1.
Alpena, Michigan
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Alpena /ælˈpiːnə/ is a city in the U. S. state of Michigan and the county seat of Alpena County. It is considered to be part of northern Michigan, the Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary is located in the city. The population was 10,483 at the 2010 census, the population swells with a large number of visitors in the summer. Despite its small population, it is by far the largest city in the sparsely populated Northeast Michigan area and it is considered to be one of the two anchor cities of Northern Michigan, along with Traverse City. MidMichigan Health is a designated rural regional medical referral center. This was part of a larger effort to rename a great many of the Michigan counties at the time. Later the region, like much of Michigan, was shaped by the era of the 1800s. Today, Alpena is known for its quarry, one of the largest in the world. While at one time the largest in the world, the cement plant is now just the largest cement plant for Lafarge in North America with an capacity of almost 3 million tons of cement. Alpena is also the headquarters of Besser Company, a manufacturer of concrete block machines. Tourism is also important to Alpenas economy, most of the city was lost in the Great Michigan Fire of 1871. Less than one year later, on July 12,1872, Alpena was hit by fire, the largest in its history. The blaze started in a barn and lasted for two hours, killing at least four people and causing at least $180,000 in damages, Alpena was again hit by a disastrous fire on July 11,1888. In February 2007 Bizjournals ranked Alpena as the hottest retirement destination in the Great Lakes area, the city has a number of notable buildings, including the Art deco Alpena County Courthouse, the I. O. O. F. Centennial Building, and Temple Beth El, one of the oldest synagogues in the United States. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 9.23 square miles. The city is on the shore of Lake Hurons Thunder Bay, access to natural resources and water transportation has been important in development of the community. Light stations and lighthouses surround Alpena, several islands off the coast in Thunder Bay are part of the Michigan Islands National Wildlife Refuge, and Scarecrow Island is part of the Michigan Islands Wilderness Area
2.
Auburn, New York
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Auburn is a city in Cayuga County, New York, United States, located at the north end of Owasco Lake, one of the Finger Lakes, in Central New York. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 27,687. It is the county seat of Cayuga County, and the site of the maximum-security Auburn Correctional Facility, as well as the William H. Seward House Museum, the region around Auburn had been Haudenosaunee territory for centuries before European contact and historical records. Auburn was founded in 1793, during the period of settlement of western New York. The founder, John L. Hardenbergh, was a veteran of the Sullivan-Clinton campaign against the Iroquois during the American Revolution, Hardenbergh settled in the vicinity of the Owasco River with his infant daughter and two African-American slaves, Harry and Kate Freeman. After his death in 1806, Hardenbergh was buried in Auburns North Street Cemetery, the community grew up around Hardenberghs gristmill and sawmill. Originally known as Hardenberghs Corners in the town of Aurelius, the settlement was renamed Auburn in 1805 when it became the county seat and it became an incorporated village in 1815, and was chartered as a city in 1848. It was only a few miles from the Erie Canal, which opened in 1825, from 1818 to 1939, Auburn was home to Auburn Theological Seminary, once one of the preeminent theological seminaries in the United States. In 1939, facing difficulties as a result of the Great Depression. It is the complete and unaltered Tiffany chapel interior known to exist. In 1816, Auburn Prison was founded as a model for the ideas about treating prisoners. Visitors were charged a fee for viewing the facility and its inmates, on August 6,1890, the first execution by the electric chair was carried out at Auburn Prison. In 1901 Leon Czolgosz, assassin of President William McKinley, was executed there, although the ideas of the Auburn System have been abandoned, the prison continues to serve as a maximum security facility, and is one of the most secure prisons in the continental United States. A dam, owned and operated by the city, controls the outflow of the lake, the city is required to keep a sufficient amount of water in the river to deal with the effluent from its waste disposal treatment facility. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 8.4 square miles, of which 8.3 square miles is land and 0.08 square miles. US20 is an important east-west highway passing through the city, seneca Falls is 15 miles west on US20, and Syracuse is 26 miles to the northeast via New York State Route 5. This climatic region is typified by large temperature differences, with warm to hot summers. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Auburn has a continental climate
3.
Electric chair
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This execution method, conceived in 1881 by a Buffalo, New York, dentist named Alfred P. Southwick, was developed throughout the 1880s as a humane alternative to hanging and first used in 1890. This execution method has been used in the United States and, for a period of several decades, the first more powerful jolt of electric current was designed to pass through the head and cause immediate unconsciousness and brain death. The second less powerful jolt was designed to cause damage to the vital organs. Death may also be caused by electrical overstimulation of the heart, as of 2014, electrocution is an optional form of execution in Alabama, Florida, South Carolina and Virginia. They allow the prisoner to choose lethal injection as an alternative method, in the state of Tennessee the electric chair is available for use if lethal injection drugs are unavailable, or otherwise if the inmate so chooses if their capital crime was committed before 1999. The electric chair is a form of execution approved for potential use in Arkansas. On February 8,2008, the Nebraska Supreme Court determined that execution by electric chair was a cruel and this brought executions of this type to an end in Nebraska, the only remaining state to retain electrocution as its sole method of execution. One of these accidents, in Buffalo, New York on August 7,1881, the coroner who investigated the case brought it up at a local Buffalo scientific society. Another member, a dentist named Alfred P. Southwick who had a technical background and he worked out calculations based on the dog experiments, trying to develop a scaled-up method that would work on humans. Early on in his designs he adopted a version of the dental chair as a way to restrain the condemned. After a series of botched hangings in the US there was mounting criticism of this form of capital punishment, in 1886 newly elected New York State governor David B. The commission members surveyed the history of execution and sent out a questionnaire to government officials, lawyers. The commission also contacted electrical experts including Thomson-Houston Electric Companys Elihu Thomson and they also attended electrocutions of dogs by George Fell who had worked with Southwick in the early 1880s experiments. Fell was conducting experiments, electrocuting anesthetized dissected dogs trying to discern exactly how electricity killed a subject. In 1888, the Commission recommended electrocution using Southwicks electric chair idea with metal conductors attached to the persons head. They further recommended that executions be handled by the state instead of the counties with three electric chairs set up at Auburn, Clinton, and Sing-Sing prisons. A bill following these recommendations passed the legislature and was signed by Governor Hill on June 4,1888, the two companies had been competing commercially since 1886 and a series of events had turned it into an all out media war in 1888. The committee head, neurologist Frederick Peterson, enlisted the services of Harold P. Brown as a consultant
4.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
5.
Murder
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A murder is the unlawful killing of another human without justification or valid excuse, especially the unlawful killing of another human being with malice aforethought. This state of mind may, depending upon the jurisdiction, distinguish murder from other forms of unlawful homicide, manslaughter is a killing committed in the absence of malice, brought about by reasonable provocation, or diminished capacity. Involuntary manslaughter, where it is recognized, is a killing that lacks all but the most attenuated guilty intent, in most countries, a person convicted of murder generally faces a long-term prison sentence, possibly a life sentence where permitted. In many common law jurisdictions, a convicted of murder will receive a mandatory life sentence. In jurisdictions where capital punishment exists, the penalty may be imposed for such an act, however. The modern English word murder descends from the Proto-Indo-European mrtró which meant to die, the Middle English mordre is a noun from Anglo-Saxon morðor and Old French murdre. Middle English mordre is a verb from Anglo-Saxon myrdrian and the Middle English noun, the elements of common law murder are, Unlawful killing through criminal act or omission of a human by another human with malice aforethought. Killing – At common law life ended with cardiopulmonary arrest – the total, with advances in medical technology courts have adopted irreversible cessation of all brain function as marking the end of life. Сriminal act or omission – Killing can be committed by an act or an omission. of a human – This element presents the issue of life begins. At common law, a fetus was not a human being, life began when the fetus passed through the vagina and took its first breath. By another human – In early common law, suicide was considered murder, the requirement that the person killed be someone other than the perpetrator excluded suicide from the definition of murder. With malice aforethought – Originally malice aforethought carried its everyday meaning – a deliberate, Murder necessarily required that an appreciable time pass between the formation and execution of the intent to kill. The courts broadened the scope of murder by eliminating the requirement of actual premeditation and deliberation as well as true malice, all that was required for malice aforethought to exist is that the perpetrator act with one of the four states of mind that constitutes malice. The four states of mind recognized as constituting malice are, Under state of mind, intent to kill, thus, if the defendant intentionally uses a deadly weapon or instrument against the victim, such use authorizes a permissive inference of intent to kill. In other words, intent follows the bullet, examples of deadly weapons and instruments include but are not limited to guns, knives, deadly toxins or chemicals or gases and even vehicles when intentionally used to harm one or more victims. In Australian jurisdictions, the risk must amount to a foreseen probability of death. Under state of mind, the doctrine, the felony committed must be an inherently dangerous felony, such as burglary, arson, rape. Importantly, the underlying felony cannot be a lesser included offense such as assault, as with most legal terms, the precise definition of murder varies between jurisdictions and is usually codified in some form of legislation
6.
Capital punishment
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Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty, is a government sanctioned practice whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a death sentence, etymologically, the term capital in this context alluded to execution by beheading. Fifty-six countries retain capital punishment,103 countries have abolished it de jure for all crimes, six have abolished it for ordinary crimes. Capital punishment is a matter of controversy in various countries and states. In the European Union, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment, also, the Council of Europe, which has 47 member states, prohibits the use of the death penalty by its members. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007,2008,2010,2012 and 2014, non-binding resolutions calling for a moratorium on executions. Although most nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the population live in countries where executions take place, such as China, India. Execution of criminals and political opponents has been used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime, in most countries that practise capital punishment it is reserved for murder, terrorism, war crimes, espionage, treason, defection or as part of military justice. In many countries use the death penalty, drug trafficking is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are punished by the death penalty, in militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history, most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment, usually, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice. The response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included a formal apology, a blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of a system based on state or organized religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour, acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished. However, in practice, it is difficult to distinguish between a war of vendetta and one of conquest. Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context, compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, the person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals
7.
