Richard Pepys was elected MP for Sudbury in 1640, appointed Baron of the Exchequer on 30 May 1654, Pepys was the fifth of eleven children, but child mortality was high and he was soon the oldest survivor. He was baptised at St Brides Church on 3 March, Pepys did not spend all of his infancy in London, for a while, he was sent to live with nurse Goody Lawrence at Kingsland, just north of the city. In about 1644, Pepys attended Huntingdon Grammar School before being educated at St Pauls School, London and he attended the execution of Charles I in 1649. In 1650, he went to Cambridge University, having received two exhibitions from St Pauls School and a grant from the Mercers Company. In October, he was admitted as a sizar to Magdalene College, he moved there in March 1651, later in 1654 or early in 1655, he entered the household of another of his fathers cousins, Sir Edward Montagu, who was later created 1st Earl of Sandwich. From a young age, Pepys suffered from stones in his urinary tract – a condition from which his mother and brother John also later suffered. He was almost never without pain, as well as other symptoms, by the time of his marriage, the condition was very severe. In 1657 Pepys decided to undergo surgery, not an option, as the operation was known to be especially painful. Nevertheless, Pepys consulted surgeon Thomas Hollier and, on 26 March 1658, Pepys stone was successfully removed and he resolved to hold a celebration on every anniversary of the operation, which he did for several years. However, there were long-term effects from the operation, the incision on his bladder broke open again late in his life. The procedure may have left him sterile, though there is no evidence for this. In mid-1658 Pepys moved to Axe Yard, near the modern Downing Street and he worked as a teller in the Exchequer under George Downing. On 1 January 1660, Pepys began to keep a diary and he recorded his daily life for almost ten years
12.
Cowbridge Grammar School
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Cowbridge Grammar School was one of the best-known schools in Wales until its closure in 1974. It was replaced by a comprehensive school, founded in the 17th century by Sir John Stradling and refounded by Sir Leoline Jenkins, it had close links with Jesus College, Oxford. The school took boarders and day boys. Famous old boys include actor Anthony Hopkins and poet Alun Lewis, the main school buildings were located in Church Street, Cowbridge. Derelict for some years, they have now converted into residential accommodation. The school also occupied part of Old Hall, now an education centre. Cowbridge Grammar School was founded in 1608 by Sir John Stradling and owned by Jesus College, Sir Leoline Jenkins, Secretary of State to Charles II, purchased the school and bequeathed it to Jesus College in his will. It became Cowbridge Comprehensive School in 1973-4, what used to be the grammar schools main building, dating from 1852, was converted into residential accommodations beginning in 2006 and completed in 2008. In 1881, Edward Treharne, who represented the school, was chosen to play in the first international game for the Wales rugby union team. M. W, iolo Davies was Classics Master, boarding master, last Headmaster, and historian of the school. Extracts, mainly biographies, Brian Ll. James & David J. Francis, Cowbridge and Llanblethian, Past and Present, Chapter IV, pp. 157–65, edwards, former Deputy Headmaster, on the school in the 1920s. See also Chapter III, pp. 54–8, on the founding of the free school Patrick Hannan Hannibal Lecters Schooldays Chapter 2 of The Welsh Illusion, the author recalls his days as a boarder 1952-59. The chapter title says a lot, he makes too much of Anthony Hopkins being there as well, the tone is journalistically sensational rather than conveying autobiographical, let alone historical accuracy. It is also anachronistic, but the most entertaining thing written on the school. Archard, Alun Lewis, Collected Stories, pp. 289–94, the only fictional treatment yet unearthed of CGS. It gives the texture — coarse — of life in the Boarding House in the early 1930s which was still vivid, even raw, in the recall of the undergraduate author
13.
