1.
Baku
–
Baku is the capital and largest city of Azerbaijan, as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and of the Caucasus region. Baku is located 28 metres below sea level, which makes it the lowest lying national capital in the world and it is located on the southern shore of the Absheron Peninsula, alongside the Bay of Baku. At the beginning of 2009, Bakus urban population was estimated at just over two million people, officially, about 25 percent of all inhabitants of the country live in Bakus metropolitan area. Baku is divided into administrative districts and 48 townships. Among these are the townships on the islands of the Baku Archipelago, the Inner City of Baku, along with the Shirvanshahs Palace and Maiden Tower, were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000. According to the Lonely Planets ranking, Baku is also among the top ten destinations for urban nightlife. The city is the scientific, cultural and industrial center of Azerbaijan, many sizeable Azerbaijani institutions have their headquarters there. The Baku International Sea Trade Port is capable of handling two million tons of general and dry bulk cargoes per year, in recent years, Baku has become an important venue for international events. The city is renowned for its winds, which is reflected in its nickname. Indeed, the city is renowned for its fierce winter snow storms and this is also reflected in the citys nickname as the City of Winds. A less probable folk etymology explains the name as deriving from Baghkuy, baga and kuy are the Old Persian words for god and town respectively, the name Baghkuy may be compared with Baghdād in which dād is the Old Persian word for give. Arabic sources refer to the city as Baku, Bakukh, Bakuya, around 100,000 years ago, the territory of modern Baku and Absheron was savanna with rich flora and fauna. Traces of human settlement go back to the Stone age, from the Bronze age there have been rock carvings discovered near Bayil, and a bronze figure of a small fish discovered in the territory of the Old City. These have led some to suggest the existence of a Bronze Age settlement within the citys territory, further archeological excavations revealed various prehistoric settlements, native temples, statues and other artifacts within the territory of the modern city and around it. In the 1st century, the Romans organized two Caucasian campaigns and reached Baku, near the city, in Gobustan, Roman inscriptions dating from 84–96 AD were discovered. This is one of the earliest written evidences for Baku, during the 8th century Baku was the realm of the Shirvanshahs. The city frequently came under assault of the Khazars and the Rus, shirvanshah Akhsitan I built a navy in Baku and successfully repelled another Rus assault in 1170. After a devastating earthquake struck Shamakhy, the capital of Shirvan, the Shirvan era greatly influenced Baku and the remainder of Azerbaijan
Baku
–
Roman stone inscription in
Gobustan dating back to 84-96 A.D.
Baku
Baku
–
A
miniature painting marking the downfall of the Shirvanshahs at the hands of the Safavids.
Baku
–
Relics from the sunken
Sabayil Castle.
2.
Baku Governorate
–
Baku Governorate was one of the guberniyas of the Russian Empire, with its centre in Baku. Area,34,4000 sq. verstas, population,789,659, the only foreign border of the governorate was Persia, in the south. Within the empire it bordered with Elisabethpol Governorate and Dagestan Oblast and it belonged to the Caucasus Viceroyalty. The governorate was established in 1846 as Shemakha Governorate, in place of several military precincts, in 1849 Shahur-Daralagoz uzeyd was part of newly founded Erivan Governorate. After the devastating 1859 Shamakhi earthquake it was decided to transfter the capital of the governorate from Shemakha to Baku, on July 12,1859 the governorates name was changed accordingly. The coat of arms of the governorate was instituted on July 5,1878, initially Baku Governorate included Karabakh and Zangezur, which were separated in 1868 to create Elisabethpol Governorate. The governorate was preserved until the establishment of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, Baku Governorate had six uyezds, Baku Kuba Shemakha Geokchai Dzhevat Lenkoran As of 1897,789,659 people populated the governorate, of them 55% were male. Azeris constituted the majority of the population, significant minorities consisted of Russians, Armenians, Lezgins, Tats, Talysh and Jews. The ethnic group composition was notable different as compared to several decades earlier.3 thousand ->, muslims generally lived in the historical center, surrounded by the khans castle in the west of the city. In the industrial zone lived the Armenians - in the north of the city, during the construction of the new city center, various ethnic groups started to live in different districts
Baku Governorate
–
Baku Governorate (English) Бакинская губерния (Modern Russian) Бакинская губернiя (Pre-1918 Russian)
3.
Russian Empire
–
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
Russian Empire
–
Peter the Great officially renamed the Tsardom of Russia the Russian Empire in 1721, and himself its first emperor. He instituted the
sweeping reforms and oversaw the transformation of Russia into a major European power.
Russian Empire
–
Flag
Russian Empire
–
Empress
Catherine the Great, who reigned from 1762 to 1796, continued the empire's expansion and modernization. Considering herself an
enlightened absolutist, she played a key role in the
Russian Enlightenment.
Russian Empire
–
Catherine II Sestroretsk Rouble (1771) is made of solid copper measuring 77 millimetres (3 3 ⁄ 100 in) (diameter), 26 millimetres (1 1 ⁄ 50 in) (thickness), and weighs 1.022 kg (2.25 lb). It is the largest copper coin ever issued.
4.
Moscow
–
Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
Moscow
–
Left to right, top to bottom:
Moscow State University,
Spasskaya Clocktower,
Cathedral of Christ the Saviour;
Bolshoi Theatre,
Moscow International Business Center;
Red Square
Moscow
–
Tatar raid upon Moscow
Moscow
–
Map of Moscow, 1784
Moscow
–
Red Square, painting by
Fedor Alekseev, 1801
5.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
Soviet Union
–
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
Soviet Union
–
Flag
Soviet Union
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
Soviet Union
6.
Novodevichy Cemetery
–
For the cemetery in St. Petersburg, see Novodevichy Cemetery Novodevichy Cemetery is the most famous cemetery in Moscow. It lies next to the wall of the 16th-century Novodevichy Convent. It should not be confused with the Novodevichy Cemetery in Saint Petersburg, the cemetery was designed by Ivan Mashkov and inaugurated in 1898. Its importance dates from the 1930s, when the necropoleis of the medieval Muscovite monasteries were scheduled for demolition, only the Donskoy survived the Joseph Stalin era relatively intact. The remains of many famous Russians buried in other abbeys, such as Nikolai Gogol, a 19th-century necropolis within the walls of the Novodevichy convent, which contained the graves of about 2000 Russian noblemen and university professors, also underwent reconstruction. The vast majority of graves were destroyed and it was at that time that the remains of Anton Chekhov were moved outside the monastery walls. His grave served as the kernel of the cherry orchard - a section of the cemetery which contains the graves of Constantin Stanislavski. Under Soviet rule, burial in the Novodevichy Cemetery was second in only to burial in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis. Among the Soviet leaders, only Nikita Khrushchev was buried at the Novodevichy rather than at the Red Square, since the fall of the Soviet Union, the Kremlin Wall is no longer used for burials and the Novodevichy Cemetery is used for only the most symbolically significant burials. For example, in April 2007, within one week both the first President of the Russian Federation Boris Yeltsin and world-renowned cellist Mstislav Rostropovich were buried there. Today, the cemetery holds the tombs of Russian authors, musicians, playwrights, and poets, as well as actors, political leaders. More than 27,000 are buried at Novodevichy, there is scant space for more burials. A new national cemetery is under construction in Mytishchi north of Moscow, the cemetery has a park-like ambiance, dotted with small chapels and large sculpted monuments. It is divided into the old, new and newest sections, hi-resolution photos Famous and picturesque memorials photographed June 2005 Novodevichii Cemetery – article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia Novodevichy Cemetery, Where History sleeps -VIDEO
Novodevichy Cemetery
–
Cemetery entrance
Novodevichy Cemetery
–
The cemetery wall is used as a
columbarium.
Novodevichy Cemetery
–
Mikhail Bulgakov
Novodevichy Cemetery
–
Anton Chekhov
7.
Baku State University
–
Baku State University is a public university located in Baku, Azerbaijan. The first rector of BSU was V. I. Razumovsky, in 1930, the government ordered the University shut down in accordance with a reorganization of higher education, and the University was replaced with the Supreme Pedagogical Institute. However, in 1934 the University was reestablished again, and continued to work through the years of World War II experiencing a shortage of faculty members. By its 40th anniversary in 1959, the University already had 13 faculties, the Azerbaijan Medical University and Azerbaijan State Economic University were both spun-offs of the original respective faculties at BSU. Among the graduates of BSU were two presidents of Azerbaijan, Abulfaz Elchibey and Heydar Aliyev. The former graduated from the Faculty of Arabic Language and Literature, while the latter, nobel Prize-winning physicist Lev Landau studied at BSU between 1922 and 1924. BSU was established on September 1,1919 by the decision of the Parliament of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, in its first year, the university had two faculties — Faculty of Philology and the Medical Faculty — and an enrollment of 1094 students. Among the leading professors in 1920-40 were Azerbaijani writer Abdurrahim bek Haqverdiyev, during that period the administration of the university invited to Baku such teachers as N. Y. Bartold, the academician of the Eastern Science Academy Fuad bek Kuprulluzade, in 1930 the university was liquidated according to the decision made by Council of the People’s Commissar on reorganization. The High Pedagogical Institute was created, only in 1943 the state university resumed its activity and very soon became the republic’s scientific-pedagogical center. Despite the great shortage of university teachers because most of teachers went to the Second World War, in 1945 the teachers took an active part in founding the Azerbaijan Academy of Science. The years after 1969 can be considered as the years of development in the direction of knowledge, covering a wide historical period, in those years there were founded faculties on modern specialties, departments and about 30 scientific research laboratories started. As a result, there was created a strong assurance of future development
Baku State University
–
Coat of arms of Baku State University in 1919.
Baku State University
–
Baku State University
Baku State University
–
Ceremony conferring on
Dmitry Medvedev an honorary doctorate from Baku State University, September 3, 2010
Baku State University
–
Albania
8.