Assassination of William McKinley
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William McKinley, the 25th President of the United States, was assassinated on September 6,1901 inside the Temple of Music on the grounds of the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York. He was shaking hands with the public when Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist, McKinley died eight days later on September 14 of gangrene caused by the gunshot wounds. He was the third American president to have been assassinated, following Abraham Lincoln in 1865, McKinley had been elected for a second term in 1900. He enjoyed meeting the public, and was reluctant to accept the security available to his office, Secretary to the President George B. Cortelyou feared that an attempt would take place during a visit to the Temple of Music. Czolgosz had lost his job during the economic Panic of 1893 and turned to anarchism, regarding McKinley as a symbol of oppression, Czolgosz was convinced that it was his duty as an anarchist to kill him. Unable to get near the President during the presidential visit earlier, one bullet grazed McKinley, the other entered his abdomen and was never found. In September 1901, William McKinley was at the height of his power as president, elected in 1896, during the serious economic depression resulting from the Panic of 1893, he had defeated his Democratic rival, William Jennings Bryan. McKinley led the nation both to a return to prosperity and to victory in the Spanish–American War in 1898, taking possession of such Spanish colonies as Puerto Rico and the Philippines. McKinleys original vice president, Garret Hobart, had died in 1899, in advance of the convention, New Yorks Republican political boss, Senator Thomas C. Platt, saw an opportunity to politically sideline his states governor, former Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt, Roosevelt accepted the nomination and was elected on McKinleys ticket. Leon Czolgosz was born in Detroit, Michigan, in 1873, the Czolgosz family moved a number of times as Paul Czolgosz, Leons father, sought work throughout the Midwest. As an adult, Leon Czolgosz worked in a Cleveland factory until he lost his job in a dispute in 1893. Thereafter, he worked irregularly and attended political and religious meetings, in so doing, he became interested in anarchism. By 1901, this movement was feared in the United States—New Yorks highest court had ruled that the act of identifying oneself as an anarchist in front of an audience was a breach of the peace. Two American presidents had been assassinated in the 19th century—Abraham Lincoln in 1865, although two presidents had been struck down by assassins, McKinley did not like security personnel to come between him and the people. When in his hometown, Canton, Ohio, he walked to church or the business district without protection. McKinley gave a speech at his second inauguration on March 4,1901
8.
Anarchism
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Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a particular world view. Many types and traditions of anarchism exist, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often divided into the categories of social. The term anarchism is a word composed from the word anarchy and the suffix -ism, themselves derived respectively from the Greek ἀναρχία, i. e. anarchy. The first known use of this word was in 1539, various factions within the French Revolution labelled opponents as anarchists although few shared many views of later anarchists. The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, on the other hand, some use libertarianism to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as libertarian anarchism. The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of Taoist philosopher Laozi, zhuangzis philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist. Zhuangzi wrote, A petty thief is put in jail, a great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation. Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics, their contemporary Zeno of Citium, Jesus is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the Christian anarchist tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ, the first anarchist society was that of the apostles. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful idolatry, the French renaissance political philosopher Étienne de La Boétie wrote in his most famous work the Discourse on Voluntary Servitude what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent. The radical Protestant Christian Gerrard Winstanley and his group the Diggers are cited by authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England. The term anarchist first entered the English language in 1642, during the English Civil War, as a term of abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents. By the time of the French Revolution some, such as the Enragés, began to use the term positively, in opposition to Jacobin centralisation of power, by the turn of the 19th century, the English word anarchism had lost its initial negative connotation. Modern anarchism emerged from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, as part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution, William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought
9.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
10.
William McKinley
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McKinley was the last president to have served in the American Civil War, beginning as a private in the Union Army and ending as a brevet major. After the war, he settled in Canton, Ohio, where he practiced law, in 1876, he was elected to Congress, where he became the Republican Partys expert on the protective tariff, which he promised would bring prosperity. His 1890 McKinley Tariff was highly controversial, which together with a Democratic redistricting aimed at gerrymandering him out of office and he was elected Ohios governor in 1891 and 1893, steering a moderate course between capital and labor interests. With the aid of his close adviser Mark Hanna, he secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896 and he defeated his Democratic rival, William Jennings Bryan, after a front-porch campaign in which he advocated sound money and promised that high tariffs would restore prosperity. Rapid economic growth marked McKinleys presidency and he promoted the 1897 Dingley Tariff to protect manufacturers and factory workers from foreign competition, and in 1900, he secured the passage of the Gold Standard Act. The United States annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898, McKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election, in a campaign focused on imperialism, protectionism, and free silver. William McKinley, Jr. was born in 1843 in Niles, Ohio, there, the elder McKinley was born in Pine Township, Mercer County. The family moved to Ohio when the senior McKinley was a boy and he met Nancy Allison there, and married her later. The Allison family was of mostly English descent and among Pennsylvanias earliest settlers, the family trade on both sides was iron-making, and McKinley senior operated foundries throughout Ohio, in New Lisbon, Niles, Poland, and finally Canton. The McKinley household was, like many from Ohios Western Reserve, steeped in Whiggish and abolitionist sentiment, William followed in the Methodist tradition, becoming active in the local Methodist church at the age of sixteen. He was a lifelong pious Methodist, in 1852, the family moved from Niles to Poland, Ohio so that their children could attend the better schools there. Graduating in 1859, he enrolled the following year at Allegheny College in Meadville and he remained at Allegheny for only one year, returning home in 1860 after becoming ill and depressed. He also spent time at Mount Union College in Alliance, Ohio and he did not graduate from either university. Although his health recovered, family finances declined and McKinley was unable to return to Allegheny, first working as a clerk and later taking a job teaching at a school near Poland. When the Southern states seceded from the Union and the American Civil War began, among them were McKinley and his cousin William McKinley Osbourne, who enlisted as privates in the newly formed Poland Guards in June 1861. The men left for Columbus where they were consolidated with other units to form the 23rd Ohio Infantry. The men were unhappy to learn that, unlike Ohios earlier volunteer regiments, they would not be permitted to elect their officers, they would be designated by Ohios governor, William Dennison. Dennison appointed Colonel William Rosecrans as the commander of the regiment, McKinley quickly took to the soldiers life and wrote a series of letters to his hometown newspaper extolling the army and the Union cause
11.
Polish Americans
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Polish Americans are Americans who have total or partial Polish ancestry. There are an estimated 9.5 million Polish Americans, representing about 3% of the U. S. population, Polish Americans are the largest Slavic ethnic group in the United States, second largest Central and Eastern European group and the eighth largest immigrant group overall. The first Polish settlers arrived at Walter Raleighs failed Roanoke Colony in 1585, in 1608 Polish settlers came to the Virginia Colony as skilled craftsmen. Two early immigrants, Kazimierz Pułaski and Tadeusz Kościuszko, led armies in the Revolutionary War and are remembered as national heroes, overall, more than one million Poles and Polish subjects have immigrated to the United States, primarily during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Many immigrants were classified as Russian, German, and Austrian by the U. S. Complicating the U. S, the Polish American Cultural Center places a figure of Americans who have some Polish ancestry at 19-20 million. Some Jews from Poland even assimilated into cities which were Polish bastions in order to conceal their Jewish identities, from 1870 to 1914, Poles and Polish subjects formed a significant part of the wave of immigration from Germany, Imperial Russia, and Austria Hungary. The main Ethnically-Polish-American organizations were founded because of high Polish interest in the Catholic church, parochial schools, since 1914, the United States has seen a small amount of emigration from Poland, and the coming of age of numerous generations of fully assimilated Polish Americans. The income levels have gone up from well below average, to above average, outside of Republican and Democratic politics, politics such as those of Agudath Israel of America, a branch of Poalei Agudat Yisrael, have heavily involved Polish-Jewish Americans. Lopata argues that Poles differed from most ethnics in America, in several ways, first, they did not plan to remain permanently and become Americanized. Instead, they came temporarily, to money, invest. Their intention was to ensure for themselves a desirable social status in the old world, however, many of the temporary migrants had decided to become permanent Americans. Many found manual labor jobs in the mines of Pennsylvania and the heavy industries, of the Great Lakes cities of Chicago, Pittsburgh, Detroit, Buffalo, Milwaukee, Cleveland. The U. S. Therefore, some say, of the 10 million Polish Americans, Therefore, the actual amount of Americans of at least partial Polish ancestry, could be well over 10 million. In the 2011 United States Census Bureaus Population Estimates, there are between 9,365,239 and 9,530,571 Americans of Polish descent, historically, Polish-Americans have assimilated very quickly to American society. Between 1940 and 1960, only 20 percent of the children of Polish-American ethnic leaders spoke Polish regularly, in the early 1960s,3,000 of Detroits 300,000 Polish-Americans changed their names each year. Language proficiency in Polish is rare in Polish-Americans, as 91. 3% speak English only. In 1979, the 8 million respondents of Polish ancestry reported that only 41.5 percent had single ancestry, whereas 57. 3% of Greeks, 52% of Italians and Sicilians, and 44% of Ukrainians had done so. By educational attainment, the U. S. Census estimates that 37. 6% have bachelors degrees or higher, the median household income for those of Russian ancestry has been reported as higher on the U. S. Census, at $70,310
12.
Detroit
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Detroit is the most populous city in the U. S. state of Michigan, the fourth-largest city in the Midwest and the largest city on the United States–Canada border. It is the seat of Wayne County, the most populous county in the state, the municipality of Detroit had a 2015 estimated population of 677,116, making it the 21st-most populous city in the United States. Roughly one-half of Michigans population lives in Metro Detroit alone, the Detroit–Windsor area, a commercial link straddling the Canada–U. S. Border, has a population of about 5.7 million. Detroit is a port on the Detroit River, a strait that connects the Great Lakes system to the Saint Lawrence Seaway. The Detroit Metropolitan Airport is among the most important hubs in the United States, the City of Detroit anchors the second-largest economic region in the Midwest, behind Chicago, and the thirteenth-largest in the United States. Detroit and its neighboring Canadian city Windsor are connected through a tunnel and various bridges, Detroit was founded on July 24,1701 by the French explorer and adventurer Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac and a party of settlers. During the 19th century, it became an important industrial hub at the center of the Great Lakes region, with expansion of the American automobile industry in the early 20th century, the Detroit area emerged as a significant metropolitan region within the United States. The city became the fourth-largest in the country for a period, in the 1950s and 1960s, suburban expansion continued with construction of a regional freeway system. A great portion of Detroits public transport was abandoned in favour of becoming a city in the post-war period. Due to industrial restructuring and loss of jobs in the auto industry, between 2000 and 2010 the citys population fell by 25 percent, changing its ranking from the nations 10th-largest city to 18th. In 2010, the city had a population of 713,777 and this resulted from suburbanization, corruption, industrial restructuring and the decline of Detroits auto industry. In 2013, the state of Michigan declared an emergency for the city. Detroit has experienced urban decay as its population and jobs have shifted to its suburbs or elsewhere, conservation efforts managed to save many architectural pieces since the 2000s and allowed several large-scale revitalisations. More recently, the population of Downtown Detroit, Midtown Detroit, paleo-Indian people inhabited areas near Detroit as early as 11,000 years ago. In the 17th century, the region was inhabited by Huron, Odawa, Potawatomi, for the next hundred years, virtually no British, colonist, or French action was contemplated without consultation with, or consideration of the Iroquois likely response. When the French and Indian War evicted the Kingdom of France from Canada, the 1798 raids and resultant 1799 decisive Sullivan Expedition reopened the Ohio Country to westward emigration, which began almost immediately, and by 1800 white settlers were pouring westwards. By 1773, the population of Detroit was 1,400, by 1778, its population was up to 2,144 and it was the third-largest city in the Province of Quebec
13.