Buildings of Jesus College, Oxford
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Jesus College was founded in 1571 by Elizabeth I upon the petition of a Welsh clergyman, Hugh Price, who was treasurer of St Davids Cathedral. Her foundation charter gave to the college the land and buildings of White Hall, Price added new buildings to those of White Hall, and construction work continued after his death in 1574. The first of the quadrangles, which includes the hall, chapel. Construction of the quadrangle began in the 1630s, but was interrupted by the English Civil War and was not completed until about 1712. Further buildings were erected in a third quadrangle during the 20th century, including laboratories, a library for undergraduates. In addition to the site, the college owns flats in east and north Oxford. The chapel, which was dedicated in 1621 and extended in 1636, was altered in 1864 under the supervision of the architect George Edmund Street. The alterations have had their supporters and their critics, one historian of the described the work as ill-considered. The halls original hammerbeam roof was hidden by a ceiling in 1741 when rooms were installed in the roofspace. The principals lodgings, the last part of the first quadrangle to be constructed, the Fellows Library in the second quadrangle dates from 1679 and contains 11,000 antiquarian books, it was restored at a cost of £700,000 in 2007. A new Junior Common Room, about twice the size of its predecessor, was completed in the quadrangle in 2002. Further student and teaching rooms were added in Ship Street, opposite the college, eleven parts of the college are listed buildings, including all four sides of the first and second quadrangles. Nine parts, including the chapel, hall, and principals lodgings, have the highest Grade I designation, two other parts have a Grade II designation, given to buildings of national importance and special interest. However, he regarded the early 20th-century additions in the third quadrangle as dull, the college buildings on the main site are arranged in three quadrangles, the first quadrangle containing the oldest college buildings and the third quadrangle the newest. The quadrangles are often referred to as First Quad, Second Quad, as is often the case in Oxford colleges, the rooms in the older buildings are connected to the quadrangles by a series of staircases, rather than horizontally to each other by internal corridors. The staircases are numbered, staircases 1 to 5 are in the first quadrangle, staircases 6 to 13 in the second quadrangle, the charter also gave the buildings of White Hall, one of a number of university halls in this location. Halls provided lodgings and meals for students at the university, and sometimes lectures, as the system of colleges grew, however, halls declined in popularity and their sites and buildings tended to be taken over by colleges. Over time, it seems to have absorbed neighbouring halls, including Little White Hall on Ship Street from about 1450, by 1571, however, White Hall was either completely or virtually deserted by students, making it possible for Price to secure the site for the new college
14.
Holy orders
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In the Christian churches, Holy Orders are ordained ministries such as bishop, priest or deacon. Except for Lutherans and some Anglicans, these churches regard ordination as a sacrament, the Anglo-Catholic tradition within Anglicanism identifies more with the Roman Catholic position about the sacramental nature of ordination. Denominations have varied conceptions of Holy Orders, in the Anglican churches and some Lutheran churches the traditional orders of bishop, priest and deacon are bestowed using ordination rites. The extent to which ordination is considered sacramental in these traditions has, however, many other denominations do not consider ministry as being sacramental in nature and would not think of it in terms of holy orders as such. Historically, the word order designated a civil body or corporation with a hierarchy. The word holy refers to the Church, in context, therefore, a holy order is set apart for ministry in the Church. The Eastern Orthodox Church considers ordination to be a Sacred Mystery, although all other mysteries may be performed by a presbyter, ordination may only be conferred by a bishop, and ordination of a bishop may only be performed by several bishops together. Cheirotonia always takes place during the Divine Liturgy and it was the mission of the Apostles to go forth into all the world and preach the Gospel, baptizing those who believed in the name of the Holy Trinity. In the Early Church those who presided over congregations were referred to variously as episcopos or presbyteros and this link is believed to continue in unbroken succession to this day. Over time, the ministry of bishops and presbyters or priests came to be distinguished, in Orthodox terminology, priesthood or sacerdotal refers to the ministry of bishops and priests. A bishop is the Teacher of the Faith, the carrier of Sacred Tradition, a bishop is consecrated through the laying on of hands by several bishops. The consecration of a bishop takes place near the beginning of the Liturgy, since a bishop can, in addition to performing the Mystery of the Eucharist, also ordain priests and deacons. Customarily, the consecrated bishop ordains a priest and a deacon at the Liturgy during which he is consecrated. A priest may serve only at the pleasure of his bishop, a bishop bestows faculties giving a priest chrism and an antimins, he may withdraw faculties and demand the return of these items. After the Aër is taken from the candidate to cover the chalice and diskos, the candidate is then taken to the southeast corner of the Holy Table and kneels on both knees, resting his forehead on the edge of the Holy Table. Afterwards, the bishop brings the newly ordained priest to stand in the Holy Doors and he then clothes the priest in each of his sacerdotal vestments, at each of which the people sing, Worthy. A deacon may not perform any Sacrament and performs no liturgical services on his own but serves only as an assistant to a priest and may not even vest without the blessing of a priest. After being vested as a deacon and given a liturgical fan, the Anglican churches hold their bishops to be in apostolic succession, although there is some difference of opinion with regard to whether ordination is to be regarded as a sacrament
15.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
16.
