1.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
2.
Lawyer
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A lawyer is a person who practices law, as an advocate, barrister, attorney, counselor or solicitor or chartered legal executive. The role of the lawyer varies greatly across legal jurisdictions, in practice, legal jurisdictions exercise their right to determine who is recognized as being a lawyer. As a result, the meaning of the lawyer may vary from place to place. In Australia, the lawyer is used to refer to both barristers and solicitors. In Canada, the word lawyer refers to individuals who have been called to the bar or. Common law lawyers in Canada are formally and properly called barristers and solicitors, however, in Quebec, civil law advocates often call themselves attorney and sometimes barrister and solicitor in English. The Legal Services Act 2007 defines the activities that may only be performed by a person who is entitled to do so pursuant to the Act. Lawyer is not a protected title, in India, the term lawyer is often colloquially used, but the official term is advocate as prescribed under the Advocates Act,1961. In Scotland, the word refers to a more specific group of legally trained people. It specifically includes advocates and solicitors, in a generic sense, it may also include judges and law-trained support staff. In the United States, the term refers to attorneys who may practice law. It is never used to refer to patent agents or paralegals, in fact, there are regulatory restrictions on non-lawyers like paralegals practicing law. Other nations tend to have terms for the analogous concept. In most countries, particularly civil law countries, there has been a tradition of giving many legal tasks to a variety of civil law notaries, clerks, and scriveners. Several countries that originally had two or more legal professions have since fused or united their professions into a type of lawyer. Most countries in this category are common law countries, though France, in countries with fused professions, a lawyer is usually permitted to carry out all or nearly all the responsibilities listed below. Arguing a clients case before a judge or jury in a court of law is the province of the barrister in England. However, the boundary between barristers and solicitors has evolved, in England today, the barrister monopoly covers only appellate courts, and barristers must compete directly with solicitors in many trial courts
3.
Admiralty court
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Admiralty courts, also known as maritime courts, are courts exercising jurisdiction over all maritime contracts, torts, injuries, and offenses. Englands Admiralty Courts date to at least the 1360s, during the reign of Edward III, at that time there were three such Courts, appointed by Admirals responsible for waters to the north, south and west of England. In 1483 these local courts were amalgamated into a single High Court of Admiralty, the Lord High Admiral directly appointed judges to the court, and could remove them at will. From its inception in 1483 until 1657 the Court sat in a church in Southwark, and from then until 1665 in Montjoy House. In order to escape the Great Plague of London in 1665, the plague threat having subsided by 1666, the Court returned to London and until 1671 was located at Exeter House on The Strand before returning to Montjoy House near St Pauls. During the period after the French and Indian War, Admiralty Courts became an issue that was a part of the tension between the British Parliament and their American Colonies. Starting with the Proclamation of 1763, these courts were given jurisdiction over a number of laws affecting the colonies, the jurisdiction was expanded in later acts of the Parliament, such as the Stamp Act of 1765. The colonists objections were based on several factors, the courts could try a case anywhere in the British Empire. Cases involving New York or Boston merchants were frequently heard in Nova Scotia, the fact that judges were paid based in part on the fines that they levied and naval officers were paid for bringing successful cases led to abuses. There was no trial by jury, and evidence standards were weaker than in criminal courts, the governments objective was to improve the effectiveness of revenue and excise tax laws. In many past instances, smugglers would avoid taxes, even when they were caught and brought to trial, local judges frequently acquitted the popular local merchants whom they perceived as being unfairly accused by an unpopular tax collector. Cases were decided by judges rather than juries, in 1875, the High Court of Admiralty governing England and Wales was absorbed into the new Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court. When these judges sat, it became convenient to call the sitting the Admiralty Court, today Admiralty jurisdiction is exercised by the United Kingdoms High Court of Justice. The admiralty laws which are applied in this court is based upon the civil law-based Law of the Sea, with statutory, the Admiralty court is now housed in the Rolls Building. The Scottish Courts earliest records, held in West Register House in Edinburgh, from 1702 the Judge of the court was also authorised to appoint deputies to hear lesser matters or to deputise during his absence. The Scottish Courts workload was small until the mid-eighteenth century, with judges hearing no more than four matters in each sitting, after the 1750s the volume of cases rose until by 1790 it was necessary to maintain a daily log of decisions. Cases reflected Scotlands principal marine industries including the transshipment of sugar and tobacco, a smaller number of cases related to smuggling, principally brandy, and to salvage rights for ships wrecked on Scottish shores. The Court ceased operation in 1832 and its functions were subsumed into the Court of Session and this office is normally held by a High Court Judge who holds the appointment of Admiralty Judge
4.