Posen, Michigan
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Posen is a village in Presque Isle County of the U. S. state of Michigan. The population was 234 at the 2010 census, the village is located within Posen Township. Posen has a strong Polish background as 56. 1% of its inhabitants are reported to have Polish ancestry and it is home to the Posen Potato Festival, held every year on during the first weekend after Labor Day. The festival includes activities with potato pancakes and polka dancing, Posen has a branch of the Presque Isle District Library. Posen is also the German name for the Polish city of Poznań, m-65 According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1.00 square mile, all land. As of the census of 2010, there were 234 people,110 households, the population density was 234.0 inhabitants per square mile. There were 144 housing units at a density of 144.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 96. 2% White,1. 3% Native American,0. 4% Pacific Islander,42. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 27. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.07 and the family size was 2.96. The median age in the village was 46 years. 22. 2% of residents were under the age of 18,5. 2% were between the ages of 18 and 24,21. 7% were from 25 to 44,27. 3% were from 45 to 64, and 23. 5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 46. 2% male and 53. 8% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 292 people,126 households, and 73 families residing in the village. The population density was 291.6 per square mile, there were 138 housing units at an average density of 137.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 94. 18% White,3. 77% African American, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 34% of the population. The ancestry make up was 56. 1% Polish,15. 3% German,7. 8% American,3. 1% French,2. 5% English,1. 6% French Canadian,1. 2%Danish,1. 2% Irish 0. 9% Russian. 36. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 24. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.92. In the village, the population was out with 23. 6% under the age of 18,8. 9% from 18 to 24,26. 4% from 25 to 44,16. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 97.3 males
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Natrona, Pennsylvania
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Natrona is an unincorporated community in Harrison Township, Allegheny County in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. It is located in western Pennsylvania within the Pittsburgh Metropolitan Statistical Area, Natrona is situated along the Allegheny River at Lock and Dam Four, Pools Three and Four between Brackenridge, Natrona Heights, Karns, Allegheny Township, and Lower Burrell. The original village of Natrona – then known as East Tarentum – was built as a town by the Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Company in the 1850s. The company began with two wells in 1850, and continued operations until 1959. The Pennsylvania Canal once passed through Natrona and nearby communities in the early- to mid-19th century, the Pennsylvania Railroad had a train station in Natrona at Vine and Federal streets, its rail line began running through the town in the mid-19th century. Later, the Pennsylvania Railroad merged with rival New York Central Railroad in 1968 to form the Penn Central Transportation Company, the Interstate Commerce Commission required that the ailing New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad be added in 1969. The Consolidated Rail Corporation replaced the Penn Central Transportation Company and operated freight service through Natrona from 1976 until 1999 when it was divided between two companies, the Norfolk Southern Railway then operated trains through the town. Amtrak has detoured passenger service through Natrona on occasion, its nearest station is Penn Station in Downtown Pittsburgh, the West Penn Railways provided electric street car service to Natrona from 1906 until 1937. Local factories, beginning with the Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Companys Natrona Works, as of 2011, Allegheny Technologies used a track to transport materials between departments at its Allegheny Ludlum Brackenridge Works. The Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Company operated its Natrona No.1, Natrona is situated on an alluvial floodplain along the Allegheny River. The community is located within the Highlands School District, Highlands High School and Highlands Middle School are located in Natrona Heights. Air pollution levels measured in Natrona area schools are among the worst in the United States, the film Knightriders by George A. Romero starring Ed Harris used scenes shot on Garfield Street in Natrona for the movie. Most of the film was shot in nearby Fawn Township, the bridge is officially named the George D. Stuart Bridge and actually located about 2.5 miles downstream spanning the river between Tarentum and New Kensington, leon Czolgosz, the assassin of U. S. President William McKinley in 1901, spent part of his teenage years working at a glass factory located in the town. Environmentalism – Natrona has a United States Environmental Protection Agency Superfund site Samuel Kier operated salt, Natrona Comes Together Association Community Revitalization Plan for Natrona
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Panic of 1893
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The Panic of 1893 was a serious economic depression in the United States that began in 1893 and ended in 1897. It deeply affected every sector of the economy, and produced political upheaval that led to the 1896 realigning election, one of the causes for the panic of 1893 can be traced back to Argentina. Investment was encouraged by the Argentine agent bank, Baring Brothers, however, the failure of the 1890 wheat crop and a coup in Buenos Aires ended further investments. As concern for the state of the economy worsened, people rushed to withdraw their money from banks, the credit crunch rippled through the economy. A financial panic in the United Kingdom and a drop in trade in Europe caused foreign investors to sell American stocks to obtain American funds backed by gold. The Populists were a short-lived agrarian-populist political party which appealed politically to wheat farmers in the West and they saw the resulting panic as confirmation that the values of rootless global finance were assailing traditional American values. Historian Hasia Diner notes, Some Populists believed that Jews made up a class of international financiers whose policies had ruined small family farms, Jews, they asserted, owned the banks and promoted the gold standard, the chief sources of their impoverishment. Agrarian radicalism posited the city as antithetical to American values, asserting that Jews were the essence of urban corruption, the Free Silver movement arose, gaining support from farmers and mining interests. People attempted to redeem notes for gold. Ultimately, the limit for the minimum amount of gold in federal reserves was reached. Investments during the time of the panic were heavily financed through bond issues with high interest payments, the National Cordage Company went into receivership as a result of its bankers calling their loans in response to rumors regarding the NCCs financial distress. The company, a manufacturer, had tried to corner the market for imported hemp. As the demand for silver and silver notes fell, the price, holders worried about a loss of face value of bonds and many became worthless. A series of bank failures followed, and the Northern Pacific Railway, the Union Pacific Railroad and this was followed by the bankruptcy of many other companies, in total over 15,000 companies and 500 banks, many of them in the west, failed. According to high estimates, about 17%–19% of the workforce was unemployed at the panics peak, the huge spike in unemployment, combined with the loss of life savings kept in failed banks, meant that a once-secure middle-class could not meet their mortgage obligations. Many walked away from recently built homes as a result, as a result of the panic, stock prices declined. 500 banks closed,15,000 businesses failed, and numerous farms ceased operation, the unemployment rate hit 25% in Pennsylvania, 35% in New York, and 43% in Michigan. Soup kitchens were opened to feed the destitute
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Anarchist schools of thought
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Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often divided into the categories of social. William Godwin, in founding philosophical anarchism, developed what many consider the first expression of modern anarchist thought. Godwin was, according to Peter Kropotkin, the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, according to The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought, philosophical anarchism is a component especially of individualist anarchism. Godwin opposed revolutionary action and saw a state as a present necessary evil that would become increasingly irrelevant. Godwin advocated extreme individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labor be eliminated, Godwin felt discrimination on any grounds besides ability was intolerable. They may oppose the elimination of the state by violent means out of concern that it would be left unsecured against the establishment of a more harmful. Mutualism began in 18th-century English and French labor movements, then took an anarchist form associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and this influenced individualist anarchists in the United States such as Benjamin Tucker and William B. Josiah Warren proposed similar ideas in 1833 after participating in a failed Owenite experiment, in the 1840s and 1850s, Charles A. Dana, and William B. Greene introduced Proudhons works to the US. Greene adapted Proudhons mutualism to American conditions and introduced it to Benjamin R. Tucker, mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. Many mutualists believe a market without government intervention drives prices down to labor-costs, eliminating profit, rent, firms would be forced to compete over workers just as workers compete over firms, raising wages. Some see mutualism as between individualist and collectivist anarchism, in What Is Property, Proudhon develops a concept of liberty, equivalent to anarchy, which is the dialectical synthesis of communism and property. Greene, influenced by Pierre Leroux, sought mutualism in the synthesis of three philosophies – communism, capitalism and socialism, Social anarchism is an umbrella term used to identify a broad category of anarchism independent of individualist anarchism. Social anarchism is used to specifically describe anarchist tendencies within anarchism that have an emphasis on the communitarian and cooperative aspects of anarchist theory, Social anarchism includes collectivist anarchism, anarcho-communism, libertarian socialism, anarcho-syndicalism and social ecology. Collectivist anarchism is a form of anarchism most commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin, Johann Most. Unlike mutualists, collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, Workers would be compensated for their work on the basis of the amount of time they contributed to production, rather than goods being distributed according to need as in anarcho-communism. Although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labor, some held out the possibility of a transition to a communist system of distribution according to need. Collective anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism but opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat, some collectivist anarchists do not oppose the use of currency
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Anarcho-capitalism
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Anarcho-capitalism is a political philosophy that advocates the elimination of the state in favor of individual sovereignty, private property, and free markets. Anarcho-capitalists believe that, in the absence of statute, society would improve itself through the discipline of the free market, in an anarcho-capitalist society, law enforcement, courts, and all other security services would be operated by privately funded competitors rather than centrally through taxation. Money, along all other goods and services, would be privately and competitively provided in an open market. Various theorists have espoused legal philosophies similar to anarcho-capitalism, a Rothbardian anarcho-capitalist society would operate under a mutually agreed-upon libertarian legal code which would be generally accepted, and which the courts would pledge themselves to follow. This pact would recognize self-ownership and the principle, although methods of enforcement vary. Anarcho-capitalists argue for a society based on the trade of private property. However, they also recognize charity and communal arrangements as part of the same voluntary ethic, though anarcho-capitalists are known for asserting a right to private property, some propose that non-state public or community property can also exist in an anarcho-capitalist society. For them, what is important is that it is acquired and transferred without help or hindrance from the compulsory state, anarcho-capitalists see free-market capitalism as the basis for a free and prosperous society. Many anarchists view capitalism as an authoritarian and hierarchical system. On the Nolan chart, anarcho-capitalists are located at the northernmost apex of the libertarian quadrant – since they reject state involvement in economic and personal affairs. Many also argue that subsidized monopolies tend to be corrupt and inefficient, many anarchists also argue that private defense and court agencies would have to have a good reputation in order to stay in business. Rothbard bases his philosophy on natural law grounds and also provides economic explanations of why he thinks anarcho-capitalism is preferable on pragmatic grounds as well. David D. Friedman says he is not an absolutist rights theorist but is not a utilitarian, however. Peter Leeson argues that the case for anarchy derives its strength from empirical evidence, hans-Hermann Hoppe, meanwhile, uses argumentation ethics for his foundation of private property anarchism, which is closer to Rothbards natural law approach. I define anarchist society as one where there is no possibility for coercive aggression against the person or property of any individual. In effect, this means no one else may justly invade, or aggress against. It follows then that each person justly owns whatever previously unowned resources he appropriates or mixes his labor with, from these twin axioms – self-ownership and homesteading – stem the justification for the entire system of property rights titles in a free-market society. This system establishes the right of man to his own person, the right of donation, of bequest