Plantation (settlement or colony)
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Plantation was an early method of colonization where settlers went in order to establish a permanent or semi-permanent colonial base, for example for planting tobacco or cotton. Such plantations were also intended to promote Western culture and Christianity among nearby indigenous peoples. Although the term planter to refer to a settler first appears as early as the 16th-century, the term plantation was applied to the large farms that were the economical basis of many of the 17th-century American colonies. The peak of the economy in the Caribbean was in the 18th century. Most of that time Britain prospered as the top slaving nation in the Atlantic world, more than 2,500,000 slaves were transported to the Caribbean plantations between 1690 and 1807. In 1789 the French colony of Saint-Domingue, producer of 40 percent of the sugar, was the most valuable colony on earth. Slaves outnumbered whites and free people of color by at least eight to one, but provided all of the manual labor. Slave labor made sugar production profitable, importing sugar to Great Britain resulted in a dramatic change in the eating habits of Britons, one of the greatest in human history. In 1700, Britons used an average of four pounds of sugar a year, the Plantations of Ireland were an instrument of retribution and colonization after several Irish rebellions against English rule throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. The largest settlement, the Plantation of Ulster in the part of the island, was established following the rebellion of Hugh Roe ODonnell. The plantations were seen as part of process that would Anglicise Ireland, lands were seized from the native landowners both as punishment for rebellion and as punishment for remaining Catholic rather than conforming to the established church. These lands were given to English Protestant settlers who would be loyal to the Crown, during the Middle Ages, the Scottish government planted Scots-speaking lowland merchant colonies in the Gàidhealtachd, for example at Campbeltown and Cromarty. Jamestown, Virginia was the first permanent English settlement in North America, during the 17th century, the Chesapeake Bay area was immensely hospitable to tobacco cultivation. Ships annually hauled 1.5 million pounds of tobacco out to the Bay by the 1630s, farmers responded to falling prices by growing even more tobacco. The labor supply from Africa was expensive, in the 17th century, farmers relied on indentured servants for labor. To encourage settlement of the colonies, the Crown granted land to colonists who paid for workers, the planters replaced tobacco with other crops after the soils became exhausted in the coastal areas. Cotton was produced on plantations on the Sea Islands off South Carolina, settlers poured into what became known as the Deep South, putting pressure on the federal government to remove the Native American tribes from the Southeast. Cotton was king, and worldwide demand for American cotton resulted in growing wealth among planters in the South, European colonists did not regard the land as belonging to the tens of thousands of Native Americans who occupied it, because their patterns of use were so different
17.
Admiralty
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The new Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board. It is common for the authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to as simply The Admiralty. The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011, the title was awarded to Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by Queen Elizabeth II on his 90th birthday. There also continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom, the office of Admiral of England was created around 1400 although there had already been Admirals of the Northern and Western Seas. In 1546, King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine, later to become the Navy Board, operational control of the Royal Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine Great Officers of State. In 1628, Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission, the office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709 after which the office was almost permanently in commission. In 1831, the first Navy Board was abolished as a separate entity, in 1964, the Admiralty along with the War Office and the Air Ministry as separate departments of state were abolished, and re-emerged under one single new Ministry of Defence. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new Admiralty Board which has a separate Navy Board responsible for the running of the Royal Navy. The Army Board and the Air Force Board, each headed by the Secretary of State for Defence, the Board of Admiralty consisted of a number of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of admirals, known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords and Civil Lords, the quorum of the Board was two commissioners and a secretary. The president of the Board was known as the First Lord of the Admiralty, after 1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian while the professional head of the navy came to be known as the First Sea Lord. The first real concerted effort to organise the Admiralty was started by Henry VIII. Between 1860 and 1908 there was no study of strategy and of staff work conducted within the naval service. All the navys talent flowed to the great technical universitys and it was perceived by officials within the Admiralty at this time that the running of war was quite a simple matter for any flag officer who required no formal training. The new War Staff had hardly found its feet and it struggled with the opposition to its existence by senior officers they were categorically opposed to a staff. The deficiencies of the system within this department of state could be seen in the conduct of the Dardanelles campaign, there was no mechanisms in place to answer the big strategic questions in 1914 a Trade Division was created. In 1916, Sir John Jellicoe came to the Admiralty, he organized the staff as following, Chief of War Staff, Operations, Intelligence, Signal Section, Mobilization, Trade. This for the first time gave the naval staff direct representation on the Board, the would direct all operations and movements of the fleet, while the would be responsible for mercantile movements and anti-submarine operations
18.