Saint Petersburg State University
–
Saint Petersburg State University is a Russian federal state-owned higher education institution based in Saint Petersburg. It is the oldest and one of the largest universities in Russia, the university has two primary campuses, one on Vasilievsky Island and the other in Peterhof. During the Soviet period, it was known as Leningrad State University and it was named after Andrei Zhdanov in 1948. Saint Petersburg State University is the second best multi-faculty university in Russia after Moscow State University, the university has a reputation for having educated the majority of Russias political elite, these include presidents Vladimir Putin and Dimitry Medvedev, both of whom studied Law at the university. The university is Russias oldest university, founded in 1724 by Peter the Great, Saint Petersburg state university is included in all ratings and lists of the best universities in the world and is one of the leaders in all indicators in Russia. The university was the first from Russian universities to join The Coimbra Group and it is disputed by the university administration whether Saint Petersburg State University or Moscow State University is the oldest higher education institution in Russia. The Petersburg Pedagogical Institute, renamed the Main Pedagogical Institute in 1814, was established in 1804, in 1823 most of the university moved from the Twelve Collegia to the southern part of the city beyond the Fontanka. In 1824 a modified version of the charter of Moscow University was adopted as the first charter of the Saint Petersburg Imperial University, in 1829 there were 19 full professors and 169 full-time and part-time students at the university. In 1830 Tsar Nicholas returned the building of the Twelve Collegia back to the university. In 1835 a new Charter of the Imperial Universities of Russia was approved, however, Pyotr Pletnyov was reappointed Rector and ultimately became the longest-serving rector of Saint Petersburg University. In 1855 Oriental studies were separated from the Faculty of History and Philology, in 1859–1861 female part-time students could attend lectures in the university. In 1861 there were 1,270 full-time and 167 part-time students in the university, of them 498 were in the Faculty of Law, many Russian, Georgian etc. managers, engineers and scientists studied at the Faculty of law therefore. During 1861–1862 there was student unrest in the university, and it was closed twice during the year. The students were denied freedom of assembly and placed under police surveillance, after the unrest, in 1865, only 524 students remained. A decree of the Emperor Alexander II of Russia adopted on 18 February 1863 restored the right of the university assembly to elect the rector and it also formed the new faculty of the theory and history of art as part of the faculty of history and philology. In March 1869, student unrest shook the university again but on a smaller scale, by 1869,2,588 students had graduated from the university. In 1880 the Ministry of National Enlightenment forbade students to marry, in 1882 another student unrest took place in the university. In 1884 a new Charter of the Imperial Russian Universities was adopted, on March 1,1887 a group of the university students was arrested while planning an attempt on the life of Alexander III of Russia
Saint Petersburg State University
–
The Twelve Collegia building on
Vasilievsky Island in Saint Petersburg is the university's main building and the seat of the rector and administration (the building was constructed on the orders of
Peter the Great)
Saint Petersburg State University
Saint Petersburg State University
–
Hallway in the Twelve Collegia building, St. Petersburg State University: one of the longest academic hallways in the world
Saint Petersburg State University
–
The Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics in Peterhof
9.
Diploma
–
In some countries, e. g. the United Kingdom and Australia, the word diploma also refers to an academic award. Historically, it can refer to a charter or official document, thus diplomatic, diplomat. Alternatively, this document can simply be referred to as a certificate or graduation certificate. The certificate that a Nobel laureate receives is also called a diploma, the term diploma is also used in some historical contexts, to refer to documents signed by a King affirming a grant or tenure of specified land and its conditions. It is typically completed with 12 to 18 months of full-time study, when accepted for credit as part of a bachelors degree, it is usually deemed to be equivalent to the first year of the degree. An Advanced Diploma, which is equivalent to an Australian Associate Degree, a Graduate Diploma, which is undertaken after completing a bachelors degree. This can be in a other than that covered by said degree. It can also be a coursework-only qualification undertaken as additional study in a specialisation within ones degree area, the Vocational Graduate Diploma was a short lived AQF qualification equivalent to the Graduate Diploma, intended to be delivered exclusively in the VET sector. On January 1,2015, all such qualifications being offered lost the word Vocational from their title, in Ontario, Canada, diplomas are awarded by colleges of applied arts and technology whereas bachelor degrees are awarded by universities. In Canada, depending on the legislation, there may also be a difference between a college and a university. In Greece, diplomas can be awarded by educational institutes as a proof of an educational level. In Hong Kong, advanced diploma, higher diploma, and associate degree are below the standard of the bachelors degree. Certificate and diploma are below the standard of advanced diploma, higher diploma, Postgraduate Certificates and Postgraduate Diplomas are taken after the bachelors degree, and are more vocational oriented than a masters degree. In India, a diploma is an academic award usually earned in professional/vocational courses, e. g. Diploma in Nursing Engineering, Pharmacy, Design. Also, a diploma is concentrated for the area of study, for example, a Diploma in Engineering of Electronics Engineering may be in Advanced Communication Systems or Integrated Circuits or Industrial Electronics. On successful completion of Parts I and II Technician Examination of Institution of Mechanical Engineers, similarly Diploma in Engineering of Civil Engineering is rated differently than Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering but is equivalent to Bachelor of Science in Geology. Another example of a diploma concentrated for the area of study is Diploma in Engineering of Civil Engineering, on successful completion of Parts I and II Technician Examination of Institution of Civil Engineers, it is equivalent to Diploma in Civil Engineering as per a government of India circular. Successful completion of the Diploma Studies allows articulation into the year of Bachelor of Engineering/Bachelor of Technology programs
Diploma
–
Sheepskin diploma from Mexico City College, 1948 (in Latin)
Diploma
–
Example of a diploma from a
Spanish university in B4 size paper
Diploma
–
Example of a diploma from a
Portuguese university in A4 size paper
10.
Landau damping
–
In physics, Landau damping, named after its discoverer, the eminent Soviet physicist Lev Landau, is the effect of damping of longitudinal space charge waves in plasma or a similar environment. This phenomenon prevents an instability from developing, and creates a region of stability in the parameter space, Landau damping can be manipulated exactly in numerical simulations such as particle-in-cell simulation. It was proved to exist experimentally by Malmberg and Wharton in 1964 and this is proved experimentally with a Traveling-wave tube. In a collisionless plasma the particle velocities are often taken to be approximately a Maxwellian distribution function, if the slope of the function is negative, the number of particles with velocities slightly less than the wave phase velocity is greater than the number of particles with velocities slightly greater. Hence, there are more particles gaining energy from the wave than losing to the wave, hence, there are more particles losing energy to the wave than gaining from the wave, which leads to a resultant increase in the wave energy. The mathematical theory of Landau damping is somewhat involved—see the section below, however, there is a simple physical interpretation, which, though not strictly correct, helps to visualize this phenomenon. It is possible to imagine Langmuir waves as waves in the sea, also, a boat that moves very fast does not exchange much energy with the wave. A simple mechanical description of particle dynamics provides an estimate of the synchronization of particles with the wave. A more rigorous approach shows the strongest synchronization occurs for particles with a velocity in the wave frame proportional to the damping rate, since Landau damping occurs for waves with arbitrarily small amplitudes, this shows the most active particles in this damping are far from being trapped. This is natural, since trapping involves diverging time scales for such waves, theoretical treatment starts with the Vlasov equation in the non-relativistic zero-magnetic field limit, the Vlasov–Poisson set of equations. Explicit solutions are obtained in the limit of a small E -field, the distribution function f and field E are expanded in a series, f = f 0 + f 1 + f 2, E = E1 + E2 and terms of equal order are collected. Later Nico van Kampen proved that the result can be obtained with Fourier transform. Decomposing the initial disturbance in these modes he obtained the Fourier spectrum of the resulting wave, damping is explained by phase-mixing of these Fourier modes with slightly different frequencies near ω p. It was not clear how damping could occur in a collisionless plasma, in fluid theory, in which the plasma is modeled as a dispersive dielectric medium, the energy of Langmuir waves is known, field energy multiplied by the Brillouin factor ∂ ω. But damping cannot be derived in this model, to calculate energy exchange of the wave with resonant electrons, Vlasov plasma theory has to be expanded to second order and problems about suitable initial conditions and secular terms arise. In Ref. these problems are studied, because calculations for an infinite wave are deficient in second order, a wave packet is analysed. Second-order initial conditions are found that suppress secular behavior and excite a wave packet of which the energy agrees with fluid theory, the figure shows the energy density of a wave packet traveling at the group velocity, its energy being carried away by electrons moving at the phase velocity. Total energy, the area under the curves, is conserved, the rigorous mathematical theory is based on solving the Cauchy problem for the evolution equation and proving estimates on the solution
Landau damping
Landau damping
–
Contents
11.
Landau distribution
–
In probability theory, the Landau distribution is a probability distribution named after Lev Landau. Because of the long tail, the moments of the distribution. The distribution is a case of the stable distribution. The result does not change if c changes, for numerical purposes it is more convenient to use the following equivalent form of the integral, p =1 π ∫0 ∞ e − t log t − x t sin d t. The full family of Landau distributions is obtained by extending the standard distribution to a location-scale family and this distribution can be approximated by p =12 π exp . This distribution is a case of the stable distribution with parameters α =1. The characteristic function may be expressed as, φ = exp. where μ and c are real, if X ∼ Landau then X + m ∼ Landau The Landau distribution is a stable distribution with the stable distribution stability parameter α and skewness parameter β both equal to 1
Landau distribution
–
Landau distribution
12.
Landau gauge
–
In the physics of gauge theories, gauge fixing denotes a mathematical procedure for coping with redundant degrees of freedom in field variables. By definition, a gauge theory represents each physically distinct configuration of the system as a class of detailed local field configurations. Any two detailed configurations in the equivalence class are related by a gauge transformation, equivalent to a shear along unphysical axes in configuration space. Most of the physical predictions of a gauge theory can only be obtained under a coherent prescription for suppressing or ignoring these unphysical degrees of freedom. Although the unphysical axes in the space of detailed configurations are a property of the physical model. Hence there is an amount of freedom involved in taking a cross section representing each physical configuration by a particular detailed configuration. These field strength variables can be expressed in terms of the scalar potential φ. If another change is made then E also remains the same, hence, the E and B fields are unchanged if one takes any function ψ and simultaneously transforms A and φ via the transformations and. A particular choice of the scalar and vector potentials is a gauge, the existence of arbitrary numbers of gauge functions ψ corresponds to the U gauge freedom of this theory. Gauge fixing can be done in ways, some of which we exhibit below. Although classical electromagnetism is now spoken of as a gauge theory. Not until the advent of field theory could it be said that the potentials themselves are part of the physical configuration of a system. The earliest consequence to be predicted and experimentally verified was the Aharonov–Bohm effect. Nevertheless, gauge freedom is still true in these theories, for example, the Aharonov–Bohm effect depends on a line integral of A around a closed loop, and this integral is not changed by A → A + ∇ ψ. By looking at a cylindrical rod can one tell whether it is twisted, if the rod is perfectly cylindrical, then the circular symmetry of the cross section makes it impossible to tell whether or not it is twisted. However, if there were a line drawn along the length of the rod. Drawing a line is gauge fixing, drawing the line spoils the gauge symmetry, i. e. the circular symmetry U of the cross section at each point of the rod. The line is the equivalent of a function, it need not be straight
Landau gauge
–
Electromagnetism
13.
Diamagnetism
–
Diamagnetic materials are repelled by a magnetic field, an applied magnetic field creates an induced magnetic field in them in the opposite direction, causing a repulsive force. In contrast, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials are attracted by a magnetic field, diamagnetism is a quantum mechanical effect that occurs in all materials, when it is the only contribution to the magnetism the material is called diamagnetic. In paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances the weak force is overcome by the attractive force of magnetic dipoles in the material. The magnetic permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than μ0, the permeability of vacuum, diamagnetism was first discovered when Sebald Justinus Brugmans observed in 1778 that bismuth and antimony were repelled by magnetic fields. In 1845, Michael Faraday demonstrated that it was a property of matter and he adopted the term diamagnetism after it was suggested to him by William Whewell. Diamagnetism, to a greater or lesser degree, is a property of all materials, for materials that show some other form of magnetism, the diamagnetic contribution becomes negligible. Substances that mostly display diamagnetic behaviour are termed diamagnetic materials, or diamagnets, the magnetic susceptibility values of various molecular fragments are called Pascals constants. This means that diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields, however, since diamagnetism is such a weak property, its effects are not observable in everyday life. For example, the susceptibility of diamagnets such as water is χv = −9. 05×10−6. The most strongly diamagnetic material is bismuth, χv = −1. 66×10−4, nevertheless, these values are orders of magnitude smaller than the magnetism exhibited by paramagnets and ferromagnets. Note that because χv is derived from the ratio of the magnetic field to the applied field. All conductors exhibit an effective diamagnetism when they experience a magnetic field. The Lorentz force on electrons causes them to circulate around forming eddy currents, the eddy currents then produce an induced magnetic field opposite the applied field, resisting the conductors motion. Superconductors may be considered perfect diamagnets, because they expel all fields due to the Meissner effect, however this effect is not due to eddy currents, as in ordinary diamagnetic materials. If a powerful magnet is covered with a layer of water then the field of the magnet significantly repels the water and this causes a slight dimple in the waters surface that may be seen by its reflection. Diamagnets may be levitated in stable equilibrium in a magnetic field, Earnshaws theorem seems to preclude the possibility of static magnetic levitation. However, Earnshaws theorem applies only to objects with positive susceptibilities and these are attracted to field maxima, which do not exist in free space. Diamagnets are attracted to field minima, and there can be a minimum in free space
Diamagnetism
–
Levitating
pyrolytic carbon
Diamagnetism
–
A live frog levitates inside a 32 mm diameter vertical bore of a
Bitter solenoid in a magnetic field of about 16
teslas at the Nijmegen High Field Magnet Laboratory.