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Christian anarchism
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Christian anarchism is a movement in political theology that claims anarchism is inherent in Christianity and the Gospels. Christian anarchists denounce the state as they claim it is violent, deceitful and, more than any other Bible source, the Sermon on the Mount is used as the basis for Christian anarchism. Most Christian anarchists are pacifists and reject the use of violence, Leo Tolstoys The Kingdom of God Is Within You is often regarded as a key text for modern Christian anarchism. Jacques Ellul, a French philosopher and Christian anarchist, notes that the verse of the Book of Judges states that there was no king in Israel. Subsequently, as recorded in the first Book of Samuel the people of Israel wanted a king so as to be like other nations, God declared that the people had rejected him as their king. He warned that a king would lead to militarism, conscription and taxation. Samuel passed on Gods warning to the Israelites but they demanded a king. Much of the subsequent Old Testament chronicles the Israelites trying to live with this decision, more than any other Bible source, the Sermon on the Mount is used as the basis for Christian anarchism. Alexandre Christoyannopoulos explains that the Sermon perfectly illustrates Jesuss central teaching of love, Christian anarchists claim that the state, founded on violence, contravenes the Sermon and Jesus call to love our enemies. The gospels tell of Jesuss temptation in the desert, for the final temptation, Jesus is taken up to a high mountain by Satan and told that if he bows down to Satan he will give him all the kingdoms of the world. Christian anarchists use this as evidence that all Earthly kingdoms and governments are ruled by Satan, Jesus refuses the temptation, choosing to serve God instead, implying that Jesus is aware of the corrupting nature of Earthly power. Christian eschatology and various Christian anarchists, such as Jacques Ellul, have identified the state, whether or not Christianity is compatible with anarchism is a point of contention, as some hold that one cannot consistently be a Christian and anarchist simultaneously. Critics include Christians and anarchists as well as those who reject both categories, for example, anarcho-syndicalists often cite the phrase no gods, no masters and Christians often cite Romans 13. Others, such as Friedrich Nietzsche and Frank Seaver Billings, criticize Christianity, according to Alexandre Christoyannopoulos, several of the Church Fathers writings suggest anarchism as Gods ideal. Christian anarchists, such as Keven Craig, insist that these communities were centred on true love and they also allege that the reason the early Christians were persecuted was not because they worshipped Jesus Christ, but because they refused to worship human idols claiming divine status. Given that they refused to worship the Roman Emperor they refused to swear any oath of allegiance to the Empire, for Christian anarchists the moment which epitomises the degeneration of Christianity is the conversion of Emperor Constantine after his victory at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312. Following this event Christianity was legalised under the Edict of Milan in 313, Francis of Assisi was an ascetic preacher, pacifist and nature lover. As the son of a wealthy cloth merchant he led a privileged life and fought as a soldier
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Collectivist anarchism
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Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary anarchist doctrine that advocates the abolition of both the state and private ownership of the means of production. It instead envisions the means of production being owned collectively and controlled and managed by the producers themselves, for the collectivization of the means of production, it was originally envisaged that workers will revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production. These salaries would be used to purchase goods in a communal market and this contrasts with anarcho-communism where wages would be abolished, and where individuals would take freely from a storehouse of goods to each according to his need. Thus, Bakunins Collectivist Anarchism, not with standing the title, is seen as a blend of individualism and collectivism, Collectivist anarchism is most commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin, the anti-authoritarian sections of the First International, and the early Spanish anarchist movement. Giuseppe Fanelli met Bakunin at Ischia in 1866, in October 1868 Bakunin sponsored Fanelli to travel to Barcelona to share his libertarian visions and recruit revolutionists to the International Workingmens Association. Fanellis tour took him first to Barcelona, where he met, Recluse and Fanelli were at odds over Recluses friendships with Spanish republicans, and Fanelli soon left Barcelona for Madrid. Fanelli stayed in Madrid until the end of January 1869, conducting meetings to introduce Spanish workers, including Anselmo Lorenzo, in February 1869 Fanelli left Madrid, journeying home via Barcelona. Bakunin was a supporter of the Commune, which was brutally suppressed by the French government. He saw the Commune as above all a rebellion against the State, the collectivist anarchists at first used the term collectivism to distinguish themselves from the mutualism of the followers of Proudhon and the state socialists associated with Karl Marx. Bakunin wrote, we shall always protest against anything that may in any way resemble communism or state socialism, Bakunin was Marx’s flamboyant chief opponent, and presciently warned against the emergence of a communist authoritarianism that would take power over working people. The anti-authoritarian majority, which included most sections of the International, more importantly, Bakunin criticized authoritarian socialism and the concept of dictatorship of the proletariat which he adamantly refused. If you took the most ardent revolutionary, vested him in absolute power, the anti-authoritarian sections of the First International proclaimed at the St. This revolutionary transformation could only be the outcome of the action of the proletariat itself, its trades bodies. By the early 1880s, most of the European anarchist movement had adopted an anarchist communist position, advocating the abolition of wage labour and distribution according to need. Ironically, the collectivist label then became commonly associated with Marxist state socialists who advocated the retention of some sort of wage system during the transition to full communism. The anarchist communist Peter Kropotkin attacked this position in his essay The Collectivist Wages System, Bakunins socialism was known as collectivist anarchism, where socially, it seeks the confirmation of political equality by economic equality. Collectivist anarchism advocates the abolition of both the state and private ownership of the means of production and it instead envisions the means of production being owned collectively and controlled and managed by the producers themselves. For the collectivization of the means of production, it was envisaged that workers will revolt
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Anarcho-communism
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Some anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society. Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French Revolution, the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and insurrectionary anti-organizationalist sections. To date, the examples of anarchist communist societies were the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution. Anarchist communist currents appeared during the English Civil War and the French Revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries, an early anarchist communist was Joseph Déjacque, the first person to describe himself as libertarian. Unlike Proudhon, he argued that, it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, returning to New York he was able to serialise his book in his periodical Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement social. Published in 27 issues from June 9,1858 to February 4,1861 and this was the first anarchist journal to use the term libertarian. The French anarchist journalist Sébastien Faure, later founder and editor of the four-volume Anarchist Encyclopedia, started the weekly paper Le Libertaire in 1895. He saw anarchic initiative, reasoned will and the autonomy of each as the conditions for the revolution of the proletariat. In Déjacques view, a government resulting from an insurrection remains a reactionary fetter on the initiative of the proletariat. As Bakunins associate, James Guillaume, put it in his essay, Ideas on Social Organization, When production comes to outstrip consumption. But, Errico Malatesta stated that instead of running the risk of making a confusion in trying to distinguish what you and I each do, let us all work, the federal congress at Florence has eloquently demonstrated the opinion of the Italian International on this point. The above report was made in an article by Malatesta and Cafiero in the Jura Federations bulletin later that year, Peter Kropotkin, often seen as the most important theorist of anarchist communism, outlined his economic ideas in The Conquest of Bread and Fields, Factories and Workshops. Kropotkin felt that cooperation is more beneficial than competition, arguing in his scientific work Mutual Aid. Aims of life vary with each and every individual, and the society is civilized, the more will individuality be developed. He supported the expropriation of property into the commons or public goods. Some support a form of trade in the form of non-monetary commons. Others such as Tiziana Terranova easily see anarcho-communism being compatible with a non-hierarchical, open access, free association, so between 1880 and 1890 with the perspective of an immanent revolution, who was opposed to the official workers movement, which was then in the process of formation. They were opposed not only to political struggles but also to strikes which put forward wage or other claims, but While they were not opposed to strikes as such, they were opposed to trade unions and the struggle for the eight-hour day
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Egoist anarchism
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Stirners main work is The Ego and Its Own, also known as The Ego and His Own. This work was first published in 1844 in Leipzig, and has appeared in numerous editions and translations. Stirners philosophy is usually called egoism, Stirner held that the only limitation on the rights of the individual is his power to obtain what he desires. He proposes that most commonly accepted social institutions—including the notion of State, property as a right, natural rights in general, Stirner wanted to abolish not only the state but also society as an institution responsible for its members. Max Stirners idea of the union of Egoists, was first expounded in The Ego, the Union is understood as a non-systematic association, which Stirner proposed in contradistinction to the state. The Union is understood as a relation between egoists which is renewed by all parties support through an act of will. The Union requires that all parties participate out of a conscious egoism, If one party silently finds themselves to be suffering, but puts up and keeps the appearance, the union has degenerated into something else. This union is not seen as an authority above a persons own will and this idea has received interpretations for politics, economics, romance, and sex. Stirner claimed that property comes about through might, Whoever knows how to take, to defend, what I have in my power, that is my own. So long as I assert myself as holder, I am the proprietor of the thing, I do not step shyly back from your property, but look upon it always as my property, in which I respect nothing. Pray do the like with what you call my property and his concept of egoistic property not only rejects moral restraint on how one obtains and uses things, but includes other people as well. Though Stirners philosophy is individualist, it has influenced some libertarian communists and anarcho-communists, forms of libertarian communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are influenced by Stirner. Anarcho-communist Emma Goldman was influenced by both Stirner and Peter Kropotkin and blended their philosophies together in her own, the Scottish born German writer John Henry Mackay found out about Stirner while reading a copy of Friedrich Albert Lange´s History of Materialism and Critique of its Present Importance. Later he looked for a copy of The Ego and Its Own and after being fascinated with it he wrote a biography of Stirner, published in German in 1898. Mackay´s propaganda of stirnerist egoism and of male homosexual and bisexual rights influenced Adolf Brand who published the worlds first ongoing homosexual publication, Der Eigene in 1896. The name of that publication was taken from Stirner, who had influenced the young Brand. Der Eigene concentrated on cultural and scholarly material, and may have averaged around 1500 subscribers per issue during its lifetime, Benjamin Tucker followed this journal from the United States. Another later German anarchist publication influenced deeply by Stirner was Der Einzige and it appeared in 1919, as a weekly, then sporadically until 1925 and was edited by cousins Anselm Ruest and Mynona
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Existentialist anarchism