Bishop of London
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The Bishop of London is the ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of London in the Province of Canterbury. The diocese covers 458 km² of 17 boroughs of Greater London north of the River Thames and a small part of the County of Surrey. The see is in the City of London where the seat is located at the Cathedral Church of Saint Paul which was founded as a cathedral in 604 and was rebuilt from 1675 following the Great Fire of London. The bishops residence is The Old Deanery, Deans Court, London, previously, for over 1000 years, Fulham Palace was the residence although, from the 18th century, London House next to the Bishops Chapel in Aldersgate Street was where he had his chambers. The current and 132nd Bishop of London is Richard Chartres, who was installed on 26 January 1996 and it has been announced that Chartres is to retire effective Shrove Tuesday,28 February 2017. The diocesan bishop of London has had direct episcopal oversight in the Two Cities area since the institution of the London area scheme in 1979, however, according to later sources, there had been 16 Romano-British bishops of London. The location of Londiniums original cathedral is uncertain, in 1995, however, a large and ornate 4th-century church was discovered on Tower Hill, which seems to have mimicked St Ambroses cathedral in the imperial capital at Milan on a still-larger scale. This possible cathedral was built between 350 and 400 out of stone taken from buildings, including its veneer of black marble. It was burnt down in the early 5th century, following the establishment of the archdiocese of Canterbury by the Gregorian mission, its leader St Augustine consecrated Mellitus as the first bishop to the Saxon kingdom of Essex. Bede records that Augustines patron, King Æthelberht of Kent, built a cathedral for his nephew King Sæberht of Essex as part of this mission and this cathedral was constructed in London and dedicated to St Paul. The diocese was reduced in 1846, when the counties of Essex. The dates and names of early bishops are very uncertain. Diocese of London website Bishop of London refuses to ban gay Bishop from church service The papers of the Bishops of London covering 1423–1945 are held at Lambeth Palace Library
19.
National Library of Wales
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The National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth, is the national legal deposit library of Wales and is one of the Welsh Government sponsored bodies. It is the biggest library in Wales, holding over 6.5 million books and periodicals, Welsh is the Librarys main medium of communication but it does, however, aim to deliver all public services in Welsh and English. In 1873, a committee was set up to collect Welsh material and house it at University College, Sir John Williams, physician and book collector, had also said he would present his collection to the library if it were established in Aberystwyth. He also eventually gave £20,000 to build and establish the library, cardiff was eventually selected as the location of the National Museum of Wales. Funds for both the National Library and the National Museum were contributed by the subscriptions of the working classes, in a Prefatory Note to A List of Subscribers to the Building Fund, the first librarian, John Ballinger, estimates that there were almost 110,000 contributors. The Library and Museum were established by Royal Charter on 19 March 1907, the Charter stipulated that if the National Library of Wales should be removed from Aberystwyth then the manuscripts donated by Sir John Williams will become the property of the University College. A new Royal Charter was granted in 2006, the National Library of Wales was granted the privilege of legal deposit under the 1911 Copyright Act. Initially, however, the Library could only claim material deemed to be of Welsh, the first use of the Library of Congress Classification by a library in Britain was at the National Library of Wales in 1913. On 15 July 1911 King George V and Queen Mary laid the stone of the National Library of Wales. The central block, or corps de logis, was added by Charles Holden to a version of Greenslades design. It was completed in 1937 and is a Grade II* listed building, the Library is faced with Portland stone on the upper storeys which contrasts with the Cornish granite below it. Restoration work was necessary in 1969 and 1983 due to the effects of weathering on the Portland stone, in recent years many changes have been made to the front part of the building. The large North Reading Room, where printed books are consulted, has the proportions of a Gothic Cathedral, there are galleries at three levels above the floor. The feasibility of installing a mezzanine floor to better use of the space has been considered on two occasions. The South Reading Room is used for consulting archives, manuscripts, maps, carved above the entrance is the rooms original name the Print and Maps Room. Above it on the floor of the south wing is the Gregynog Gallery where temporary. A six-storey bookstack, which was completed in 1931, was built to increase space for the rapidly expanding book collection. A second bookstack was officially opened in March 1982, in 1996, the Third Library Building was opened, doubling the storage capacity of the Library
20.