14.
Landau potential
–
The grand potential is a quantity used in statistical mechanics, especially for irreversible processes in open systems. The grand potential is the state function for the grand canonical ensemble. This can be seen by considering that dΦG is zero if the volume is fixed, for homogeneous systems, one obtains Ω = − P V. The pressure then must be constant with respect to changes in volume, μ, T =0, and the particle and all extensive quantities must grow linearly with volume, e. g. μ, T = N / V. In this case we have simply Φ G = − ⟨ P ⟩ V, the value of Φ G can be understood as the work we can extract from the system by shrinking it down to nothing. The fact that Φ G = − ⟨ P ⟩ V is negative implies that it takes energy to perform this extraction, such homogeneous scaling does not exist in many systems. The problem here is that, although electrons and energy are exchanged with a reservoir, generally in small systems, or systems with long range interactions, Φ G ≠ − ⟨ P ⟩ V. The factor eβμ is the Boltzmann factor, Gibbs energy Helmholtz energy Grand Potential
Landau potential
–
Statistical mechanics
15.
Superfluidity
–
Superfluidity is the characteristic property of a fluid with zero viscosity which therefore flows without loss of kinetic energy. When stirred a superfluid forms cellular vortices that continue to rotate indefinitely, superfluidity occurs in two isotopes of helium when they are liquified by cooling to cryogenic temperatures. It is also a property of other exotic states of matter theorized to exist in astrophysics, high-energy physics. Superfluidity was originally discovered in liquid helium, by Pyotr Kapitsa and it has since been described through phenomenology and microscopic theories. In liquid helium-4, the superfluidity occurs at far higher temperatures than it does in helium-3, each atom of helium-4 is a boson particle, by virtue of its integer spin. A helium-3 atom is a particle, it can form bosons only by pairing with itself at much lower temperatures. The discovery of superfluidity in helium-3 was the basis for the award of the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physics and this process is similar to the electron pairing in superconductivity. Superfluidity in an ultracold fermionic gas was experimentally proven by Wolfgang Ketterle, such vortices had previously been observed in an ultracold bosonic gas using 87Rb in 2000, and more recently in two-dimensional gases. As early as 1999 Lene Hau created such a condensate using sodium atoms for the purpose of slowing light, with a double light-roadblock setup, we can generate controlled collisions between shock waves resulting in completely unexpected, nonlinear excitations. We have observed hybrid structures consisting of vortex rings embedded in dark solitonic shells, the vortex rings act as phantom propellers leading to very rich excitation dynamics. The idea that superfluidity exists inside neutron stars was first proposed by Arkady Migdal, superfluid vacuum theory is an approach in theoretical physics and quantum mechanics where the physical vacuum is viewed as superfluid. The ultimate goal of the approach is to develop scientific models that unify quantum mechanics with gravity and this makes SVT a candidate for the theory of quantum gravity and an extension of the Standard Model. Boojum Condensed matter physics Macroscopic quantum phenomena Quantum hydrodynamics Slow light Supersolid Guénault, annett, James F. Superconductivity, superfluids, and condensates. The Universe in a helium droplet
Superfluidity
–
Fig. 2. The liquid helium is in the superfluid phase. As long as it remains superfluid, it creeps up the wall of the cup as a thin film. It comes down on the outside, forming a drop which will fall into the liquid below. Another drop will form—and so on—until the cup is empty.
Superfluidity
–
Fig. 1. Helium II will "creep" along surfaces in order to find its own level—after a short while, the levels in the two containers will equalize. The
Rollin film also covers the interior of the larger container; if it were not sealed, the helium II would creep out and escape.
16.
Superconductivity
–
It was discovered by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes on April 8,1911, in Leiden. Like ferromagnetism and atomic spectral lines, superconductivity is a mechanical phenomenon. It is characterized by the Meissner effect, the ejection of magnetic field lines from the interior of the superconductor as it transitions into the superconducting state. The occurrence of the Meissner effect indicates that superconductivity cannot be simply as the idealization of perfect conductivity in classical physics. The electrical resistance of a metallic conductor decreases gradually as temperature is lowered, in ordinary conductors, such as copper or silver, this decrease is limited by impurities and other defects. Even near absolute zero, a sample of a normal conductor shows some resistance. In a superconductor, the resistance drops abruptly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature, an electric current flowing through a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source. In 1986, it was discovered that some cuprate-perovskite ceramic materials have a temperature above 90 K. Such a high temperature is theoretically impossible for a conventional superconductor. There are many criteria by which superconductors are classified, by theory of operation, It is conventional if it can be explained by the BCS theory or its derivatives, or unconventional, otherwise. By material, Superconductor material classes include chemical elements, alloys, ceramics, on the other hand, there is a class of properties that are independent of the underlying material. For instance, all superconductors have exactly zero resistivity to low applied currents when there is no magnetic field present or if the field does not exceed a critical value. The resistance of the sample is given by Ohms law as R = V / I, if the voltage is zero, this means that the resistance is zero. Superconductors are also able to maintain a current with no applied voltage whatsoever, experiments have demonstrated that currents in superconducting coils can persist for years without any measurable degradation. Experimental evidence points to a current lifetime of at least 100,000 years, theoretical estimates for the lifetime of a persistent current can exceed the estimated lifetime of the universe, depending on the wire geometry and the temperature. In a normal conductor, an electric current may be visualized as a fluid of electrons moving across an ionic lattice. As a result, the energy carried by the current is constantly being dissipated and this is the phenomenon of electrical resistance and Joule heating. The situation is different in a superconductor, in a conventional superconductor, the electronic fluid cannot be resolved into individual electrons
Superconductivity
–
A
magnet levitating above a
high-temperature superconductor, cooled with
liquid nitrogen. Persistent electric current flows on the surface of the superconductor, acting to exclude the magnetic field of the magnet (
Faraday's law of induction). This current effectively forms an electromagnet that repels the magnet.
Superconductivity
–
A high-temperature superconductor levitating above a magnet
Superconductivity
–
Electric cables for accelerators at
CERN. Both the massive and slim cables are rated for 12,500
A. Top: conventional cables for
LEP; bottom: superconductor-based cables for the
LHC
Superconductivity
–
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (right), the discoverer of superconductivity.
Paul Ehrenfest,
Hendrik Lorentz,
Niels Bohr stand to his left.
17.
Course of Theoretical Physics
–
It is said that Landau composed much of the series in his head while in an NKVD prison in 1938-39. However, almost all of the writing of the early volumes was done by Lifshitz, giving rise to the witticism, not a word of Landau. The first eight volumes were finished in the 1950s, written in Russian, the last two volumes were written in the early 1980s. Vladimir Berestetskii and Lev Pitaevskii also contributed to the series, the series is often referred to as Landau and Lifshitz, Landafshitz, Lanlifshitz in informal settings. Generations of physicists, both in Russia and around the world, have been educated in physics through this series, the presentation of material is advanced, requires a foundation of physics, and is suitable for graduate-level study. See Russian editions in Russian language Wikipedia, note that reprints and revised editions are not listed. Covers classical mechanics without special or general relativity, in the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalisms, Covers relativistic mechanics of particles, and classical field theory for fields, specifically special relativity and electromagnetism, general relativity and gravitation. Online copy Covers quantum mechanics without special relativity, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list V. B. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list The original edition was two books, labelled part 1 and part 2 and these books were published in the early 1970s, at a time when the strong and weak forces were still not well understood. Covers general statistical mechanics and thermodynamics and applications, including chemical reactions, phase transitions, Covers fluid mechanics in a condensed but varied exposition, from ideal to viscous fluids, includes a chapter on relativistic fluid mechanics, and another on superfluids. Covers elasticity theory of solids, including solids, vibrations and waves in cystals with dislocations. Statistical Physics, Part 2, Theory of the Condensed State, builds from the original statistical physics book, more applications to condensed matter theory. Presents various applications of theory to condensed matter theory, on metals, insulators. Britannica Online, Course of Theoretical Physics
Course of Theoretical Physics
–
Cover of the first volume, Mechanics (Russian Edition)
18.
Stalin Prize
–
The USSR State Prize was the Soviet Unions state honor. It was established on September 9,1966, after the breakup of the Soviet Union, the prize was followed up by the State Prize of the Russian Federation. The State Stalin Prize, usually called the Stalin Prize, existed from 1941 to 1954 – some sources give an incorrect date of 1952. It essentially played the role, therefore upon the establishment of the USSR State Prize. In 1944 and 1945, the last two years of the Second World War the award ceremonies for the Stalin Prize were not held, instead, in 1946 the ceremony was held twice, in January for the works created in 1943–1944 and in June for the works of 1945. Often the prize was awarded to specific works rather than to individuals, each constituent Soviet republic and autonomous republic also had a State Prize. The Stalin Prize was a different from the Stalin Peace Prize. The latter was created on 21 December 1949 and was awarded to foreign recipients rather than to Soviet citizens. It should also not be confused with the Lenin Prize, rameyev, N. Trubnikov, A. Tsygankin, Yu. Isaak Dunaevsky, Music to the film The Kuban Cossacks Gevorg Emin, book of poetry New Road Bruno Freindlich, algis Petras Piskarskas, nonlinear optics Eugen Doga
Stalin Prize
–
Stalin Prize badge on a
stamp
Stalin Prize
–
State Prize badge
19.
Nobel Prize in Physics
–
The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
Nobel Prize in Physics
–
Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923), the first recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics.
Nobel Prize in Physics
–
The Nobel Prize in Physics
Nobel Prize in Physics
–
Three Nobel Laureates in Physics. Front row from left:
Albert A. Michelson (1907),
Albert Einstein (1921) and
Robert A. Millikan (1923).
20.