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Some observers believe existentialism forms a philosophical ground for anarchism. Anarchist historian Peter Marshall claims, there is a link between the existentialists stress on the individual, free choice, and moral responsibility and the main tenets of anarchism. Anarchism had a proto-existentialist view mainly in the writings of German individualist anarchist Max Stirner, Existentialism, according to Herbert Read, is eliminating all systems of idealism, all theories of life or being that subordinate man to an idea, to an abstraction of some sort. It is also eliminating all systems of materialism that subordinate man to the operation of physical, in this respect, existentialism has much in common with Max Stirners egoism. This was the result of a popular association during this period between his ideas and those of Max Stirner. As such, Nietzsches Übermensch was representative of the freedom for people to define the nature of their own existence, as well as the desire for a new human who was to be neither master nor slave. Nietzsches idealized individual invents his or her own values and creates the very terms under which they excel, taking no regard for God and it was these things that drew Nietzsche to anarchists and existentialists alike, showing the clear commonality between both. While influenced by Hegel early in his life, Bakunin later was stridently opposed to Hegel around the time he became an anarchist, the transcedentalists, particularly Henry David Thoreau, were influential to anarchism and existentialism. In the first and middle decades of the 20th century, a number of philosophers, before the Second World War, when existentialism was not yet in name, Franz Kafka and Martin Buber were among these thinkers who were also anarchists. Both are today seen as Jewish existentialists as well as Jewish anarchists. In this regard, he was speaking from experience, but he was influenced by his friend Otto Gross. Martin Buber is best known for his philosophy of dialogue, a form of religious existentialism centered on the distinction between the I-Thou relationship and the I-It relationship. In his essay Ich und Du published in 1923, he writes how we relate to other people through the I towards an It. Instead, he believes human beings should find meaningfulness in human relationships, through I towards Thou, following the Second World War, existentialism became a well-known and significant philosophical and cultural movement, and at this time undoubtedly influenced many anarchists. An influential exponent of atheist existentialism, Sartre throughout his works stressed the expansion of freedom in a world without God or a fixed human nature. This freedom may not always be completely joyous, as man is condemned to be free for Sartre and it was for a brief period between 1939 and 1940 that Sartre was an anarcho-pacifist. Towards the end of his life, Sartre explicitly embraced anarchism, although rejecting the term existentialism, Camus was a friend of Sartres, and has been considered part of the existentialist movement. Camus would also be associated with the French anarchist movement, the anarchist André Prudhommeaux first introduced him at a meeting in 1948 of the Cercle des Étudiants Anarchistes as a sympathizer familiar with anarchist thought
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Anarcha-feminism
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Anarcha-feminism, also called anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism, combines anarchism with feminism. It generally views patriarchy as a manifestation of involuntary coercive hierarchy, anarcha-feminists believe that the struggle against patriarchy is an essential part of class conflict and the anarchist struggle against the state and capitalism. In essence, the philosophy sees anarchist struggle as a component of feminist struggle. Susan Brown claims that, as anarchism is a philosophy that opposes all relationships of power. Contrary to popular belief and contemporary association with radical feminism, anarcha-feminism is not an inherently militant party and it is described to be an anti-authoritarian, anti-capitalist, anti-oppressive philosophy, with the goal of creating an equal ground between males and females. The term anarcha-feminism suggests the social freedom and liberty of women, mikhail Bakunin opposed patriarchy and the way the law to the absolute domination of the man. He argued that qual rights must belong to men and women so that women could become independent, Bakunin foresaw the end of the authoritarian juridical family and the full sexual freedom of women. Proudhon, on the hand, viewed the family as the most basic unit of society and of his morality. Since the 1860s, anarchisms radical critique of capitalism and the state has been combined with a critique of patriarchy, anarcha-feminists thus start from the precept that modern society is dominated by men. Authoritarian traits and values—domination, exploitation, aggression, competition, etc. —are integral to hierarchical civilizations and are seen as masculine, in contrast, non-authoritarian traits and values—cooperation, sharing, compassion, sensitivity—are regarded as feminine, and devalued. Anarcha-feminists have thus espoused creation of a non-authoritarian, anarchist society and they refer to the creation of a society, based on cooperation, sharing, mutual aid, etc. as the feminization of society. Anarcha-feminism began with late 19th and early 20th century authors and theorists such as anarchist feminists Emma Goldman, Voltairine de Cleyre, in the Spanish Civil War, an anarcha-feminist group, Mujeres Libres, linked to the Federación Anarquista Ibérica, organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas. According to this Nietzschean concept of Federica Montsenys, women could realize through art, in China, the anarcho-feminist He Zhen argued that without womens liberation, society could not be liberated. A similar paper with the name was reportedly published later in Montevideo. La Voz de la Mujer described itself as “dedicated to the advancement of Communist Anarchism. ”Its central theme was the multiple natures of women’s oppression. An editorial asserted, “We believe that in society, nothing. Its beliefs can be seen from its attack on marriage and upon male power over women and its contributors, like anarchist feminists elsewhere, developed a concept of oppression that focused on gender. They saw marriage as an institution which restricted women’s freedom
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Green anarchism
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Green anarchism is a school of thought within anarchism which puts a particular emphasis on environmental issues. A green anarchist theory is one that extends anarchist ideology beyond a critique of human interactions. Important early influences were Henry David Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy and Élisée Reclus, in the late 19th century there emerged anarcho-naturism as the fusion of anarchism and naturist philosophies within individualist anarchist circles in France, Spain, Cuba, and Portugal. Anarchism started to have an ecological view mainly in the writings of American anarchist and transcendentalist Henry David Thoreau, in his book Walden he advocates simple living and self-sufficiency among natural surroundings in resistance to the advancement of industrial civilization. The work is part personal declaration of independence, social experiment, voyage of discovery, satire. The book compresses the time into a calendar year and uses passages of four seasons to symbolize human development. By immersing himself in nature, Thoreau hoped to gain a more understanding of society through personal introspection. Simple living and self-sufficiency were Thoreaus other goals, and the project was inspired by transcendentalist philosophy. As Thoreau made clear in his book, his cabin was not in wilderness but at the edge of town, as such Many have seen in Thoreau one of the precursors of ecologism and anarcho-primitivism represented today in John Zerzan. John Zerzan himself included the text Excursions by Thoreau in his compilation of writings called Against civilization, Readings. Élisée Reclus, also known as Jacques Élisée Reclus, was a renowned French geographer, writer and he produced his 19-volume masterwork La Nouvelle Géographie universelle, la terre et les hommes, over a period of nearly 20 years. In 1892 he was awarded the prestigious Gold Medal of the Paris Geographical Society for this work, according to Kirkpatrick Sale, His geographical work, thoroughly researched and unflinchingly scientific, laid out a picture of human-nature interaction that we today would call bioregionalism. Similarly, no contemporary ecologist would disagree with his comments that the truly civilised man understands that his nature is bound up with the interest of all and he repairs the damage caused by his predecessors and works to improve his domain. Reclus advocated nature conservation and opposed meat-eating and cruelty to animals, as a result, his ideas are seen by some historians as anticipating the modern social ecology and animal rights movements. Shortly before his death, Reclus completed LHomme et la terre, in it, he added to his previous greater works by considering humanitys development relative to its geographical environment. Reclus was also a proponent of naturism. In the late 19th century Anarchist naturism appeared as the union of anarchist and naturist philosophies, mainly it had importance within individualist anarchist circles in Spain, France, Portugal, and Cuba. Anarcho-naturism advocated vegetarianism, free love, nudism and a world view within anarchist groups
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Individualist anarchism
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Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict. Benjamin R. Tucker, a famous 19th-century individualist anarchist, held that if the individual has the right to govern himself, Individualist anarchism of different kinds have a few things in common. The concentration on the individual and their will in preference to any construction such as morality, ideology, social custom, religion, metaphysics, the rejection of or reservations about the idea of revolution, seeing it as a time of mass uprising which could bring about new hierarchies. Instead they favor more evolutionary methods of bringing about anarchy through alternative experiences and experiments and this is also because it is not seen as desirable for individuals to wait for revolution to start experiencing alternative experiences outside what is offered in the current social system. In this way, Max Stirner recommended associations of egoists, individual experience and exploration therefore is emphasized. The egoist form of individualist anarchism, derived from the philosophy of Max Stirner, supports the individual doing exactly what he pleases – taking no notice of God, state, or moral rules. To Stirner, rights were spooks in the mind, and he held that society does not exist, Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw associations of egoists drawn together by respect for each others ruthlessness. To the artist who embraces this philosophy it is anarchism, to the reformer, ethical anarchism. The former is concerned with philosophy, the latter with practical demonstration, the economic anarchist is concerned with constructing a society on the basis of anarchism. Economically he sees no harm whatever in the possession of what the individual produces by his own labor. The non-capitalist nature of the early U. S. can be seen from the dominance of self-employment. At the beginning of the 19th century, around 80% of the male population were self-employed. The great majority of Americans during this time were working their own land. And so Individualist anarchism is clearly a form of artisanal socialism, while communist anarchism and anarcho-syndicalism are forms of industrial socialism. And so a European tendency of individualist anarchism advocated violent individual acts of individual reclamation, propaganda by the deed, such individualist anarchist tendencies include French illegalism and Italian anti-organizational insurrectionarism. In France, Spain, and the United States, individualistic anarchists committed acts of terrorism that gave anarchism its reputation as a sinister conspiracy. Another important tendency within individualist anarchist currents emphasizes individual subjective exploration, Individualist anarchist philosophy attracted amongst artists, intellectuals and the well-read, urban middle classes in general. As a credo, individualist anarchism remained largely a bohemian lifestyle, most conspicuous in its demands for freedom and enamored of innovations in art, behavior
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Insurrectionary anarchism
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Insurrectionary anarchism is a revolutionary theory, practice, and tendency within the anarchist movement that emphasizes insurrection within anarchist practice. It is critical of organizations such as labor unions and federations that are based on a political programme. Instead, insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organization and small affinity group based organization, insurrectionary anarchists put value in attack, permanent class conflict, and a refusal to negotiate or compromise with class enemies. Contemporary insurrectionary anarchism inherits the views and tactics of anti-organizational anarcho-communism and illegalism, platformist anarchist Joe Black says that There is a long tradition within anarchism of constructing ideologies out of a tactic. The long and deep involvement of anarchists in insurrections has, not surprisingly, an influential individualist concept of insurrection appears in the book of Max Stirner The Ego and Its Own from 1845. There he manifests, Mikhail Bakunin was historically important to the development of an anarchism that focused its force in insurrection, and since Bakunins time insurrectionary anarchists have been concentrated in Southern Europe. So between 1880 and 1890 with the perspective of an immanent revolution, who was opposed to the workers movement. They were opposed not only to political struggles but also to strikes which put forward wage or other claims, but While they were not opposed to strikes as such, they were opposed to trade unions and the struggle for the eight-hour day. From 1905 onwards, the Russian counterparts of these anti-syndicalist anarchist-communists become partisans of economic terrorism, moreover, they were clearly meant to be exemplary, invitations to revolt. Such acts of rebellion, which could be individual were in the long run seen as act of rebellion, proponents and activists of these tactics among others included Johann Most, Luigi Galleani, Victor Serge, and Severino Di Giovanni. The Italian Giuseppe Ciancabilla wrote in Against organization that we dont want tactical programs and we dont form fixed programs and we dont form small or great parties. Nevertheless, he also says We do not oppose the organizers and they will continue, if they like, in their tactic. If, as I think, it not do any great good. But it seems to me that they have writhed throwing their cry of alarm, a resurgence of such ideas for Joe Black happened in the peculiar conditions of post war Italy and Greece. Towards the end of World War II there was a possibility of revolution in both countries. Greece was to suffer decades of military dictatorship while in Italy the Communist Party continued to hold back struggles, insurrectionalism was one of a number of new socialist ideologies which arose to address these particular circumstances. In Italy a tendency that did not identify either with the more classical Italian Anarchist Federation or with the platformist inclined started to emerge as local groups and these groups emphasized direct action, informal affinity groups and expropriation for financing anarchist activity. From within these groups the influential Italian insurrectionary anarchist Alfredo Maria Bonanno will emerge influenced by the practice of the Spanish exiled anarchist Josep Lluís i Facerias, the anarchist magazine Demolition Derby in Montreal also covered some insurrectionary anarchist news back in the day