Alfred Hazel
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Alfred Ernest William Hazel CBE KC MP was a British Liberal Party Member of Parliament and legal academic at the University of Oxford. He was educated at West Bromwich Wesleyan School and King Edwards School, Birmingham before going to study Classics and Law at Jesus College and he graduated with first-class honours and won the Eldon Law Scholarship. He was called to the bar by Lincolns Inn in 1898 and he was MP for West Bromwich between 1906 and January 1910. He was re-selected as prospective Liberal candidate for West Bromwich and was to fight an election expected in 1914/15 which was postponed due to the outbreak of war. When the election took place in 1918, the partners in the Coalition Government decided to endorse his Unionist opponent so he withdrew from the contest. He did not stand for parliament again and he was Reader in Constitutional Law at the Inns of Court from 1910 to 1926. In 1915, he also became University Lecturer on Criminal Law and the Law of Evidence at Oxford, a position he held until 1922, between 1915 and 1919, he was Deputy Controller in the Priority Department of the Ministry of Munitions. He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1918 New Year Honours for his efforts during the First World War, in 1925, he was appointed Principal of Jesus College, and in 1930 he was appointed to the Kings Counsel. He was also Recorder of Burton-on-Trent between 1912 and 1938, some accommodation for students at Jesus College is now named after Hazel. In 1919, he married Ethel Percival, with whom he had one son and he died in Oxford in 1944. Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Alfred Hazel
21.
The Times
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The Times is a British daily national newspaper based in London, England. It began in 1785 under the title The Daily Universal Register, the Times and its sister paper The Sunday Times are published by Times Newspapers, since 1981 a subsidiary of News UK, itself wholly owned by News Corp. The Times and The Sunday Times do not share editorial staff, were founded independently and have only had common ownership since 1967 and its news and its editorial comment have in general been carefully coordinated, and have at most times been handled with an earnest sense of responsibility. While the paper has admitted some trivia to its columns, its emphasis has been on important public affairs treated with an eye to the best interests of Britain. To guide this treatment, the editors have for long periods been in touch with 10 Downing Street. In these countries, the newspaper is often referred to as The London Times or The Times of London, although the newspaper is of national scope, in November 2006 The Times began printing headlines in a new font, Times Modern. The Times was printed in broadsheet format for 219 years, the Sunday Times remains a broadsheet. The Times had a daily circulation of 446,164 in December 2016, in the same period. An American edition of The Times has been published since 6 June 2006 and it has been heavily used by scholars and researchers because of its widespread availability in libraries and its detailed index. A complete historical file of the paper, up to 2010, is online from Gale Cengage Learning. The Times was founded by publisher John Walter on 1 January 1785 as The Daily Universal Register, Walter had lost his job by the end of 1784 after the insurance company where he was working went bankrupt because of the complaints of a Jamaican hurricane. Being unemployed, Walter decided to set a new business up and it was in that time when Henry Johnson invented the logography, a new typography that was faster and more precise. Walter bought the patent and to use it, he decided to open a printing house. The first publication of the newspaper The Daily Universal Register in Great Britain was 1 January 1785, unhappy because people always omitted the word Universal, Ellias changed the title after 940 editions on 1 January 1788 to The Times. In 1803, Walter handed ownership and editorship to his son of the same name, the Times used contributions from significant figures in the fields of politics, science, literature, and the arts to build its reputation. For much of its life, the profits of The Times were very large. Beginning in 1814, the paper was printed on the new steam-driven cylinder press developed by Friedrich Koenig, in 1815, The Times had a circulation of 5,000. Thomas Barnes was appointed editor in 1817
22.