Theoretical physics
–
Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. This is in contrast to physics, which uses experimental tools to probe these phenomena. The advancement of science depends in general on the interplay between experimental studies and theory, in some cases, theoretical physics adheres to standards of mathematical rigor while giving little weight to experiments and observations. Conversely, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for explaining the photoelectric effect, a physical theory is a model of physical events. It is judged by the extent to which its predictions agree with empirical observations, the quality of a physical theory is also judged on its ability to make new predictions which can be verified by new observations. A physical theory similarly differs from a theory, in the sense that the word theory has a different meaning in mathematical terms. A physical theory involves one or more relationships between various measurable quantities, archimedes realized that a ship floats by displacing its mass of water, Pythagoras understood the relation between the length of a vibrating string and the musical tone it produces. Other examples include entropy as a measure of the uncertainty regarding the positions and motions of unseen particles, Theoretical physics consists of several different approaches. In this regard, theoretical particle physics forms a good example, for instance, phenomenologists might employ empirical formulas to agree with experimental results, often without deep physical understanding. Modelers often appear much like phenomenologists, but try to model speculative theories that have certain desirable features, some attempt to create approximate theories, called effective theories, because fully developed theories may be regarded as unsolvable or too complicated. Other theorists may try to unify, formalise, reinterpret or generalise extant theories, or create completely new ones altogether. Sometimes the vision provided by pure mathematical systems can provide clues to how a system might be modeled, e. g. the notion, due to Riemann and others. Theoretical problems that need computational investigation are often the concern of computational physics, Theoretical advances may consist in setting aside old, incorrect paradigms or may be an alternative model that provides answers that are more accurate or that can be more widely applied. In the latter case, a correspondence principle will be required to recover the previously known result, sometimes though, advances may proceed along different paths. However, an exception to all the above is the wave–particle duality, Physical theories become accepted if they are able to make correct predictions and no incorrect ones. They are also likely to be accepted if they connect a wide range of phenomena. Testing the consequences of a theory is part of the scientific method, Physical theories can be grouped into three categories, mainstream theories, proposed theories and fringe theories. Theoretical physics began at least 2,300 years ago, under the Pre-socratic philosophy, during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the concept of experimental science, the counterpoint to theory, began with scholars such as Ibn al-Haytham and Francis Bacon
Theoretical physics
–
Visual representation of a Schwarzschild
wormhole. Wormholes have never been observed, but they are predicted to exist through
mathematical models and
scientific theory.
21.
Kharkov Polytechnical Institute
–
The National Technical University Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute, in the city of Kharkiv, is the largest and oldest technical university in eastern Ukraine. Founded in 1885, it is the second-oldest technical university in the former Russian Empire, the organizer and first rector of the institute was Viktor Kyrpychov, an honored professor specializing in mechanics and resistance in materials. In 1898, the institute was renamed the Emperor Alexander III Technological Institute, after the October Revolution in 1917, the Technological Institute continued its work. In 1921 the institute set up the first department for workers in Ukraine, Lenin institute of Technology was renamed the Kharkiv V. I. Lenin Polytechnic Institute, a name kept until the fall of the Soviet Union, in 1930, five independent higher-educational institutions were set up as five separate departments of the institute. KhPI, as a whole, temporarily ceased to exist after that, during World War II over 3,000 professors, students and institute employees joined the Army. Evacuated to Krasnoufimsk and Chirchiq, the institute continued training engineering staff, in 1949 four higher-educational institutions were reunited into the Kharkiv V. I. Lenin Polytechnic Institute. Professor Mikhail Semko was appointed its rector, and remained in position for 30 years. After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, KhPI continued its work as a Ukrainian institution of higher learning, in April 1994, the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine granted Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute university status and it was renamed the Kharkiv State Polytechnic University. In September 2000, the status of National Technical University has been given to KhSPU, by decree of the President of Ukraine, since then, in February 2010, NTU KhPI was granted the status of Autonomous Research National University by decree of the Ukrainian Cabinet of Ministers. NTU KhPI has been accredited as a university of the highest level and it trains full-time students in 91 fields and offers 69 fields for instruction by correspondence. It has the greatest number of matriculated students in eastern and southern Ukraine, the university consists of approximately 20 buildings. Most campuses are concentrated compactly — between Pushkinskaya and Architect Beketov underground stations, campuses have changed shape over time. Old buildings were built, as usual in the 19th century and they are built of red brick and are of great architectural and even historical value. New buildings were built in the Soviet era and their dimensions correspond to houses built at that time. U-1 is the highest building and one of the largest in the university, the body has a rectangular shape at the base. It has an area of glazing. It is the tallest in the university and one of the tallest buildings in the city — besides and you can see much of the city from there, all Nagirnyy region and adjacent neighbors, Holodna Gora, Saltovka, Novi doma
Kharkov Polytechnical Institute
–
Seal
Kharkov Polytechnical Institute
–
Main Academic Building
Kharkov Polytechnical Institute
–
Main Administrative Building, circa 1900
Kharkov Polytechnical Institute
–
Electrotechnical Building
22.
Kharkov University
–
The University of Kharkiv or officially the Vasyl Karazin Kharkiv National University is one of the major universities in Ukraine, and earlier in the Russian Empire and Soviet Union. It was founded in 1804 through the efforts of Vasily Karazin becoming the second oldest university in modern-day Ukraine after the University of Lviv, on 29 January 1805, the Decree on the Opening of the Imperial University in Kharkiv came into force. The university became the university in the south of the Russian Empire. It was founded on the initiative of the community with Vasyly Karazin at the fore, whose idea was supported by the nobility. Count Severin Pototski was appointed the first supervisor of the university, the first periodicals in Slobozhanshchyna appear in the university around this time, including Kharkovski Ezhenedelnik, Ukrainski Vestnik, Ukrainski Zhurnal, etc. In 1839, a school, which in 1851 became an independent institute, was established at the university. By this time, the campus included laboratories, clinics, an observatory, a botanical garden. Previously, the university was autonomous with rectors being elected, however, from 1820 to 1850, all its activity was strictly controlled. Rectors were appointed by the Minister of Education, while scientific publications, in 1863, under a new Statute, the university became partly autonomous. The university has been publishing Scientific Notes since 1874, from the 19th century up to the early 20th century, the University of Kharkiv had four schools, School of Physics and Mathematics, School of History and Philology, School of Medicine, School of Law. The university exerted great influence on school-life in Slobozhanshchyna in the first period of its existence, from 1917 to 1920, there was a struggle between advocates of the Ukrainian statehood and Russian course. Some of the professors who opposed new political realities left, most of the Ukrainian professors remained in Kharkiv. In 1921, Kharkiv Medical Institute was founded based on the School of Medicine of the University of Kharkiv, in 1936, the university was named after the late Russian writer Maxim Gorky. During the German-Soviet war, it was evacuated to the city of Kizilord in Kazakhstan, in 1943/44, the university returned to Kharkiv. In 1951,800 university students suffered from persecution after they refused to pass exams in Russian, court trials were held behind closed doors. In 2004, the university was given a building, opposite Svobody square. According to the estimation of teaching quality, the university ranked seventh and fourth in Ukraine, according to one of the world leading university rankings, Kharkiv National University holds the fourth position among Ukrainian universities and the 1138th position in the world. Kharkiv National University holds the place in Ukraine in volume of publications and citations in scientific database Scopus
Kharkov University
–
V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University
Kharkov University
–
The University of Kharkiv main academic building
Kharkov University
–
The northern academic building
23.
Kharkov Institute of Physics and Technology
–
The National Scientific Center Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology is the oldest and largest physical science research centre in Ukraine. The National Scientific Center Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology was founded by Abram Ioffe in Kharkiv in Ukraine in 1928, the Lev Shubnikov Low Temperature Laboratory at the National Scientific Center Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology was founded in Kharkiv, Ukraine in 1931. Lev Shubnikov was a head of the laboratory at the National Scientific Center Kharkiv Institute of Physics. During the Stalin epoch, this was where the UPTI Affair occurred in 1938, the National Scientific Center Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology was the Laboratory no.1 in the nuclear physics, where the nuclear bomb was invented in the former USSR for the first time
Kharkov Institute of Physics and Technology
–
National Science Center, Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology
24.
Russian Academy of Sciences
–
Headquartered in Moscow, the Academy is considered a civil, self-governed, non-commercial organization chartered by the Government of Russia. It combines the members of RAS and scientists employed by institutions, the Academy currently includes around 650 institutions and 55,000 scientific researchers. There are three types of membership in the RAS, full members, corresponding members, and foreign members, Academicians and corresponding members must be citizens of the Russian Federation when elected. However, some academicians and corresponding members were elected before the collapse of the USSR and are now citizens of other countries, Members of RAS are elected based on their scientific contributions – election to membership is considered very prestigious. In the years 2005–2012, the academy had approximately 500 full and 700 corresponding members, but in 2013, after the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences and the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences became incorporated into the RAS, a number of the RAS members accordingly increased. As of November 2016, after the last elections, there were 944 full members and 1159 corresponding members in the renewed Russian Academy of Sciences, the RAS consists of 13 specialized scientific divisions, three territorial divisions, sometimes called branches, and 15 regional scientific centers. The Academy has numerous councils, committees, and commissions, all organized for different purposes, Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences The Siberian Division was established in 1957, with Mikhail Lavrentyev as founding chairman. Research centers are in Novosibirsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, Yakutsk, Ulan-Ude, Kemerovo, Tyumen, as of 2005, the Division employed over 33,000 employees,58 of whom were members of the Academy. Ural Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences The Ural Division was established in 1932, research centers are in Yekaterinburg, Perm, Cheliabinsk, Izhevsk, Orenburg, Ufa and Syktyvkar. As of 2007, the Division employed 3,600 scientists,590 full professors,31 full members, started with just three members, The RSSI now has 3,100 members, including 57 from the largest research institutions. Russian universities and technical institutes are not under the supervision of the RAS, the Academy is also increasing its presence in the educational area. In 1990 the Higher Chemical College of the Russian Academy of Sciences was founded, the Academy gives out a number of different prizes, medals and awards among which, Lomonosov Gold Medal Lobachevsky Prize Demidov Prize Kurchatov Medal Pushkin Prize S. V. Expeditions to explore parts of the country had Academy scientists as their leaders or most active participants. A separate organization, called the Russian Academy, was created in 1783 to work on the study of the Russian language, presided over by Princess Yekaterina Dashkova, the Russian Academy was engaged in compiling the six-volume Academic Dictionary of the Russian Language. The Russian Academy was merged into the Imperial Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1841, in December 1917, Sergey Fedorovich Oldenburg, a leading ethnographer and political activist in the Kadet party, met with Vladimir Lenin to discuss the future of the Academy. They agreed that the expertise of the Academy would be applied to addressing questions of state construction, in 1925 the Soviet government recognized the Russian Academy of Sciences as the highest all-Union scientific institution and renamed it the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. The Soviet Sciences Academy would be affected like all universities by the rules imposed particularly those pertaining to censorship, the Soviet Science Academy ended up with a leader of the philosophy department who was placed there simply to keep the man out of trouble. The government decided to not execute or send the famous writer to the gulag because he had won the Stalin award, doing this would have discredited the Stalin award and thus Stalin the leader of the Communist party himself
Russian Academy of Sciences
–
Moscow headquarters of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Russian Academy of Sciences
–
The building of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Saint Petersburg on
Universitetskaya Embankment
Russian Academy of Sciences
–
Original headquarters of the Imperial Academy of Sciences - the
Kunstkamera in
Saint Petersburg
25.