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Left-wing market anarchism
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Those left-libertarians who support private property do so under the condition that recompense is offered to the local community. Warren was a follower of Robert Owen and joined Owens community at New Harmony, josiah Warren termed the phrase Cost the limit of price, with cost here referring not to monetary price paid but the labor one exerted to produce an item. Therefore, he proposed a system to pay people with certificates indicating how many hours of work they did and they could exchange the notes at local time stores for goods that took the same amount of time to produce. He put his theories to the test by establishing an experimental labor for labor store called the Cincinnati Time Store where trade was facilitated by notes backed by a promise to perform labor. The store proved successful and operated for three years after which it was closed so that Warren could pursue establishing colonies based on mutualism and these included Utopia and Modern Times. Warren said that Stephen Pearl Andrews The Science of Society, published in 1852, was the most lucid, Mutualism began in 18th-century English and French labour movements before taking an anarchist form associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the United States. It is important to recognize that Proudhon distinguished between ideal political possibilities and practical governance, Mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation, and credit and currency reform. Mutualism has been characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. Proudhon first characterised his goal as a form of society. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was a French activist and theorist, the founder of Mutualist philosophy, an economist and he was the first person to declare himself an anarchist and is among its most influential theorists. He is considered by many to be the father of anarchism and he became a member of the French Parliament after the revolution of 1848, whereupon and thereafter he referred to himself as a federalist. Proudhon, who was born in Besançon, was a printer who taught himself Latin in order to print books in the language. His best-known assertion is that Property is Theft. contained in his first major work, or, an Inquiry into the Principle of Right and Government, published in 1840. The books publication attracted the attention of the French authorities and it also attracted the scrutiny of Karl Marx, who started a correspondence with its author. The two influenced each other, they met in Paris while Marx was exiled there and their friendship finally ended when Marx responded to Proudhons The System of Economic Contradictions, or The Philosophy of Poverty with the provocatively titled The Poverty of Philosophy. The dispute became one of the sources of the split between the anarchist and Marxian wings of the International Working Mens Association, Proudhon favored workers associations or co-operatives as well as individual worker/peasant possession over private ownership or the nationalization of land and workplaces. He considered social revolution to be achievable in a peaceful manner and he unsuccessfully tried to create a national bank to be funded by what became an abortive attempt at an income tax on capitalists and shareholders. Similar in some respects to a union, it would have given interest-free loans
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Magonism
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Magonism is an anarchist, or more precisely anarcho-communist, school of thought precursor of the Mexican Revolution of 1910. The same Ricardo Flores Magón affirmed, Liberal Party members are not magonistas, in his literary work Verdugos y Víctimas, one of the characters responds indignantly when he was arrested and judged, Im not a magonist, I am an anarchist. They were also influenced by the works of Marx, Gorky, fernando Palomares, a Mayo indigenous, was one of the most active members of the Liberal Party who took part in the Cananea strike and libertarian campaign of 1911 in Mexicali and Tijuana. In the post-revolutionary Mexico, the figures of Flores Magón brothers was recollected by governments, also the magonistas considered not fighting to change the administrators of the state, but to abolish them. For this reason, the survived magonistas continued to spread anarchist propaganda, the Mexican Anarchist Federation, founded in 1941 and active for about 40 years, edited the newspaper Regeneración and spread magonist thought. In the 1980s the magonism survived among some youth anarcho-punk groups, in 1994, when the Zapatista Army of National Liberation took up arms in Chiapas, claimed the ideas of the Flores Magón brothers. In the popular uprising of Oaxaca of 2006, took part organizations, rubén Trejo, Magonismo, utopía y revolución, 1910-1913. 2005, Cultura Libre - ISBN 970-9815-00-8 M. Ballesteros, J. C, maldonado, Magonismo y Movimiento Indígena en México. 2003, Ce-Acatl AC An overview about the magonism Ricardo Flores Magón Archive
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Mutualism (economic theory)
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Integral to the scheme is the establishment of a mutual-credit bank that would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate, just high enough to cover administration. Mutualism originated from the writings of philosopher Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, mutualists oppose the idea of individuals receiving an income through loans, investments, and rent, as they believe these individuals are not laboring. Though Proudhon opposed this type of income, he expressed that he had never intended. to forbid or suppress, by decree, ground rent. Insofar as they ensure the right to the full product of their labor, mutualists support markets. However, they argue for conditional titles to land, whose ownership is only so long as it remains in use or occupation, thus advocating personal property. Although mutualism is similar to the doctrines of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists, unlike them. Proudhon himself described the liberty he pursued as the synthesis of communism, Mutualism, as a term, has seen a variety of related uses. Charles Fourier first used the French term mutualisme in 1822, although the reference was not to an economic system, the first use of the noun mutualist was in the New-Harmony Gazette by an American Owenite in 1826. In the early 1830s, a organization in Lyons, France. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon was involved with the Lyons mutualists and later adopted the name to describe his own teachings. Clarence Lee Swartz gives his own account of the origin of the term, claiming that he word mutualism seems to have been first used by John Gray,1826 also saw the publication of the Constitution of the Friendly Association for Mutual Interests at Kendal, Ohio. By 1846, Proudhon was speaking of mutualité in his writings, Greene, in 1850, used the term mutualism to describe a mutual credit system similar to that of Proudhon. During the Second French Republic, Proudhon had his biggest public effect through his involvement with four newspapers, Le Représentant du Peuple, Le Peuple, La Voix du Peuple, Le Peuple de 1850. His polemical writing style, combined with his perception of himself as an outsider, produced a cynical, combative journalism that appealed to many French workers. He repeatedly criticised the policies and promoted reformation of credit. He tried to establish a popular early in 1849, but despite over 13,000 people signing up, receipts were limited falling short of 18, 000FF. Proudhon ran for the constituent assembly in April 1848, but was not elected, although his name appeared on the ballots in Paris, Lyon, Besançon, the workshops were to give work to the unemployed. Proudhon was never enthusiastic about such workshops, perceiving them to be essentially charitable institutions that did not resolve the problems of the economic system and he was against their elimination unless an alternative could be found for the workers who relied on the workshops for subsistence
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Anarcho-naturism
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Anarcho-naturism appeared in the late 19th century as the union of anarchist and naturist philosophies. In many of the communities established in Britain in the early 1900s nudism, anarchism, vegetarianism. In the 1920s the inhabitants of the anarchist community at Whiteway, near Stroud in Gloucestershire, mainly it had importance within individualist anarchist circles in Spain, France, Portugal, and Cuba. Anarcho-naturism advocates vegetarianism, free love, nudism, hiking and a world view within anarchist groups. Anarcho-naturism also promotes an ecological worldview, small ecovillages, and most prominently nudism as a way to avoid the artificiality of the mass society of modernity. Naturist individualist anarchists see the individual in their biological, physical and psychological aspects, an important early influence on anarchist naturism was the thought of Henry David Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy and Elisee Reclus. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher and his thought is an early influence on green anarchism, but with an emphasis on the individual experience of the natural world, influencing later naturist currents. Simple living as a rejection of a materialist lifestyle and self-sufficiency were Thoreaus goals, many have seen in Thoreau one of the precursors of ecologism and anarcho-primitivism represented today in John Zerzan. John Zerzan himself included the text Excursions by Thoreau in his compilation of anti-civilization writings called Against civilization, Readings. Their ideas were important in individualist anarchist circles in France as well as Spain, Zisly vividly criticized progress and civilization, which he regarded as absurd, ignoble, and filthy. She described the tragic bandits of the Bonnot gang as refusing to eat meat or drink wine and her humorous comments reflected the practices of the naturist wing of individualist anarchists who favored a simpler, more natural lifestyle centered on a vegetarian diet. In the 1920s, this wing was expressed by the journal Le Néo-Naturien, contributors condemned the fashion of smoking cigarettes, especially by young women, a long article of 1927 actually connected cigarette smoking with cancer. Others distinguished between vegetarians, who foreswore the eating of meat, from the stricter vegetalians, who ate nothing, an anarchist named G. Butaud, who made this distinction, opened a restaurant called the Foyer Végétalien in the nineteenth arrondissement in 1923. Other issues of the journal included vegetarian recipes, nutritional concerns coincided with other means of encouraging health bodies, such as nudism and gymnastics. This back-to-nature, primitivist current was not a monopoly of the left, in France, however, these proclivities were mostly associated with anarchists, insofar as they suggested an ideal of self-control and the rejection of social taboos and prejudices. Henri Zisly was a French individualist anarchist and naturist and he participated alongside Henri Beylie and Émile Gravelle in many journals such as La Nouvelle Humanité and La Vie Naturelle, which promoted anarchist-naturism. In 1902, he was one of the initiators, alongside Georges Butaud and Sophie Zaïkowska, of the cooperative Colonie de Vaux established in Essômes-sur-Marne. Zisly vividly criticized progress and civilization, which he regarded as absurd, ignoble, puente was a doctor who approached his medical practice from a naturist point of view
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Anarcho-pacifism
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Anarcho-pacifism is a tendency within anarchism that rejects the use of violence in the struggle for social change and the abolition of the state. The main early influences were the thought of Henry David Thoreau, Henry David Thoreau was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreaus essay Civil Disobedience was named as an influence by Mohandas Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr. Martin Buber, according to the Peace Pledge Union of Britain, it was also the main precedent for anarcho-pacifism. Thoreau himself did not subscribe to pacifism, and did not reject the use of armed revolt. He demonstrated this with his support for John Brown and other violent abolitionists, writing of Brown that The question is not about the weapon. At some point anarcho-pacifism had as its main proponent Christian anarchism, the Tolstoyan movement in Russia was the first large-scale anarcho-pacifist movement. The movements adherents were active throughout Russia and followed a vegetarian diet, because of their refusal to recognize the authority of the Tsarist state they were targeted for severe repression and many were killed outright or relocated to Siberia. Most of them were killed in the purges under Lenin and Stalin, Violence has always been controversial in anarchism. While many anarchists embraced violent propaganda of the deed during the nineteenth century, ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis was also instrumental in establishing the pacifist trend within the anarchist movement. The Ligue antimilitariste was to become the French section of the Association internationale antimilitariste founded in Amsterdam in 1904, tolstoys philosophy was cited as a major inspiration by Mohandas Gandhi, an Indian independence leader and pacifist who self-identified as an anarchist. Gandhis ideas were popularised in the West in books such as Richard Greggs The Power of Nonviolence, the latter is particularly important for anarchists since, as one himself, de Ligt specifically addressed those who lust for revolution. The more violence, the revolution, he declared. He also linked Gandhian principled nonviolence with the nonviolent direct action of the syndicalists. The Conquest of Violence alludes to Kropotkins The Conquest of Bread, the American writer Dwight Macdonald endorsed anarcho-pacifist views in the 1940s and used his journal politics to promote these ideas. A leading British anarcho-pacifist was Alex Comfort who considered himself an aggressive anti-militarist and he was an active member of CND. Among the works on anarchism by Comfort is Peace and Disobedience, one of many pamphlets he wrote for Peace News and the Peace Pledge Union and he exchanged public correspondence with George Orwell defending pacifism in the open letter/poem Letter to an American Visitor under the pseudonym Obadiah Hornbrooke. In the 1950s and 1960s anarcho-pacifism began to gel, tough-minded anarchists adding to the mixture their critique of the state, other notable anarcho-pacifist historical figures include Ammon Hennacy, Dorothy Day and, for a brief period between 1939 and 1940, Jean-Paul Sartre. Dorothy Day, was an American journalist, social activist and devout Catholic convert and she was also considered to be an anarchist, and did not hesitate to use the term