Treaties of Nijmegen
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The Treaties of Peace of Nijmegen were a series of treaties signed in the Dutch city of Nijmegen between August 1678 and December 1679. The treaties ended various interconnected wars among France, the Dutch Republic, Spain, Brandenburg, Sweden, Denmark, the Prince-Bishopric of Münster, and the Holy Roman Empire. The most significant of the treaties was the first, which established peace between France and the Dutch Republic, and placed the border of France in very nearly its modern position. The Franco-Dutch War of 1672–78 was the source of all the wars that were ended formally at Nijmegen. Separate peace treaties were arranged for conflicts like the Third Anglo-Dutch War and the Scanian War, but all of them had directly caused by, and form part of. England initially participated in the war on the French side, Peace negotiations had begun as early as 1676, but nothing was agreed to and signed before 1678. These treaties did not result in a lasting peace, some of the countries involved signed peace deals elsewhere, such as the Treaty of Celle, Treaty of Saint-Germain and Treaty of Fontainebleau. 10 August 1678 – France and the Dutch Republic made peace, Sweden was not part of the treaty, but a paragraph in the treaty forced the Dutch Republic to take a neutral approach toward Sweden, with whom they had been at war since 1675. 19 September 1678 – France and Spain made peace,26 January 1679 – France made peace with the Holy Roman Empire. 26 January 1679 – Sweden made peace with the Holy Roman Empire,19 March 1679 – Sweden made peace with the Prince-Bishopric of Münster. The treaty also called for all of Münsters soldiers in Danish war-service to be withdrawn,2 October 1679 – Sweden made peace with the Dutch Republic. The Franco–Dutch War ended with a treaty which gave France control over the region of the Franche-Comté, France also gained further territories of the Spanish Netherlands, adding to those it had annexed under the 1659 Peace of the Pyrenees and 1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. In turn, the French king ceded the town of Maastricht. The French forces withdrew from occupied territories in northern Flanders. Emperor Leopold I had to accept the French occupation of the towns of Freiburg, marc-Antoine Charpentier wrote a Te Deum for this occasion. The prelude of the Te Deum is also known as the Eurovision Song Contest theme
5.
Cowbridge
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Cowbridge is a market town in the Vale of Glamorgan in Wales, approximately 7 miles west of Cardiff. Cowbridge is twinned with Clisson in the Loire-Atlantique department in northwestern France, Cowbridge is part of the Cowbridge with Llanblethian community which elects a Town Council. The town lies on the site of a Roman settlement identified by scholars as the fort of Bovium. Recent excavations have revealed extensive Roman settlement, the town lies alongside a Roman road, there are 17th century references to a cow-bridge over a tributary of the river Thaw but Cowbridges Welsh name, Y Bont-faen, means literally the stone bridge. The town centre is arranged on its medieval plan, with one long street divided into burgage plots. It is one of very few medieval walled towns in Wales, on 13 March 1254, Cowbridge received its first borough charter from Richard de Clare, the Lord of Glamorgan. Richard de Clare was one of the most powerful Barons of the day, having huge estates stretching across much of South Wales, the town walls were built following this, sometime in the latter half of the 13th century. In Llanblethian he founded the town of Cowbridge and in Miskin he founded the castle, the largely medieval church of the Holy Cross was initially a chapel of ease to the parish church at Llanblethian. In 1307 Earl Gilbert de Clare, grandson of Richard de Clare, the Battle of Stalling Down was fought near Cowbridge between an English army, serving King Henry IV of England, and a combined force of French and Welsh soldiers under Owain Glyndŵr in 1403. Details of the battle, its site and its outcome are scant. It was just outside the town that he held the first meeting of the Gorsedd, Cowbridge Grammar School was founded in 1608 and had close links with Jesus College, Oxford through its later benefactor, Dr Leoline Jenkins. Its famous pupils included the poet Alun Lewis and the actor Sir Anthony Hopkins, the New Palladian Town Hall was built in 1830 by Isaiah Verity of Ash Hall who in gratitude was made a Freeman of Cowbridge. The money for the reconstruction was raised by public subscription, eight of the original prison cells are still intact, six of which house the exhibits of Cowbridge Museum. The remainder of the building is used by the town council, the main street contains a number of Georgian houses, including the former town houses of important local families such as the Edmondes and Carnes. The Carnes town house is known as Great House, a Grade 2* listed property of Medieval origin, Cowbridge contains the following inns, the Bear Hotel, the Horse and Groom, the Edmondes Arms, the Duke of Wellington and the Vale of Glamorgan. The latter is located at the premises of the former Vale of Glamorgan Brewery, closely attached to the town of Cowbridge is the village of Aberthin. Aberthin contains two inns, The Hare and Hounds and The Farmers Arms, Cowbridge once had a railway station, which opened in 1865 and closed in 1951. On the 21 March 1950 a Bristol Freighter on a test flight took off from Bristol Filton Airport, the aircraft crashed near Cowbridge after a structural failure of the fuselage
6.