Niels Bohr
–
Niels Henrik David Bohr was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research, although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle of complementarity, that items could be analysed in terms of contradictory properties. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohrs thinking in science and philosophy. Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, now known as the Niels Bohr Institute, Bohr mentored and collaborated with physicists including Hans Kramers, Oskar Klein, George de Hevesy, and Werner Heisenberg. He predicted the existence of a new element, which was named hafnium, after the Latin name for Copenhagen. Later, the element bohrium was named after him, during the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees from Nazism. After Denmark was occupied by the Germans, he had a meeting with Heisenberg. In September 1943, word reached Bohr that he was about to be arrested by the Germans, from there, he was flown to Britain, where he joined the British Tube Alloys nuclear weapons project, and was part of the British mission to the Manhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for cooperation on nuclear energy. He had a sister, Jenny, and a younger brother Harald. Jenny became a teacher, while Harald became a mathematician and Olympic footballer who played for the Danish national team at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. Bohr was a footballer as well, and the two brothers played several matches for the Copenhagen-based Akademisk Boldklub, with Bohr as goalkeeper. Bohr was educated at Gammelholm Latin School, starting when he was seven, in 1903, Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate at Copenhagen University. His major was physics, which he studied under Professor Christian Christiansen and he also studied astronomy and mathematics under Professor Thorvald Thiele, and philosophy under Professor Harald Høffding, a friend of his father. This involved measuring the frequency of oscillation of the radius of a water jet, Bohr conducted a series of experiments using his fathers laboratory in the university, the university itself had no physics laboratory. To complete his experiments, he had to make his own glassware and his essay, which he submitted at the last minute, won the prize. He later submitted a version of the paper to the Royal Society in London for publication in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
Niels Bohr
–
Bohr in 1922
Niels Bohr
–
Niels Bohr as a young man
Niels Bohr
–
Niels Bohr and Margrethe Nørlund on their engagement in 1910.
Niels Bohr
–
The Niels Bohr Institute
26.
Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov
–
Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov was a Soviet, Russian and American theoretical physicist whose main contributions are in the field of condensed matter physics. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2003, Abrikosov was born in Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union, on June 25,1928, to a couple of physicians, Prof. Alexei Ivanovich Abrikosov and Dr. Fani Abrikosova, née Wulf. He graduated from Moscow State University in 1948, from 1965 to 1988, he worked at the Landau Institute for Theoretical Physics. He has been a professor at Moscow State University since 1965, in addition, he held tenure at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology from 1972 to 1976, and at the Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys from 1976 to 1991. He served as a member of the USSR Academy of Sciences from 1987 to 1991. In 1991, he became a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In two works in 1952 and 1957, Abrikosov explained how magnetic flux can penetrate a class of superconductors and this class of materials is known as type-II superconductors. The accompanying arrangement of magnetic flux lines is called the Abrikosov vortex lattice, from 1991 until his retirement, he worked at Argonne National Laboratory in the U. S. state of Illinois. Abrikosov was an Argonne Distinguished Scientist at the Condensed Matter Theory Group in Argonne’s Materials Science Division and his recent research has focused on the origins of magnetoresistance, a property of some materials that change their resistance to electrical flow under the influence of a magnetic field. Abrikosov was awarded the Lenin Prize in 1966, the Fritz London Memorial Prize in 1972, in 1989 he received the Landau Prize from the Academy of Sciences, Russia. Two years later, in 1991, Abrikosov was awarded the Sony Corporation’s John Bardeen Award, the same year he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He is also a member of the Royal Academy of London, a fellow of the American Physical Society and he was the co-recipient of the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics, with Vitaly Ginzburg and Anthony James Leggett, for theories about how matter can behave at extremely low temperatures. Other awards include, Abrikosov was the son of the physicians Alexei Ivanovich Abrikosov and his sister was Maria Alekseevna Abrikósova, physician. He was married to Svetlana Yuriyevna Bunkova and had 3 children and he died on 29 March 2017 at the age of 88. Media related to Alexej Abrikosov at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov at Wikiquote
Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov
–
Alexei Abrikosov
27.
Russian language
–
Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
Russian language
–
Russian language street sign in
Russia.
Russian language
–
Russian minimarket in
Limassol, Cyprus; translation: "Teremok market. Russian goods. Phone number: 96 74 19 63"
Russian language
–
This page from an "ABC" book printed in Moscow in 1694 shows the letter
П.
Russian language
–
The
Ostromir Gospels of 1056 is the second oldest
East Slavic book known, one of many medieval
illuminated manuscripts preserved in the
Russian National Library.
28.
Physicist
–
A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
Physicist
–
Albert Einstein, physicist who developed the theory of general relativity.
29.
Density matrix
–
A density matrix is a matrix that describes a quantum system in a mixed state, a statistical ensemble of several quantum states. This should be contrasted with a state vector that describes a quantum system in a pure state. The density matrix is the analogue to a phase-space probability measure in classical statistical mechanics. Mixed states arise in situations where the experimenter does not know which particular states are being manipulated, examples include a system in thermal equilibrium or a system with an uncertain or randomly varying preparation history. Also, if a system has two or more subsystems that are entangled, then each subsystem must be treated as a mixed state even if the complete system is in a pure state. The density matrix is also a tool in quantum decoherence theory. The density matrix is a representation of an operator called the density operator. The density matrix is obtained from the density operator by choice of basis in the underlying space, in practice, the terms density matrix and density operator are often used interchangeably. Both matrix and operator are self-adjoint, positive semi-definite, of trace one, the formalism of density operators and matrices was introduced by John von Neumann in 1927 and independently, but less systematically by Lev Landau and Felix Bloch in 1927 and 1946 respectively. In quantum mechanics, the state of a system is represented by a state vector | ψ ⟩. A quantum system with a state vector | ψ ⟩ is called a pure state and this system would be in a mixed state. The density matrix is useful for mixed states, because any state, pure or mixed. A mixed state is different from a quantum superposition, the probabilities in a mixed state are classical probabilities, unlike the quantum probabilites in a quantum superposition. In fact, a superposition of pure states is another pure state. In this case, the coefficients 1 /2 are not probabilities, an example of pure and mixed states is light polarization. Photons can have two helicities, corresponding to two quantum states, | R ⟩ and | L ⟩. A photon can also be in a state, such as /2 or /2. More generally, it can be in any state α | R ⟩ + β | L ⟩, corresponding to linear, circular, or elliptical polarization
Density matrix
–
The incandescent light bulb (1) emits completely random polarized photons (2) with mixed state density matrix 。 After passing through vertical plane polarizer (3), the remaining photons are all vertically polarized (4) and have pure state density matrix 。
30.
Quantum mechanics
–
Quantum mechanics, including quantum field theory, is a branch of physics which is the fundamental theory of nature at small scales and low energies of atoms and subatomic particles. Classical physics, the physics existing before quantum mechanics, derives from quantum mechanics as an approximation valid only at large scales, early quantum theory was profoundly reconceived in the mid-1920s. The reconceived theory is formulated in various specially developed mathematical formalisms, in one of them, a mathematical function, the wave function, provides information about the probability amplitude of position, momentum, and other physical properties of a particle. In 1803, Thomas Young, an English polymath, performed the famous experiment that he later described in a paper titled On the nature of light. This experiment played a role in the general acceptance of the wave theory of light. In 1838, Michael Faraday discovered cathode rays, Plancks hypothesis that energy is radiated and absorbed in discrete quanta precisely matched the observed patterns of black-body radiation. In 1896, Wilhelm Wien empirically determined a distribution law of black-body radiation, ludwig Boltzmann independently arrived at this result by considerations of Maxwells equations. However, it was only at high frequencies and underestimated the radiance at low frequencies. Later, Planck corrected this model using Boltzmanns statistical interpretation of thermodynamics and proposed what is now called Plancks law, following Max Plancks solution in 1900 to the black-body radiation problem, Albert Einstein offered a quantum-based theory to explain the photoelectric effect. Among the first to study quantum phenomena in nature were Arthur Compton, C. V. Raman, robert Andrews Millikan studied the photoelectric effect experimentally, and Albert Einstein developed a theory for it. In 1913, Peter Debye extended Niels Bohrs theory of structure, introducing elliptical orbits. This phase is known as old quantum theory, according to Planck, each energy element is proportional to its frequency, E = h ν, where h is Plancks constant. Planck cautiously insisted that this was simply an aspect of the processes of absorption and emission of radiation and had nothing to do with the reality of the radiation itself. In fact, he considered his quantum hypothesis a mathematical trick to get the right rather than a sizable discovery. He won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for this work, Einstein further developed this idea to show that an electromagnetic wave such as light could also be described as a particle, with a discrete quantum of energy that was dependent on its frequency. The Copenhagen interpretation of Niels Bohr became widely accepted, in the mid-1920s, developments in quantum mechanics led to its becoming the standard formulation for atomic physics. In the summer of 1925, Bohr and Heisenberg published results that closed the old quantum theory, out of deference to their particle-like behavior in certain processes and measurements, light quanta came to be called photons. From Einsteins simple postulation was born a flurry of debating, theorizing, thus, the entire field of quantum physics emerged, leading to its wider acceptance at the Fifth Solvay Conference in 1927
Quantum mechanics
–
Max Planck is considered the father of the quantum theory.
Quantum mechanics
–
Solution to
Schrödinger's equation for the hydrogen atom at different energy levels. The brighter areas represent a higher probability of finding an
electron
Quantum mechanics
–
The 1927
Solvay Conference in
Brussels.
31.
John von Neumann
–
John von Neumann was a Hungarian-American mathematician, physicist, inventor, computer scientist, and polymath. He made major contributions to a number of fields, including mathematics, physics, economics, computing, and statistics. He published over 150 papers in his life, about 60 in pure mathematics,20 in physics, and 60 in applied mathematics and his last work, an unfinished manuscript written while in the hospital, was later published in book form as The Computer and the Brain. His analysis of the structure of self-replication preceded the discovery of the structure of DNA, also, my work on various forms of operator theory, Berlin 1930 and Princeton 1935–1939, on the ergodic theorem, Princeton, 1931–1932. During World War II he worked on the Manhattan Project, developing the mathematical models behind the lenses used in the implosion-type nuclear weapon. After the war, he served on the General Advisory Committee of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, along with theoretical physicist Edward Teller, mathematician Stanislaw Ulam, and others, he worked out key steps in the nuclear physics involved in thermonuclear reactions and the hydrogen bomb. Von Neumann was born Neumann János Lajos to a wealthy, acculturated, Von Neumanns place of birth was Budapest in the Kingdom of Hungary which was then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He was the eldest of three children and he had two younger brothers, Michael, born in 1907, and Nicholas, who was born in 1911. His father, Neumann Miksa was a banker, who held a doctorate in law and he had moved to Budapest from Pécs at the end of the 1880s. Miksas father and grandfather were both born in Ond, Zemplén County, northern Hungary, johns mother was Kann Margit, her parents were Jakab Kann and Katalin Meisels. Three generations of the Kann family lived in apartments above the Kann-Heller offices in Budapest. In 1913, his father was elevated to the nobility for his service to the Austro-Hungarian Empire by Emperor Franz Joseph, the Neumann family thus acquired the hereditary appellation Margittai, meaning of Marghita. The family had no connection with the town, the appellation was chosen in reference to Margaret, Neumann János became Margittai Neumann János, which he later changed to the German Johann von Neumann. Von Neumann was a child prodigy, as a 6 year old, he could multiply and divide two 8-digit numbers in his head, and could converse in Ancient Greek. When he once caught his mother staring aimlessly, the 6 year old von Neumann asked her, formal schooling did not start in Hungary until the age of ten. Instead, governesses taught von Neumann, his brothers and his cousins, Max believed that knowledge of languages other than Hungarian was essential, so the children were tutored in English, French, German and Italian. A copy was contained in a private library Max purchased, One of the rooms in the apartment was converted into a library and reading room, with bookshelves from ceiling to floor. Von Neumann entered the Lutheran Fasori Evangelikus Gimnázium in 1911 and this was one of the best schools in Budapest, part of a brilliant education system designed for the elite
John von Neumann
–
Excerpt from the university calendars for 1928 and 1928–1929 of the
Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Berlin announcing Neumann's lectures on axiomatic set theory and logics, problems in quantum mechanics and special mathematical functions. Notable colleagues were
Georg Feigl,
Issai Schur,
Erhard Schmidt,
Leó Szilárd,
Heinz Hopf, Adolf Hammerstein and
Ludwig Bieberbach.