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Post-left anarchy
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Post-left anarchy is a recent current in anarchist thought that promotes a critique of anarchisms relationship to traditional leftism. Some post-leftists seek to escape the confines of ideology in general also presenting a critique of organizations, influenced by the work of Max Stirner and by the Situationist International, post-left anarchy is marked by a focus on social insurrection and a rejection of leftist social organisation. Post-leftists argue that the left, even the left, is anachronistic. The book Anarchy in the Age of Dinosaurs, for example, criticizes traditional leftist ideas, essay Your Politics Are Boring as Fuck is another critique of leftist movements, Why has the oppressed proletariat not come to its senses and joined you in your fight for world liberation. Individual writers associated with the tendency are Hakim Bey, Bob Black, John Zerzan, Jason McQuinn, Paul Z. Simons, Fredy Perlman, Lawrence Jarach, in such organizations, he says, more than a few people wise up to the con game and reject it. For him there are four results of such structures, Reductionism, other aspects are ignored, invalidated or repressed, leading to further and further compartmentalization of the struggle. Which in turn facilitates manipulation by elites and their transformation into purely reformist lobbying societies with all generalized. Substitutionism where The formal organization increasingly becomes the focus of strategy, ideology where The organization becomes the primary subject of theory with individuals assigned roles to play, rather than people constructing their own self-theories. Wherever sovereignty lies, there lies political authority, if sovereignty is not dissolved into each, post-left anarchy adheres to a critique of ideology that dates from the work of Max Stirner. For Jason McQuinn All ideology in essence involves the substitution of alien concepts or images for human subjectivity, ideologies are systems of false consciousness in which people no longer see themselves directly as subjects in their relation to their world. Instead they conceive of themselves in some manner as subordinate to one type or another of abstract entity or entities which are mistaken as the subjects or actors in their world. Morality is also a target of post-left anarchy just as it was in Stirner, living up to morality means sacrificing certain desires and temptations in favor of the rewards of virtue. So Rejecting Morality involves constructing a theory of ones self. Post-left anarchy tends to criticize what it sees as the partial victimizing views of identity politics, Feral Faun thus writes in The ideology of victimization that theres a feminist version of the ideology of victimization—an ideology which promotes fear, individual weakness. But in the end Like all ideologies, the varieties of the ideology of victimization are forms of fake consciousness. Accepting the social role of victim—in whatever one of its many forms—is choosing to not even create ones life for oneself or to explore ones real relationships to the social structures. All of the partial liberation movements—feminism, gay liberation, racial liberation, workers movements, the liberation of a social role to which the individual remains subject. The issues of work, the division of labor and the refusal of work has been an important issue in post-left anarchy
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Anarcho-primitivism
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Anarcho-primitivism is an anarchist critique of the origins and progress of civilization. According to anarcho-primitivism, the shift from hunter-gatherer to agricultural subsistence gave rise to social stratification, coercion, alienation, many traditional anarchists reject the critique of civilization while some, such as Wolfi Landstreicher, endorse the critique but do not consider themselves anarcho-primitivists. Anarcho-primitivists are often distinguished by their focus on the praxis of achieving a state of being through rewilding. Anarchism started to have an ecological view mainly in the writings of Henry David Thoreau, in his book Walden, he advocates simple living and self-sufficiency among natural surroundings in resistance to the advancement of industrial civilization. Many have seen in Thoreau one of the precursors of ecologism and anarcho-primitivism represented today by John Zerzan, Zerzan himself included the text Excursions by Thoreau in his edited compilation of anti-civilization writings called Against Civilization, Readings and Reflections from 1999. In the late 19th century, anarchist naturism appeared as the union of anarchist and naturist philosophies and it mainly was important within individualist anarchist circles in Spain, France and Portugal. Important influences in it were Henry David Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy, anarcho-naturism advocated vegetarianism, free love, nudism and an ecological world view within anarchist groups and outside them. Anarcho-naturism promoted an ecological worldview, small ecovillages, and most prominently nudism as a way to avoid the artificiality of the mass society of modernity. Naturist individualist anarchists saw the individual in his biological, physical and psychological aspects and this tendency was strong enough as to call the attention of the CNT–FAI in Spain. Daniel Guérin, in Anarchism, From Theory to Practice, reports how Spanish anarcho-syndicalism had long been concerned to safeguard the autonomy of what it called affinity groups, there were many adepts of naturism and vegetarianism among its members, especially among the poor peasants of the south. Both these ways of living were considered suitable for the transformation of the human being in preparation for a stateless society, at the Zaragoza congress, the members did not forget to consider the fate of groups of naturists and nudists, unsuited to industrialization. On the eve of a vast, bloody, social transformation, primitivists, however, extend ideas of non-domination to all life, not just human life, going beyond the traditional anarchists analysis. From by anthropologists, primitivists look at the origins of civilization so as to understand what they are up against, inspired by the Luddites, primitivists rekindle an anti-technological orientation. Insurrectionalists do not believe in waiting for critiques to be fine-tuned, primitivists may owe much to the Situationists and their critique of the ideas in The Society of the Spectacle and alienation from a commodity-based society. Bioregionalists bring the perspective of living within ones bioregion, and being connected to the land, water, climate, plants, animals. Some primitivists have been influenced by the indigenous cultures. Primitivists attempt to learn and incorporate sustainable techniques for survival and healthier ways of interacting with life, some are also inspired by the feral subculture, where people abandon domestication and have re-integrate themselves with the wild. Some anarcho-primitivists state that prior to the advent of agriculture, humans lived in small, nomadic bands which were socially, politically, being without hierarchy, these bands are sometimes viewed as embodying a form of anarchism
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Social anarchism
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Social anarchism is a non-state form of socialism and is considered to be the branch of anarchism which sees individual freedom as being dependent upon mutual aid. Social anarchist thought emphasizes community and social equality as complementary to autonomy, social anarchists advocate the conversion of present-day private property into social property or the commons, while retaining respect for personal property. The term social anarchism is used interchangeably with libertarian socialism, left-libertarianism. It emerged in the late 19th century as a distinction from individualist anarchism, mutualists typically accept property rights, but with brief abandonment time periods. A mutualist property regime is described as one rooted in possession, occupancy-and-use. Collectivist anarchism is a form of anarchism, commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin. It is a tendency, not to be confused with the broad category sometimes called collectivist or communitarian anarchism. Unlike mutualists, collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production and this position was criticised by later anarcho-communists as effectively uphold the wages system. Collectivist anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism but opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat, anarchist communism is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, markets, money, capitalism and private property. Economically, anarchist communists believe in converting private property into the commons or public goods, Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society. Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French revolution, the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and insurrectionary anti-organizationalist sections. To date, the best known examples of an anarchist communist society, are the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution, in the early 20th century, anarcho-syndicalism arose as a distinct strategic school of thought within anarchism. Like anarchist-communists, anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the system and private ownership of the means of production. Important principles include workers solidarity, direct action, and workers self-management of enterprises, in terms of post-capitalist vision, anarcho-syndicalists most often subscribe to communist or collectivist anarchist economic systems on the issue of distributing goods. However, anarcho-syndicalists differ from anarcho-communists on wanting federations of workers syndicates as the locus of organising the economy and its advocates propose labour organization as a means to create the foundations of a trade union centered anarchist society within the current system and bring about social revolution. An early leading anarcho-syndicalist thinker was Rudolf Rocker, whose 1938 pamphlet Anarchosyndicalism outlined a view of the origin, aims. Platformism is a tendency within the anarchist movement and it stresses the need for tightly organized anarchist organizations, that are able to influence working class and peasant movements. It is in many ways identical to especifismo, and has an antecedent in the work of Mikhail Bakunin, Platformist groups reject the model of Leninist vanguardism
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Anarcho-syndicalism
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The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are solidarity, direct action and direct democracy, or workers self-management. The end goal of anarcho-syndicalism is to abolish the wage system, Anarcho-syndicalist theory therefore generally focuses on the labour movement. Reflecting the anarchist philosophy from which it draws its primary inspiration, hubert Lagardelle wrote that Pierre-Joseph Proudhon laid out fundamental ideas of anarcho-syndicalism, and repudiated both capitalism and the state in the process. He viewed free economic groups and struggle, not pacifism as dominant in humans, the CNT started small, counting 26,571 members represented through several trade unions and other confederations. In 1911, coinciding with its first congress, the CNT initiated a strike that provoked a Barcelona judge to declare the union illegal until 1914. That same year of 1911, the union officially received its name. From 1918 on the CNT grew stronger, the CNT had an outstanding role in the events of the La Canadiense general strike, which paralyzed 70% of industry in Catalonia in 1919, the year the CNT reached a membership of 700,000. Around that time, panic spread among employers, giving rise to the practice of pistolerismo and these pistoleros are credited with killing 21 union leaders in 48 hours. In 1922 the International Workers Association was founded in Berlin, the CNT joined immediately, however, the following year, with the rise of Miguel Primo de Riveras dictatorship, the labor union was outlawed, once again. The first secretaries of the International included the writer and activist Rudolph Rocker, along with Augustin Souchy. Following the first congress, other groups affiliated from France, Austria, Denmark, Belgium, Switzerland, Bulgaria, Poland and Romania. Later, a bloc of unions in the USA, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Guatemala, Cuba, Costa Rica and El Salvador also shared the IWAs statutes. The biggest syndicalist union in the USA, the IWW, considered joining but eventually ruled out affiliation in 1936, citing the IWAs policies on religious and political affiliation. The Industrial Workers of the World, although not anarcho-syndicalist, were informed by developments in the revolutionary syndicalist milieu at the turn of the 20th century. Although the terms anarcho-syndicalism and revolutionary syndicalism are often used interchangeably, the Biennio Rosso was a two-year period, between 1919 and 1920, of intense social conflict in Italy, following the first world war. The Biennio Rosso took place in a context of crisis at the end of the war, with high unemployment. It was characterized by strikes, worker manifestations as well as self-management experiments through land. In Turin and Milan, workers councils were formed and many factory occupations took place under the leadership of anarcho-syndicalists, the agitations also extended to the agricultural areas of the Padan plain and were accompanied by peasant strikes, rural unrests and guerilla conflicts between left-wing and right-wing militias
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Synthesis anarchism