Dictionary of National Biography
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The Dictionary of National Biography is a standard work of reference on notable figures from British history, published from 1885. The updated Oxford Dictionary of National Biography was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes and he approached Leslie Stephen, then editor of the Cornhill Magazine, owned by Smith, to become editor. Stephen persuaded Smith that the work should focus on subjects from the UK and its present, an early working title was the Biographia Britannica, the name of an earlier eighteenth-century reference work. The first volume of the Dictionary of National Biography appeared on 1 January 1885, in May 1891 Leslie Stephen resigned and Sidney Lee, Stephens assistant editor from the beginning of the project, succeeded him as editor. While much of the dictionary was written in-house, the DNB also relied on external contributors, by 1900, more than 700 individuals had contributed to the work. Successive volumes appeared quarterly with complete punctuality until midsummer 1900, when the series closed with volume 63, the year of publication, the editor and the range of names in each volume is given below. The supplements brought the work up to the death of Queen Victoria on 22 January 1901. The dictionary was transferred from its original publishers, Smith, Elder & Co. to Oxford University Press in 1917, until 1996, Oxford University Press continued to add further supplements featuring articles on subjects who had died during the twentieth century. The supplements published between 1912 and 1996 added about 6,000 lives of people who died in the century to the 29,120 in the 63 volumes of the original DNB. In 1993 a volume containing missing biographies was published and this had an additional 1,000 lives, selected from over 100,000 suggestions. Consequently, the dictionary was becoming less and less useful as a reference work, in 1966, the University of London published a volume of corrections, cumulated from the Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research. There were various versions of the Concise Dictionary of National Biography, the last edition, in three volumes, covered everyone who died before 1986. In the early 1990s Oxford University Press committed itself to overhauling the DNB, the new dictionary would cover British history, broadly defined, up to 31 December 2000. The research project was conceived as a one, with in-house staff co-ordinating the work of nearly 10,000 contributors internationally. Following Matthews death in October 1999, he was succeeded as editor by another Oxford historian, Professor Brian Harrison, in January 2000. The new dictionary, now known as the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, was published on 23 September 2004 in 60 volumes in print at a price of £7500, most UK holders of a current library card can access it online free of charge. In subsequent years, the print edition has been able to be obtained new for a lower price. At publication, the 2004 edition had 50,113 biographical articles covering 54,922 lives, a small permanent staff remain in Oxford to update and extend the coverage of the online edition
23.
Robert Spencer, 2nd Earl of Sunderland
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Robert Spencer, 2nd Earl of Sunderland, KG, PC was an English nobleman and politician of the Spencer family. An able and gifted statesman, his temper and belief in absolute monarchy nevertheless made him numerous enemies. He was forced to flee England in 1688, but later established himself with the new regime after the Revolution of that year, subsequently, he took on a more disinterested rôle as an adviser to the Crown, seeking neither office nor favour. He evinced no party loyalty, but was devoted to his countrys interests, by the notoriously lax standards of the Restoration Court, his private life was remarkably free from scandal, which won him favour in the more sober post-Revolution state. Robert Spencer was born in Paris in 1641 and his father was Henry Spencer, 1st Earl of Sunderland, and his mother was the Lady Dorothy Sidney, daughter of Robert Sidney, 2nd Earl of Leicester. At the age of three he inherited his fathers dignities, becoming Baron of Wormleighton and Earl of Sunderland, Lady Spencer had him educated after his fathers death, first engaging a Calvinist tutor for him, Dr Thomas Pierce, and afterwards sending him to Christ Church, Oxford. After quitting school he joined the British Army, rising to the rank of captain in Prince Ruperts Regiment of Horse, on 10 June 1665 he was married to Anne Digby. She was the daughter of the second Earl of Bristol, Sunderland then served successively as ambassador to Madrid, Paris, and the United Provinces. He was Gentleman of the Bedchamber from 1673 to 1679, before being invested a Privy Councillor, at the same time he served as Ambassador Extraordinary to Paris. He was accused by some of seeking and clinging to office simply for the salary, despite his otherwise blameless life he had a weakness for gambling, which often involved him in debt, and a passion for Art. He was a collector of paintings, and made alterations to Althorp, but his private life was sober. Sunderlands professed mission was to aggrandise England in the European community and he laboured from 1679 to 1681 to conjoin an alliance against France, but apart from a treaty with Spain in 1680, little came of it. Sunderland’s relations with Paul Barillon, whose tenure as Ambassador from Louis XIV produced many memorable exchanges between the twain, were tenuous and strained. To prevent Barillon from gaining too much influence, Sunderland intercepted and leaked an unusually indiscreet dispatch where the Ambassador boasted of having blocked an Anglo-Dutch treaty. Charles II was predictably furious, and Barillon was for a time forbidden the Court, Sunderland remarked that if Barillon would behave himself so, Lord Sunderland also served as Lord Lieutenant of Staffordshire during the minority of Lord Shrewsbury until 1681. Presently Sunderland regained the Kings confidence, the same year he openly embraced the Roman Catholic faith, insincerely, it would seem, and merely to please the King. Later that year he was made a Knight of the Garter, Sunderlands unpopularity was now almost universal, Burnet wrote that it was the wonder of all mankind that James continued to employ him. He was summarily dismissed at last in October 1688, with the remark, You have your pardon, I hope you will be more faithful to your next master than you have been to me
24.