John von Neumann
–
John von Neumann in the 1940s
John von Neumann
–
Julian Bigelow, Herman Goldstine, J. Robert Oppenheimer and John von Neumann at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study.
John von Neumann
–
Von Neumann's gravestone
32.
Fermi liquid
–
Fermi liquid theory is a theoretical model of interacting fermions that describes the normal state of most metals at sufficiently low temperatures. The interaction between the particles of the system does not need to be small. The theory explains why some of the properties of an interacting fermion system are similar to those of the Fermi gas. Important examples of where Fermi liquid theory has successfully applied are most notably electrons in most metals. Liquid He-3 is a Fermi liquid at low temperatures He-3 is an isotope of helium, because there is an odd number of fermions inside the nucleus, the atom itself is also a fermion. The electrons in a normal metal also form a Fermi liquid, strontium ruthenate displays some key properties of Fermi liquids, despite being a strongly correlated material, and is compared with high temperature superconductors like cuprates. The key ideas behind Landaus theory are the notion of adiabaticity, consider a non-interacting fermion system, and suppose we turn on the interaction slowly. Landau argued that in this situation, the state of the Fermi gas would adiabatically transform into the ground state of the interacting system. By Paulis exclusion principle, the ground state Ψ0 of a Fermi gas consists of fermions occupying all momentum states corresponding to momentum p < p F with all higher momentum states unoccupied. Thus, there is a correspondence between the elementary excitations of a Fermi gas system and a Fermi liquid system. In the context of Fermi liquids, these excitations are called quasi-particles, for this system, the Greens function can be written in the form G ≈ Z ω + μ − ϵ where μ is the chemical potential and ϵ is the energy corresponding to the given momentum state. The value Z is called the residue and is very characteristic of Fermi liquid theory. The spectral function for the system can be observed via ARPES experiment. These dressed fermions are what we think of as quasiparticles, another important property of Fermi liquids is related to the scattering cross section for electrons. Suppose we have an electron with energy ϵ1 above the Fermi surface and this reduces the phase space volume of the possible states after scattering, and hence, by Fermis golden rule, the scattering cross section goes to zero. Thus we can say that the lifetime of particles at the Fermi surface goes to infinity, physically these may be thought of as being particles whose motion is disturbed by the surrounding particles and which themselves perturb the particles in their vicinity. Each many-particle excited state of the system may be described by listing all occupied momentum states. As a consequence, quantities such as the capacity of the Fermi liquid behave qualitatively in the same way as in the Fermi gas
Fermi liquid
–
Condensed matter physics
33.
Plasma physics
–
Plasma is one of the four fundamental states of matter, the others being solid, liquid, and gas. Yet unlike these three states of matter, plasma does not naturally exist on the Earth under normal surface conditions, the term was first introduced by chemist Irving Langmuir in the 1920s. However, true plasma production is from the separation of these ions and electrons that produces an electric field. Based on the environmental temperature and density either partially ionised or fully ionised forms of plasma may be produced. The positive charge in ions is achieved by stripping away electrons from atomic nuclei, the number of electrons removed is related to either the increase in temperature or the local density of other ionised matter. Plasma may be the most abundant form of matter in the universe, although this is currently tentative based on the existence. Plasma is mostly associated with the Sun and stars, extending to the rarefied intracluster medium, Plasma was first identified in a Crookes tube, and so described by Sir William Crookes in 1879. The nature of the Crookes tube cathode ray matter was identified by British physicist Sir J. J. The term plasma was coined by Irving Langmuir in 1928, perhaps because the glowing discharge molds itself to the shape of the Crookes tube and we shall use the name plasma to describe this region containing balanced charges of ions and electrons. Plasma is a neutral medium of unbound positive and negative particles. Although these particles are unbound, they are not ‘free’ in the sense of not experiencing forces, in turn this governs collective behavior with many degrees of variation. The average number of particles in the Debye sphere is given by the plasma parameter, bulk interactions, The Debye screening length is short compared to the physical size of the plasma. This criterion means that interactions in the bulk of the plasma are more important than those at its edges, when this criterion is satisfied, the plasma is quasineutral. Plasma frequency, The electron plasma frequency is compared to the electron-neutral collision frequency. When this condition is valid, electrostatic interactions dominate over the processes of ordinary gas kinetics, for plasma to exist, ionization is necessary. The term plasma density by itself refers to the electron density, that is. The degree of ionization of a plasma is the proportion of atoms that have lost or gained electrons, even a partially ionized gas in which as little as 1% of the particles are ionized can have the characteristics of a plasma. The degree of ionization, α, is defined as α = n i n i + n n, where n i is the number density of ions and n n is the number density of neutral atoms
Plasma physics
–
Plasma
Plasma physics
Plasma physics
Plasma physics
34.
Quantum electrodynamics
–
In particle physics, quantum electrodynamics is the relativistic quantum field theory of electrodynamics. In essence, it describes how light and matter interact and is the first theory where full agreement between quantum mechanics and special relativity is achieved, in technical terms, QED can be described as a perturbation theory of the electromagnetic quantum vacuum. Dirac described the quantization of the field as an ensemble of harmonic oscillators with the introduction of the concept of creation and annihilation operators of particles. At higher orders in the series emerged, making such computations meaningless. With no solution for this problem known at the time, it appeared that a fundamental incompatibility existed between special relativity and quantum mechanics, difficulties with the theory increased through the end of 1940. Improvements in microwave technology made it possible to more precise measurements of the shift of the levels of a hydrogen atom, now known as the Lamb shift. These experiments exposed discrepancies which the theory was unable to explain, a first indication of a possible way out was given by Hans Bethe in 1947, after attending the Shelter Island Conference. While he was traveling by train from the conference to Schenectady he made the first non-relativistic computation of the shift of the lines of the atom as measured by Lamb. Despite the limitations of the computation, agreement was excellent, the idea was simply to attach infinities to corrections of mass and charge that were actually fixed to a finite value by experiments. In this way, the infinities get absorbed in those constants, sin-Itiro Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger and Richard Feynman were jointly awarded with a Nobel prize in physics in 1965 for their work in this area. Even though renormalization works very well in practice, Feynman was never comfortable with its mathematical validity, even referring to renormalization as a shell game. QED has served as the model and template for all subsequent quantum field theories. One such subsequent theory is quantum chromodynamics, which began in the early 1960s and attained its present form in the 1975 work by H. David Politzer, Sidney Coleman, David Gross and Frank Wilczek. Near the end of his life, Richard P. Feynman gave a series of lectures on QED intended for the lay public. These lectures were transcribed and published as Feynman, QED, The strange theory of light and matter, the key components of Feynmans presentation of QED are three basic actions. A photon goes from one place and time to another place, an electron goes from one place and time to another place and time. An electron emits or absorbs a photon at a certain place and these can all be seen in the adjacent diagram. It is important not to over-interpret these diagrams, nothing is implied about how a particle gets from one point to another
Quantum electrodynamics
–
Paul Dirac
Quantum electrodynamics
Quantum electrodynamics
–
Hans Bethe
Quantum electrodynamics
–
Feynman (center) and
Oppenheimer (right) at
Los Alamos.
35.
Neutrino
–
A neutrino is a fermion that interacts only via the weak subatomic force and gravity. The mass of the neutrino is much smaller than that of the known elementary particles. The neutrino is so named because it is neutral and because its rest mass is so small that it was originally thought to be zero. The weak force has a short range, gravity is extremely weak on the subatomic scale. Thus, neutrinos pass through normal matter unimpeded and undetected. Weak interactions create neutrinos in one of three flavors, electron neutrinos, muon neutrinos, or tau neutrinos, in association with the corresponding charged lepton. Although neutrinos were long believed to be massless, it is now known there are three discrete neutrino masses with different tiny values, but they dont correspond uniquely to the three flavors. A neutrino created with a specific flavor is in a specific quantum superposition of all three mass states. Neutrinos oscillate between different flavors in flight, for example, an electron neutrino produced in a beta decay reaction may interact in a distant detector as a muon or tau neutrino. For each neutrino, there exists a corresponding antiparticle, called an antineutrino. They are distinguished from the neutrinos by having opposite signs of lepton number, the majority of neutrinos in the vicinity of the Earth are from nuclear reactions in the Sun. About 65 billion solar neutrinos per second pass through every square centimeter perpendicular to the direction of the Sun in the region of the Earth, neutrinos are also finding practical applications, such as tomography of the interior of the earth. The neutrino was postulated first by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930 to explain how beta decay could conserve energy, momentum and he considered that the new particle was emitted from the nucleus together with the electron or beta particle in the process of beta decay. James Chadwick discovered a more massive nuclear particle in 1932 and also named it a neutron. However, the journal Nature rejected Fermis paper, saying that the theory was too remote from reality. He submitted the paper to an Italian journal, which accepted it, however, by 1934 there was experimental evidence against Bohrs idea that energy conservation is invalid for beta decay. Such a limit is not expected if the conservation of energy is invalid, Pauli made use of the occasion to publicly emphasize that the still-undetected neutrino must be an actual particle. In 1942, Wang Ganchang first proposed the use of beta capture to experimentally detect neutrinos, in the 20 July 1956 issue of Science, Clyde Cowan, Frederick Reines, F. B
Neutrino
–
The first use of a hydrogen
bubble chamber to detect neutrinos, on November 13, 1970. A neutrino hit a proton in a hydrogen atom. The collision occurred at the point where three tracks emanate on the right of the photograph.
Neutrino
–
Clyde Cowan conducting the neutrino experiment c. 1956
Neutrino
–
SN 1987A
36.