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It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global International of Anarchist Federations. Regardless, to these anarchists the economic preferences are considered to be of importance to abolishing all coercive authority. This conflict soon spread outside of Spain and the discussion found its way into the pages of La Revolte in Paris. This provoked many anarchists to agree with Errico Malatestas argument that t is not right for us, to say the least, Volin was a prolific writer and anarchist intellectual who played an important part in the organization and leadership of Nabat. The Nabat Confederation of Anarchist Organizations, better known simply as Nabat, was an anarchist organization that came to prominence in Ukraine during the years 1918 to 1920. The area where it held the most influence is sometimes referred to as the Free Territory, the uniform platform for Nabat was never truly decided upon, but Volin used what he had written and the inspiration from Nabat to create his Anarchist Synthesis. Voline along with Molly Steimer, Fleshin, and others wrote a reply stating that to To maintain that anarchism is only a theory of classes is to limit it to a single viewpoint, Anarchism is more complex and pluralistic, like life itself. Its class element is above all its means of fighting for liberation, its character is its ethical aspect. Two texts made as responses to the Platform, each proposing a different organizational model, became the basis for what is known as the organisation of synthesis, or simply synthesism. Voline published in 1924 a paper calling for the anarchist synthesis and was also the author of the article in Sébastian Faures Encyclopedie Anarchiste on the same topic, the platformists wanted to push their ideas forward through organizing an international anarchist congress on February 12,1927. In Italy, the synthesis anarchism federation Unione Anarchica Italiana emerged from the Unione Comunista Anarchica Italiana in 1920, the Unione Anarchica Italiana emerged just after the biennio rosso events and lasted until 1929 when it was banned by the Fascist regime. The Programma Anarchico of the Unione Anarchica Italiana was written by Errico Malatesta, the Dielo Truda platform in Spain also met with strong criticism. The main goal there was conciling anarcho-communism with anarcho-syndicalism, J. Elizalde was a founding member and first secretary of the Iberian Anarchist Federation as well as a prominent local individualist anarchist. In 1945, the synthesist Italian Anarchist Federation was founded in Carrara, in it the individualist anarchist Cesare Zaccaria played an important role in conciling conflicting factions. The Italian FAI adopted an Associative Pact and the Anarchist Program of Errico Malatesta, the Fédération Anarchiste was founded in Paris, France on December 2,1945. These organizations were inspired on synthesist principles. Anarchist Synthesis by Volin Sébastien Faure, the Anarchist Synthesis Synthesis Anarchism / Anarchism Without Adjectives (an archive with texts related to synthesis anarchism as well as anarchism without adjectives
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Anarchism and animal rights
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The anarchist philosophical and political movement has some connections to elements of the animal liberation movement. Many anarchists are vegetarian or vegan and have played a role in combating perceived injustices against animals and they usually describe the struggle for the liberation of non-human animals as a natural outgrowth of the struggle for human freedom. Leo Tolstoy was a vegetarian, pacifist and Christian anarchist, and to act so is immoral. Veganarchism is the philosophy of veganism and anarchism, creating a combined praxis as a means for social revolution. This encompasses viewing the state as unnecessary and harmful to animals, veganarchists either see the ideology as a combined theory, or perceive both philosophies to be essentially the same. It is further described as an anti-speciesist perspective on green anarchism, the term was popularised in 1995 with Brian A. Dominicks pamphlet Animal Liberation and Social Revolution, described as a vegan perspective on anarchism or an anarchist perspective on veganism. The 18-page pamphlet explains how many young anarchists in the 1990s had been adopting deep ecological mindsets as part of a green anarchist political philosophy. Similarly animal liberationists were becoming increasingly influenced by anarchist thought and traditions, thus becoming veganarchists, direct action, an important philosophical component of anarchism, is also common within the animal rights movement. Activists using names such as Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty and Animal Liberation Front use direct action techniques, including animal liberation, violence, industries targeted include, meat, dairy, animal testing, fur, other animal based industries, private citizens and government institutions. Frequently, in the case of Animal Rights Militia, Animal Liberation Brigade, the allegedly decentralized and leaderless structure of the Animal Liberation Front could be seen as an example of anarchistic organizing, acting in autonomous, covert cells. Rod Coronado is an eco-anarchist and is a spokesperson for the Animal Liberation Front. Green anarchist Tre Arrow was sought by the FBI in connection with an ELF arson on April 15,2001 at Ross Island Sand and Gravel in Portland, torching three trucks amounting of $200,000 in damage. Another arson occurred a month later at Ray Schoppert Logging Company in Estacada, Oregon, on June 1,2001 against logging trucks, Arrow was indicted by a federal grand jury in Oregon and charged with four felonies for this crime on October 18,2002. On March 13,2004, after fleeing to British Columbia and he was then sentenced on August 12,2008 to 78 months in federal prison for his part in the arson and conspiracy ELF attacks in 2001. In January 2006, Eric McDavid, a green anarchist, was convicted of conspiring to use fire or explosives to damage corporate, on March 8, he formally declared a hunger strike due to the jail refusing to provide him with vegan food. He has been given vegan food off and on since, in September 2007, he was convicted on all counts after the two activists he conspired with pleaded guilty testified against him. An FBI confidential source named Anna was revealed as a fourth participant, in May 2008, he was sentenced to nearly 20 years in prison. In September 2006, the SHAC7 received jail sentences of 3 to 6 years, in January 2009, veganarchist Daniel Wadham was sentenced to 5 years, along with others six campaigners from SHAC UK who were sentenced to between 4 and 11 years
38.
Anarchism without adjectives
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Was simply understood as an attitude that tolerated the coexistence of different anarchist schools. In the 1920s synthesis anarchism emerged as a form of anarchist organizations based on anarchism-without-adjectives principles, the theoretical perspective known as anarquismo sin adjetivos was one of the by-products of an intense debate within the movement of anarchism itself. The roots of the argument can be found in the development of anarcho-communism after Bakunins death in 1876, while not entirely dissimilar to collectivist anarchism, Communist Anarchists developed, deepened and enriched Bakunins work just as Bakunin had developed, deepened and enriched Proudhons. Communist Anarchism was associated with anarchists as Élisée Reclus, Carlo Cafiero, Errico Malatesta. Anarcho-communist ideas replaced Collectivist Anarchism as the main anarchist tendency in Europe, here the major issue was not the question of communism but a question of the modification of strategy and tactics implied by Communist Anarchism. At this time, the anarcho-communists stressed local cells of anarchist militants, unsurprisingly, such a change in strategy and tactics came in for a lot of discussion from the Spanish Collectivists who strongly supported working class organisation and struggle. This debate soon spread outside of Spain and the discussion found its way into the pages of La Revolte in Paris and this provoked many anarchists to agree with Malatestas argument that t is not right for us, to say the least, to fall into strife over mere hypotheses. Similarly, in the United States, there was a debate at the same time between individualist and communist anarchists. Historically, anarchists who embraced anarchist without adjectives objected to capitalism, fernando Tarrida del Mármols original use of the term was a call for tolerance amongst collectivist and communist anarchists, all of whom rejected capitalism. Voltairine de Cleyre, when commenting on the McKinley assassination wrote, the hells of capitalism create the desperate, synthesis anarchism is a form of anarchist organization which tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of anarchism without adjectives. Voline along with Molly Steimer, Fleshin, and others wrote a reply stating that to To maintain that anarchism is only a theory of classes is to limit it to a single viewpoint, Anarchism is more complex and pluralistic, like life itself. Its class element is above all its means of fighting for liberation, its character is its ethical aspect. Two texts made as responses to the Platform, each proposing a different organizational model, became the basis for what is known as the organisation of synthesis, or simply synthesism. Voline published in 1924 a paper calling for the anarchist synthesis and was also the author of the article in Sébastien Faures Encyclopedie Anarchiste on the same topic and these organizations were also inspired on synthesist principles. Anarchism without adjectives tends to imply as far as economics a coexistence of economic models from mutualism/individualist anarchism, french anarchist without adjectives Max Nettlau addressed the issue of the coexistence of different economic systems as follows, Let me imagine myself for a moment living in a free society. I should certainly have different occupations, manual and mental, requiring strength or skill, but might I not become tired of this, and wish for a spell of relative isolation, of Individualism. So I might turn to one of the possible forms of equal exchange Individualism. Perhaps people will do one thing when they are young and another thing when they grow older, I also think that at the beginning I should adopt Communism with friends and Individualism with strangers, and shape my future life according to experience. Anarchism, Communist or Individualist
39.
Anarchy
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Anarchy is the condition of a society, entity, group of people, or a single person that rejects hierarchy. The term originally meant leaderlessness, but in 1840, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon adopted the term in his treatise What Is Property, to refer to a new political philosophy, anarchism, which advocates stateless societies based on voluntary associations. In practical terms, anarchy can refer to the curtailment or abolition of traditional forms of government and it could also mean a nation or anywhere on earth that is inhabited, that has no system of government or central rule. The word anarchy comes from the ancient Greek ἀναρχία, which combines ἀ, not, without and ἀρχή, ruler, leader, thus, the term refers to a person or society without rulers or without leaders. The German philosopher Immanuel Kant treated anarchy in his Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View as consisting of Law and Freedom without Force. Thus, for Kant, anarchy falls short of being a civil state because the law is only an empty recommendation if force is not included to make this law efficacious. For there to be such a state, force must be included while law and freedom are maintained, Kant identified four kinds of government, Law and freedom without force. Anarchism is a philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, or harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. There are many types and traditions of anarchism, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have been divided into the categories of social, some individualist anarchists are also socialists or communists while some anarcho-communists are also individualists or egoists. Anarchism as a movement has regularly endured fluctuations in popularity. Since the 1890s, the term libertarianism has been used as a synonym for anarchism and was used almost exclusively in this sense until the 1950s in the United States, right-libertarians are divided into minarchists and anarcho-capitalists or voluntarists. Outside the English-speaking world, libertarianism generally retains its association with left-wing anarchism, many of these societies can be considered to be anarchic in the sense that they explicitly reject the idea of centralized political authority. The egalitarianism typical of human hunter-gatherers is interesting when viewed in an evolutionary context, one of humanitys two closest primate relatives, the chimpanzee, is anything but egalitarian, forming hierarchies that are dominated by alpha males. In Society Against the State Pierre Clastres examines stateless societies where cultural practices and attitudes avert the development of hierarchy. He dismisses the notion that the state is the outcome of the evolution of human societies
40.
Anarchist Black Cross
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Black Flag was founded by Albert Meltzer and Stuart Christie in 1970, with the name of the periodical being drawn from the traditional anarchist symbol dating back to the 1880s. It has gone through several changes between magazine and newspaper, including a period in which it concentrated on investigative journalism. In more recent times, it has evolved into a periodical for the anarchist movement in the UK. The magazine was suspended as a going operation in 2006 while its future. A new edition came out in time for the London Anarchist Bookfair for 2007, featuring a new look, since 2008, Black Flag has remained a bi-annual 40 page magazine, publishing a May Day edition and one timed for the London Anarchist Bookfair. Alongside regular features from An Anarchist FAQ author Iain McKay, Freedom international editor Rob Ray, the magazine collective has good relations with the majority of Britains largest anarchist groups, having featured articles from members of the Solidarity Federation, No Border network and others. Historically, there have been other Black Flag periodicals published by anarchists, a French anarchist paper was published under the name Le Drapeau Noir from August 1883 for 17 issues before being suppressed by the French state. The Japanese anarchist group Black Youth League started publishing a journal named Kurohata in 1945, anarchism in the United Kingdom Black Cross Black Flag text archive online in the libcom. org library Official Website
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Booknotes interview with Eric Rauchway on Murdering McKinley, September 21, 2003, C-SPAN