Parliament of England
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The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England. Over the centuries, the English Parliament progressively limited the power of the English monarchy which arguably culminated in the English Civil War, the Act of Union 1707 merged the English Parliament with the Parliament of Scotland to form the Parliament of Great Britain. When the Parliament of Ireland was abolished in 1801, its members were merged into what was now called the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Under a monarchical system of government, monarchs usually must consult, early kings of England had no standing army or police, and so depended on the support of powerful subjects. The monarchy had agents in every part of the country, however, under the feudal system that evolved in England following the Norman Conquest of 1066, the laws of the Crown could not have been upheld without the support of the nobility and the clergy. The former had economic and military bases of their own through major ownership of land. The Church was virtually a law unto itself in this period as it had its own system of law courts. In order to seek consultation and consent from the nobility and the clergy on major decisions. A typical Great Council would consist of archbishops, bishops, abbots, barons and earls, when this system of consultation and consent broke down, it often became impossible for government to function effectively. The most prominent instances of prior to the reign of Henry III are the disagreements between Thomas Becket and Henry II and between King John and the barons. Becket, who served as Archbishop of Canterbury between 1162 and 1170, was murdered following a long running dispute with Henry II over the jurisdiction of the Church. John, who was king from 1199 to 1216, aroused such hostility from many leading noblemen that they forced him to agree to Magna Carta in 1215, johns refusal to adhere to this charter led to civil war. The Great Council evolved into the Parliament of England, the term itself came into use during the early 13th century, deriving from the Latin and French words for discussion and speaking. The word first appears in documents in the 1230s. As a result of the work by historians G. O. Sayles and H. G. Richardson, during the 13th and 14th centuries, the kings began to call Knights of the Shire to meet when the monarch saw it as necessary. A notable example of this was in 1254 when sheriffs of counties were instructed to send Knights of the Shire to parliament to advise the king on finance, initially, parliaments were mostly summoned when the king needed to raise money through taxes. Following the Magna Carta this became a convention and this was due in no small part to the fact that King John died in 1216 and was succeeded by his young son Henry III. Leading peers and clergy governed on Henrys behalf until he came of age, among other things, they made sure that Magna Carta would be reaffirmed by the young king
25.
Hythe (UK Parliament constituency)
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Hythe was a constituency centred on the town of Hythe in Kent. It returned two Members of Parliament to the House of Commons until 1832, when its representation was reduced to one member, the constituency was abolished for the 1950 general election, and replaced with the new Folkestone and Hythe constituency. 1918-1950, The Municipal Boroughs of Folkestone and Hythe, the Urban District of Cheriton, General Election 1914/15, Another General Election was required to take place before the end of 1915. A Chronological Register of Both Houses of the British Parliament, from the Union in 1708, to the Third Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, london, Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme. Cobbetts Parliamentary history of England, from the Norman Conquest in 1066 to the year 1803, archived from the original on 2015-09-04. The Constitutional Year Book for 1913, london, National Union of Conservative and Unionist Associations. Leigh Rayments Historical List of MPs – Constituencies beginning with H
26.
George Clarke
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George Clarke, was an English architect and Tory politician. The son of Sir William Clarke, he enrolled at Brasenose College and he was elected a Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford in 1680. He became Judge Advocate to the Army and was Secretary at War in Ireland from 1690 to 1692 and in England from 1693 to 1704 under William III of England and Queen Anne. He served as secretary to Prince George of Denmark, Queen Annes consort, over the latter period he was Lord Commissioner of the Admiralty from 20 December 1710 until 14 October 1714, when he was dismissed following the accession of George I. He was also an amateur architect and his known work is largely confined to Oxford, he is known to have worked with Nicholas Hawksmoor
27.