Liquid helium
–
At standard pressure, the chemical element helium exists in a liquid form only at the extremely low temperature of −269 °C. Its boiling point and critical point depend on which isotope of helium is present and these are the only two stable isotopes of helium. See the table below for the values of physical quantities. The density of liquid helium-4 at its point and a pressure of one atmosphere is about 0.125 grams per cm3. Helium was first liquefied on July 10,1908, by the Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands, at that time, helium-3 was unknown because the mass spectrometer had not yet been invented. The temperature required to produce liquid helium is low because of the weakness of the attractions between the helium atoms. These interatomic forces in helium are weak to begin with because helium is a noble gas and these are significant in helium because of its low atomic mass of about four atomic mass units. The zero point energy of helium is less if its atoms are less confined by their neighbors. Hence in liquid helium, its ground state energy can decrease by a naturally occurring increase in its average interatomic distance, however at greater distances, the effects of the interatomic forces in helium are even weaker. Because of the very weak interatomic forces in helium, this element would remain a liquid at atmospheric pressure all the way from its liquefaction point down to absolute zero, liquid helium solidifies only under very low temperatures and great pressures. At temperatures below their liquefaction points, both helium-4 and helium-3 undergo transitions to superfluids, liquid helium-4 and the rare helium-3 are not completely miscible. Below 0.9 kelvin at their saturated vapor pressure, a mixture of the two isotopes undergoes a separation into a normal fluid that floats on a denser superfluid consisting mostly of helium-4. This phase separation happens because the mass of liquid helium can reduce its thermodynamic enthalpy by separating. At extremely low temperatures, the phase, rich in helium-4. This makes possible the use of the dilution refrigerator, which is capable of reaching temperatures of a few millikelvins. Superfluid helium-4 has substantially different properties from ordinary liquid helium, general He-3 and He-4 phase diagrams, etc. Onness liquifaction of helium Kamerlingh Onness 1908 article, online and analyzed on BibNum
Liquid helium
–
Liquid helium (in a vacuum bottle) at 4.2 K and 1 atm, boiling slowly.
Liquid helium
–
Liquid helium cooled below the
Lambda point, where it exhibits properties of
superfluidity
Liquid helium
–
Lambda point transition: as the liquid is cooled down through 2.17 K, the boiling suddenly becomes violent for a moment.
Liquid helium
–
Superfluid phase at temperature below 2.17 K. In this state, the thermal conductivity is extremely large. This causes heat in the body of the liquid to be transferred to its surface so quickly that vaporization takes place only at the free surface of the liquid. Thus, there are no gas bubbles in the body of the liquid.
37.
Helium II
–
Helium is a chemical element with symbol He and atomic number 2. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, inert, monatomic gas and its boiling point is the lowest among all the elements. Its abundance is similar to figure in the Sun and in Jupiter. This is due to the high nuclear binding energy of helium-4 with respect to the next three elements after helium. This helium-4 binding energy also accounts for why it is a product of nuclear fusion and radioactive decay. Most helium in the universe is helium-4, and is believed to have formed during the Big Bang. Large amounts of new helium are being created by fusion of hydrogen in stars. Helium is named for the Greek god of the Sun, Helios and it was first detected as an unknown yellow spectral line signature in sunlight during a solar eclipse in 1868 by French astronomer Jules Janssen. Janssen is jointly credited with detecting the element along with Norman Lockyer, Janssen observed during the solar eclipse of 1868 while Lockyer observed from Britain. Lockyer was the first to propose that the line was due to a new element, the formal discovery of the element was made in 1895 by two Swedish chemists, Per Teodor Cleve and Nils Abraham Langlet, who found helium emanating from the uranium ore cleveite. In 1903, large reserves of helium were found in gas fields in parts of the United States. Liquid helium is used in cryogenics, particularly in the cooling of superconducting magnets, a well-known but minor use is as a lifting gas in balloons and airships. As with any gas whose density differs from that of air, inhaling a small volume of helium temporarily changes the timbre, on Earth it is relatively rare—5.2 ppm by volume in the atmosphere. Most terrestrial helium present today is created by the radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements. Previously, terrestrial helium—a non-renewable resource, because once released into the atmosphere it readily escapes into space—was thought to be in short supply. The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18,1868, the line was detected by French astronomer Jules Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur, India. This line was assumed to be sodium. He concluded that it was caused by an element in the Sun unknown on Earth, Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element with the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος
Helium II
–
Helium, 2 He
Helium II
–
Spectral lines of helium
Helium II
Helium II
–
Sir
William Ramsay, the discoverer of terrestrial helium
38.
Kelvin
–
The kelvin is a unit of measure for temperature based upon an absolute scale. It is one of the seven units in the International System of Units and is assigned the unit symbol K. The kelvin is defined as the fraction 1⁄273.16 of the temperature of the triple point of water. In other words, it is defined such that the point of water is exactly 273.16 K. The Kelvin scale is named after the Belfast-born, Glasgow University engineer and physicist William Lord Kelvin, unlike the degree Fahrenheit and degree Celsius, the kelvin is not referred to or typeset as a degree. The kelvin is the unit of temperature measurement in the physical sciences, but is often used in conjunction with the Celsius degree. The definition implies that absolute zero is equivalent to −273.15 °C, Kelvin calculated that absolute zero was equivalent to −273 °C on the air thermometers of the time. This absolute scale is known today as the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature scale, when spelled out or spoken, the unit is pluralised using the same grammatical rules as for other SI units such as the volt or ohm. When reference is made to the Kelvin scale, the word kelvin—which is normally a noun—functions adjectivally to modify the noun scale and is capitalized, as with most other SI unit symbols there is a space between the numeric value and the kelvin symbol. Before the 13th CGPM in 1967–1968, the unit kelvin was called a degree and it was distinguished from the other scales with either the adjective suffix Kelvin or with absolute and its symbol was °K. The latter term, which was the official name from 1948 until 1954, was ambiguous since it could also be interpreted as referring to the Rankine scale. Before the 13th CGPM, the form was degrees absolute. The 13th CGPM changed the name to simply kelvin. Its measured value was 0.01028 °C with an uncertainty of 60 µK, the use of SI prefixed forms of the degree Celsius to express a temperature interval has not been widely adopted. In 2005 the CIPM embarked on a program to redefine the kelvin using a more experimentally rigorous methodology, the current definition as of 2016 is unsatisfactory for temperatures below 20 K and above 1300 K. In particular, the committee proposed redefining the kelvin such that Boltzmanns constant takes the exact value 1. 3806505×10−23 J/K, from a scientific point of view, this will link temperature to the rest of SI and result in a stable definition that is independent of any particular substance. From a practical point of view, the redefinition will pass unnoticed, the kelvin is often used in the measure of the colour temperature of light sources. Colour temperature is based upon the principle that a black body radiator emits light whose colour depends on the temperature of the radiator, black bodies with temperatures below about 4000 K appear reddish, whereas those above about 7500 K appear bluish
Kelvin
–
Lord Kelvin, the namesake of the unit
Kelvin
–
A thermometer calibrated in degrees Celsius (left) and kelvins (right).
39.
Celsius
–
Celsius, also known as centigrade, is a metric scale and unit of measurement for temperature. As an SI derived unit, it is used by most countries in the world and it is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, who developed a similar temperature scale. The degree Celsius can refer to a temperature on the Celsius scale as well as a unit to indicate a temperature interval. Before being renamed to honour Anders Celsius in 1948, the unit was called centigrade, from the Latin centum, which means 100, and gradus, which means steps. The scale is based on 0° for the point of water. This scale is widely taught in schools today, by international agreement the unit degree Celsius and the Celsius scale are currently defined by two different temperatures, absolute zero, and the triple point of VSMOW. This definition also precisely relates the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale, absolute zero, the lowest temperature possible, is defined as being precisely 0 K and −273.15 °C. The temperature of the point of water is defined as precisely 273.16 K at 611.657 pascals pressure. This definition fixes the magnitude of both the degree Celsius and the kelvin as precisely 1 part in 273.16 of the difference between absolute zero and the point of water. Thus, it sets the magnitude of one degree Celsius and that of one kelvin as exactly the same, additionally, it establishes the difference between the two scales null points as being precisely 273.15 degrees. In his paper Observations of two persistent degrees on a thermometer, he recounted his experiments showing that the point of ice is essentially unaffected by pressure. He also determined with precision how the boiling point of water varied as a function of atmospheric pressure. He proposed that the point of his temperature scale, being the boiling point. This pressure is known as one standard atmosphere, the BIPMs 10th General Conference on Weights and Measures later defined one standard atmosphere to equal precisely 1013250dynes per square centimetre. On 19 May 1743 he published the design of a mercury thermometer, in 1744, coincident with the death of Anders Celsius, the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus reversed Celsiuss scale. In it, Linnaeus recounted the temperatures inside the orangery at the University of Uppsala Botanical Garden, since the 19th century, the scientific and thermometry communities worldwide referred to this scale as the centigrade scale. Temperatures on the scale were often reported simply as degrees or. More properly, what was defined as centigrade then would now be hectograde.2 gradians, for scientific use, Celsius is the term usually used, with centigrade otherwise continuing to be in common but decreasing use, especially in informal contexts in English-speaking countries
Celsius
–
A
thermometer calibrated in degrees Celsius
40.
Azerbaijan
–
Azerbaijan, officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, is a country in the South Caucasus region, situated at the crossroads of Southwest Asia and Southeastern Europe. It is bound by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west and Iran to the south. The exclave of Nakhchivan is bound by Armenia to the north and east, Iran to the south and west, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic proclaimed its independence in 1918 and became the first democratic state in the Muslim orient world. The country was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1920 as the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic, the modern Republic of Azerbaijan proclaimed its independence on 30 August 1991, prior to the official dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. In September 1991, the Armenian majority of the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region seceded to form the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, the region and seven adjacent districts outside it became de facto independent with the end of the Nagorno-Karabakh War in 1994. These regions are recognized as part of Azerbaijan pending a solution to the status of the Nagorno-Karabakh. Azerbaijan is a unitary semi-presidential republic, the country is a member state of the Council of Europe, the OSCE and the NATO Partnership for Peace program. It is one of six independent Turkic states, a member of the Turkic Council. Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries and holds membership in 38 international organizations and it is one of the founding members of GUAM, the Commonwealth of Independent States and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. Its term of office began on 19 June 2006, Azerbaijan is also a member state of the Non-Aligned Movement, holds observer status in World Trade Organization and is a correspondent at the International Telecommunication Union. The Constitution of Azerbaijan does not declare an official religion and all political forces in the country are secularist. However, the majority of the population are of a Shiite Muslim background, Azerbaijan has a high level of human development which ranks on par with most Eastern European countries. It has a rate of economic development and literacy, as well as a low rate of unemployment. According to the Davos World Economic Forum, Azerbaijans economy has scored 37th place within 138 countries in 2016, Global Competitiveness Index 2015 indicates that Azerbaijan scores highest in its region. ASAN services, established with Presidential Decree, are known for eliminating bribery. ASAN Service has been awarded with United Nations Public Service Award 2015, the ruling party, the New Azerbaijan Party, has been accused of authoritarianism and human rights abuses. The original etymology of name is thought to have its roots in the once-dominant Zoroastrianism. In the Avesta, Frawardin Yasht, there is a mention of âterepâtahe ashaonô fravashîm ýazamaide, the name Atropates itself is the Greek transliteration of an Old Iranian, probably Median, compounded name with the meaning Protected by the Fire or The Land of the Fire
Azerbaijan
–
Petroglyphs in
Gobustan dating back to 10,000 BC indicating a thriving culture. It is a UNESCO
World Heritage Site considered to be of "outstanding universal value"
Azerbaijan
–
Flag
Azerbaijan
–
The
Maiden Tower in
Old Baku is a UNESCO World Heritage Site built in the 11th–12th century.