Llywelyn (name)
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Llywelyn is a Welsh personal name, which has also become a family name most commonly spelled Llewellyn. The name has many variations and derivations, mainly as a result of the difficulty for non-Welsh speakers of representing the sound of the initial double ll, the name evolved from the Old British name Lugubelinos, which was a compound of two names for Celtic deities. The first, Lugus, is also the source of the first element in the names Llywarch and Lliwelydd, the second element, Belenus, evolved as an independent name into Welsh Belyn. The name Llywelyn became popular following the successes of Llywelyn the Great and this belief was further reinforced by Llywelyn the Greats adoption of his father Iorwerth ab Owains coat of arms, incorporating four lions. The association also produced another early variant of the name, Leoline, in medieval Latin manuscripts, the form Lewelinus was used. In some texts no attempt is made to find a way of writing the ll sound, an alternative strategy was to substitute a similar-sounding name. Lewis Morris is often called Llewelyn Ddu or Llewellyn Ddu o Fôn, in ALMA35 King Louis of France is called Llewelyn Ffreinig Other examples include Lewis Glyn Cothi who was known as Llywelyn y Glyn, and Lewys Morgannwg whose bardic name was Llywelyn ap Rhisiart. Three feminine forms have been derived from Llywelyn – Llywela, Llewellanne, the hypocoristic forms are always pronounced with an initial, rather than with the alveolar fricative represented in Welsh by ll. Surnames beginning Ap-, B-, or P- are based on the Welsh patronymic naming system, in some regions of England the surname Welling may derive from an English place-name, but in Welsh Marcher counties its frequency suggests that it can be traced back to welyn. More common than any of these surnames is the surname Lewis, with its related variants Lewes, Lewys, Lowys, Lowis, Llewys, Llewis, Llwys, Llewes. A Latinised variant, Leodovicus, re-entered English as Lodwick, Ludwick, Lotwick, and Lodowick, names that are especially common in South Wales. As the name Lewis was in use before the abandonment of the system in Wales
7.
Jesus College, Oxford
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Jesus College is one of the colleges of the University of Oxford in England. It is in the centre of the city, on a site between Turl Street, Ship Street, Cornmarket Street and Market Street. The college was founded by Elizabeth I on 27 June 1571 for the education of clergy, a major driving force behind the establishment of the college was Hugh Price, a churchman from Brecon in Wales. Further accommodation was built on the site to mark the 400th anniversary of the college, in 1971. The life of the college was disrupted by the English Civil War, Leoline Jenkins, who became principal after the war in 1661, put the college on a more stable financial footing. Little happened at the college during the 18th century, and the 19th century saw a decline in numbers, students academic achievements rose in the early 20th century as fellows were appointed to teach in new subjects. Women were first admitted in 1974 and now form a part of the undergraduate population. There are about 475 students at any one time, the Principal of the college is Sir Nigel Shadbolt, former students include Harold Wilson, Norman Washington Manley, T. E. Lawrence, Angus Buchanan, and Viscount Sankey. The universitys professorship of Celtic is attached to the college, a post held by such as Sir John Rhys, Ellis Evans. Past or present fellows of the include the historians Sir Goronwy Edwards and Niall Ferguson, the philosopher Galen Strawson. Jesus College was founded on 27 June 1571, when Elizabeth I issued a royal charter and it was the first Protestant college to be founded at the university, and it is the only Oxford college to date from Elizabeths reign. It was the first new Oxford college since 1555, in the reign of Queen Mary, the foundation charter named a principal, eight fellows, eight scholars, and eight commissioners to draw up the statutes for the college. The college was intended primarily for the education of clergy. The particular intention was to satisfy a need for dedicated, learned clergy to promote the Elizabethan Religious Settlement in the parishes of England, Ireland and Wales. The college has since broadened the range of subjects offered, beginning with the inclusion of medicine and law, the letters patent issued by Elizabeth I made it clear that the education of a priest in the 16th century included more than just theology, however. Price continued to be involved with the college after its foundation. On the strength of a legacy, worth £60 a year on his death, he requested and received the authority to appoint the new colleges principal, fellows. He financed early building work in the front quadrangle
8.
Charles II of England
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Charles II was king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, Charles IIs father, Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim, after 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charless English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England, Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the treaty of Dover. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oatess revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charless brother, the crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed, Charless wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James, Charles II was born in St Jamess Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I and Henrietta Maria, Charles was their second son and child. Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day, England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, at or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, though he was never formally invested. During the 1640s, when Charles was still young, his father fought Parliamentary, by spring 1646, his father was losing the war, and Charles left England due to fears for his safety. Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646, at The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter, who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married
Rigg, James McMullen (1892). "Jenkins, Leoline". Dictionary of National Biography. 29.
Rigg, James McMullen (1892). "