Jesus College Boat Club (Oxford)
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Jesus College Boat Club is a rowing club for members of Jesus College, Oxford, one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford. In the early years of rowing at Oxford, Jesus was one of the few colleges participated in races. Neither the mens nor the womens 1st VIIIs have earned the title of Head of the River, a number of college members have rowed for the university against Cambridge University in the Boat Race and the Womens Boat Race. Barney Williams, a Canadian rower who studied at the college, won a medal in rowing at the 2004 Summer Olympics. Another college rower, James Page, was appointed Secretary of the Amateur Rowing Association, the college boathouse, which is shared with the boat club of Keble College, is in Christ Church Meadow, on the Isis. It dates from 1964 and replaced a moored barge used by spectators and crew-members, the last college barge had been purchased from one of the Livery Companies of the City of London in 1911. It is now a floating restaurant further down the Thames at Richmond, the early records of the club have been lost, but there are references to a Jesus College boat in material that survives from the early 19th century. There are references to pleasure boating at Oxford in letters and poems written in the late 18th century, Rowing in eights began at Eton, where there is a record of the school owning three eights by 1811, and then progressed to Oxford. The first record of a race, between eights from Jesus College and Brasenose College, dates from 1815. These may have been the two colleges who had boats racing at that time, and the Brasenose boat was usually victorious. There were few rowers, and races between fours tended to more interest than races between eights. Students would row to the inn at Sandford-on-Thames, a few south of Oxford. The races would start at Iffley Lock and finish at Kings Barge, flags hoisted on the barge would indicate the finishing order of the crews. Crews would set off one behind the other, the boat trying to catch, or bump. The bumped boat and the boat would then drop out. The aim was to become the lead boat, known as Head of the River, for identification, crews wore college colours and emblazoned the rudder of the boat with the college coat of arms. Crews from Jesus College painted leeks on their oars for further distinction, in early races, some rowers wore high hats while others, including the Jesus crews, wore Tam oshanters in college colours, crews from Jesus College wore these until at least 1847. In 1822, crews from Jesus and Brasenose raced each other to become Head of the River, one Brasenose rower apparently caught a crab, slowing the boat
28.
Hugh Price (lawyer)
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Hugh Price was a Welsh lawyer and clergyman who was instrumental in the founding of Jesus College, Oxford. Price was born in Brecon, in mid-Wales, the son of a butcher named Rhys ap Rhys and he began his education either in Brecon or at Osney Abbey near Oxford. In any event he went on to study at the University of Oxford, receiving the degrees of BCL, BCnL and DCnL and he was one of a group of judges who condemned James Bainham to death for heresy in 1532. He was later to become treasurer of St. Davids Cathedral and prebendary of Rochester Cathedral, however, he does not seem to have spent much time in either of these locations, retaining a house in Brecon where he was recorded as bailiff in 1572. In 1571 Price petitioned Elizabeth I to formally establish Jesus College, Price provided some funds for work on the colleges construction, though only part of one quadrangle was completed in his lifetime. On his death he left the college 100 marks and his books, a small portrait of Price hangs behind High Table in the hall of Jesus College, and is attributed to the school of Hans Holbein the Younger
29.
Elizabeth I of England
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Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeths birth. Annes marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate, edwards will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Marys reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels, in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers, led by William Cecil, one of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England and it was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir to continue the Tudor line. She never did, despite numerous courtships, as she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity. A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, in government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was video et taceo, in religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, by the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain. Englands defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history, Elizabeths reign is known as the Elizabethan era. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Such was the case with Elizabeths rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, after the short reigns of Elizabeths half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace and was named after both her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard and she was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henrys second wife, Anne Boleyn, at birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the throne of England. She was baptised on 10 September, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, the Marquess of Exeter, the Duchess of Norfolk, Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragons death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession, eleven days after Anne Boleyns execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of their son, Prince Edward, in 1537
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David Lewis (lawyer)
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David Lewis was a lawyer, Judge and the first Principal of Jesus College, Oxford. Lewis was born in Abergavenny, Monmouthshire, at the time considered to be part of Wales. He was educated at King Henry VIII Grammar School in the town, in 1540 he graduated from All Souls College, Oxford, as a Bachelor of Civil Law, and became a Fellow of All Souls in 1541. In 1546 Lewis was appointed Principal of New Inn Hall, but he became an advocate in the Court of Arches in 1548 (after obtaining his DCL, in 1549, he was admitted as an advocate to Doctors Commons. He was a Master in Chancery from 1553, and was one of the Members of Parliament for Steyning. He was appointed the first Principal of Jesus College on 27 June 1571, in 1575, he became a Commissioner of the Admiralty along with John Herbert. He died unmarried and was buried in St Marys Church, Abergavenny, in what is now known as the Lewis chapel
31.
Francis Bevans
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Francis Bevans was a lawyer and Principal of Jesus College, Oxford from 1586 to 1602. Bevans became a Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford in 1573 and he gained a B. C. L. in 1579, a Cambridge LL. B. in 1581, and an Oxford D. C. L. in 1583. Bevans was Principal of New Inn Hall, Oxford in 1585-6 and he was also chancellor to Herbert Westfaling, Bishop of Hereford, and so spent much of his time as Principal in Hereford. In his absence, Griffith Powell effectively ran the college during much of the time that Bevan was Principal, Bevans died in 1602, the same year as Westfaling
Rigg, James McMullen (1892). "Jenkins, Leoline". Dictionary of National Biography. 29.
Rigg, James McMullen (1892). "