Azerbaijan
–
The siege of Ganja Fortress in 1804 during the
Russo-Persian War (1804-1813) by the Russian forces under leadership of general
Pavel Tsitsianov.
41.
Child prodigy
–
In psychology research literature, the term child prodigy is defined as a person under the age of ten who produces meaningful output in some domain to the level of an adult expert performer. Child prodigies are rare, and, in domains, there are no child prodigies at all. Prodigiousness in childhood does not always predict adult eminence, the term Wunderkind is sometimes used as a synonym for prodigy, particularly in media accounts. Wunderkind also is used to recognize those who achieve success and acclaim early in their adult careers, PET scans performed on several mathematics prodigies have suggested that they think in terms of long-term working memory. This memory, specific to a field of expertise, is capable of holding relevant information for extended periods, the PET scans also answer questions about which specific areas of the brain associate themselves with manipulating numbers. One subject never excelled as a child in mathematics, but he taught himself algorithms and tricks for calculatory speed and his brain, compared to six other controls, was studied using the PET scan, revealing separate areas of his brain that he manipulated to solve the complex problems. Some of the areas that he and presumably prodigies use are brain sectors dealing in visual and spatial memory, as well as visual mental imagery. Other areas of the brain showed use by the subject, including a sector of the brain related to childlike finger counting. Citing extensive imaging evidence, Vandervert first proposed this approach in two publications appeared in 2003. In addition to imaging evidence, Vanderverts approach is supported by the award winning studies of the cerebellum by Masao Ito. Some researchers believe that prodigious talent tends to arise as a result of the talent of the child. Others believe that the environment plays the dominant role, many times in obvious ways, but on the other hand George Frideric Handel was an example of the natural talent. He had discovered such a strong propensity to music, that his father who intended him for the study of the Civil Law, had reason to be alarmed. He strictly forbade him to meddle with any musical instrument but Handel found means to get a little clavichord privately conveyd to a room at the top of the house, to this room he constantly stole when the family was asleep. Despite his fathers opposition, Handel became a performer on the harpsichord. Chess prodigy List of child prodigies List of music prodigies Gifted education Giftedness Late bloomer Malleable intelligence Polymath Savant syndrome Ellenberg, the Wrong Way to Treat Child Geniuses. How working memory and the cerebellum collaborate to produce creativity and innovation, the Gradual Path to Creative Breakthroughs. Notebook, Child Prodigies, CBS News Online, YouTube, February 26,2010
Child prodigy
–
Mozart started composing at age 3.
Child prodigy
–
Daniel Barenboim, age 11, with Conductor Moshe Lustig and the
Gadna Symphonic orchestra 1953
42.
Gymnasium (school)
–
In its current meaning, it usually refers to secondary schools focused on preparing students to enter a university for advanced academic study. In the US, the German Gymnasium curriculum was used at a number of universities such as the University of Michigan as a model for their undergraduate college programs. The word γυμνάσιον was used in Ancient Greece, meaning a locality for both physical and intellectual education of young men, in the Polish educational system the gimnazjum is a middle school for pupils aged 13 to 16. The same applies in the Greek educational system, with the option of Εσπερινό Γυμνάσιο for adults. The gymnasium is a school which prepares the student for higher education at a university. They are thus meant for the more academically minded students, who are sifted out at about the age of 10–13, in addition to the usual curriculum, students of a gymnasium often study Latin and Ancient Greek. Some gymnasiums provide general education, others have a specific focus, today, a number of other areas of specialization exist, such as gymnasiums specializing in economics, technology or domestic sciences. In some countries, there is a notion of progymnasium, which is equivalent to beginning classes of the full gymnasium, here, the prefix pro indicates that this curriculum precedes normal gymnasium studies. The term was derived from the classical Greek word gymnasion, which was applied to an exercising ground in ancient Athens. Here teachers gathered and gave instruction between the hours devoted to exercises and sports, and thus the term became associated with. This use of the term did not prevail among the Romans, but was revived during the Renaissance in Italy, in 1538, Johannes Sturm founded at Strasbourg the school which became the model of the modern German gymnasium. In 1812, a Prussian regulation ordered that all schools which had the right to send their students to the university should bear the name of gymnasia, by the 20th century, this practice was followed in almost the entire Austrian-Hungarian, German, and Russian Empires. In the modern era, many countries which have gymnasiums were once part of three empires. In Albania a gymnasium education takes three years following a compulsory nine-year elementary education and ending with an aptitude test called Matura Shtetërore. The final test is standardized at the level and serves as an entrance qualification for universities. There are both public and private schools in these countries. Therefore, gymnasiums often base their admittance criteria on an entrance exam, in Austria the Gymnasium has two stages, from the age of 11 to 14, and from 15 to 18, concluding with Matura. The Humanistisches Gymnasium focuses on Ancient Greek and Latin, the Neusprachliches Gymnasium puts its focus on actively spoken languages
Gymnasium (school)
–
Stiftsgymnasium Melk, oldest Austrian school
Gymnasium (school)
–
Archdiocesan Classical Gymnasium in
Zagreb,
Croatia
Gymnasium (school)
–
New campus of
Serbian Orthodox Secondary School "Kantakuzina Katarina Branković" in
Zagreb,
Croatia
Gymnasium (school)
–
Evangelical Seminaries of Maulbronn and Blaubeuren – picture showing church and courtyard
43.
Saint Petersburg
–
Saint Petersburg is Russias second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in 2012, and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is politically incorporated as a federal subject, situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 271703. In 1914, the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, in 1924 to Leningrad, between 1713 and 1728 and 1732–1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia. In 1918, the government bodies moved to Moscow. Saint Petersburg is one of the cities of Russia, as well as its cultural capital. The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Saint Petersburg is home to The Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. A large number of consulates, international corporations, banks. Swedish colonists built Nyenskans, a fortress, at the mouth of the Neva River in 1611, in a then called Ingermanland. A small town called Nyen grew up around it, Peter the Great was interested in seafaring and maritime affairs, and he intended to have Russia gain a seaport in order to be able to trade with other maritime nations. He needed a better seaport than Arkhangelsk, which was on the White Sea to the north, on May 1703121703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great captured Nyenskans, and soon replaced the fortress. On May 271703, closer to the estuary 5 km inland from the gulf), on Zayachy Island, he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress, which became the first brick and stone building of the new city. The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia, tens of thousands of serfs died building the city. Later, the city became the centre of the Saint Petersburg Governorate, Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712,9 years before the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 ended the war, he referred to Saint Petersburg as the capital as early as 1704. During its first few years, the city developed around Trinity Square on the bank of the Neva, near the Peter. However, Saint Petersburg soon started to be built out according to a plan, by 1716 the Swiss Italian Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be located on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by a rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed, but is evident in the layout of the streets, in 1716, Peter the Great appointed French Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond as the chief architect of Saint Petersburg. In 1724 the Academy of Sciences, University and Academic Gymnasium were established in Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great, in 1725, Peter died at the age of fifty-two. His endeavours to modernize Russia had met opposition from the Russian nobility—resulting in several attempts on his life
Saint Petersburg
–
Top left to bottom right:
Peter and Paul Fortress on
Zayachy Island,
Smolny Cathedral,
Moyka river with the
General Staff Building,
Trinity Cathedral,
Bronze Horseman on
Senate Square, and the
Winter Palace.
Saint Petersburg
–
The
Bronze Horseman, monument to Peter the Great
Saint Petersburg
–
Palace Square backed by the General Staff arch and building, as the main square of the Russian Empire it was the setting of many events of historic significance
Saint Petersburg
–
Map of Saint Petersburg, 1903
44.
Rockefeller Foundation
–
The Rockefeller Foundation is a private foundation based at 420 Fifth Avenue, New York City. It was established by the six-generation Rockefeller family, the Foundation was started by Standard Oil owner John D. Rockefeller, along with his son John D. Rockefeller Jr. Its stated mission is promoting the well-being of humanity throughout the world, as of 2015, the Foundation was ranked as the 39th largest U. S. foundation by total giving. By year-end 2008 assets were tallied at $3.1 billion from $4.6 billion in 2007, on January 5,2017, the Board of Trustees announced the unanimous selection of Dr. Rajiv Shah to serve as the 13th president of the foundation. Shah became the youngest person, at 43, and first-ever Indian-American to serve as president of the foundation. He assumed the position March 1, succeeding Dr. Judith Rodin who served as president for twelve years and announced her retirement, at age 71. Rodin in turn had succeeded Gordon Conway in 2005, a former president of the University of Pennsylvania, Rodin was the first woman to head the foundation. It was in that year he gave the first $100,000 to fund the University of Chicago, over the next two decades, $35 million dollars were gifted to the institution by Rockefeller. It was also in 1906 that the Russell Sage Foundation was established, though its program was limited to working women, Rockefellers would thus not be the first foundation in America, but it brought to it unprecedented international scale and scope. On May 14,1913, New York Governor William Sulzer approved a charter for the foundation - two years after the Carnegie Corporation - with Junior becoming the first president. With its large-scale endowment, a part of Seniors fortune was insulated from inheritance taxes. On December 5, the Board made its first grant of $100,000 to the American Red Cross to purchase property for its headquarters in Washington, D. C. At the beginning the foundation was global in its approach and concentrated in its first decade entirely on the sciences, public health and medical education. In 1913 the foundation set up the International Health Commission, the first appropriation of funds for work outside the US and its early field research on hookworm, malaria, and yellow fever provided the basic techniques to control these diseases and established the pattern of modern public health services. In 1913 it also began a 20-year support program of the Bureau of Social Hygiene, whose mission was research and education on birth control, maternal health and sex education. Also in 1914, the set up a new Department of Industrial Relations. The foundation henceforth confined itself to funding responsible organizations involved in this and other controversial fields, during its first few years of work, the LSRM awarded funds primarily to social workers, with its funding decisions guided primarily by John D. Rockefeller Jr. In January 1929, LSRM funds were folded into the Rockefeller Foundation, John D. Rockefeller Jr. became the foundation chairman in 1917
Rockefeller Foundation
–
Original Rockefeller logo, no longer in use
Rockefeller Foundation
–
Trinidad Regional Virus Laboratory Field Assistant,
Nariva Swamp,
Trinidad. 1959
45.
Leipzig
–
Leipzig is the largest city in the federal state of Saxony, Germany. With a population of 570,087 inhabitants it is Germanys tenth most populous city, Leipzig is located about 160 kilometres southwest of Berlin at the confluence of the White Elster, Pleisse, and Parthe rivers at the southern end of the North German Plain. Leipzig has been a city since at least the time of the Holy Roman Empire. The city sits at the intersection of the Via Regia and Via Imperii, Leipzig was once one of the major European centers of learning and culture in fields such as music and publishing. Leipzig became an urban center within the German Democratic Republic after the Second World War. Leipzig later played a significant role in instigating the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, through events which took place in, Leipzig today is an economic center and the most livable city in Germany, according to the GfK marketing research institution. Since the opening of the Leipzig City Tunnel in 2013, Leipzig forms the centerpiece of the S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland public transit system, Leipzig is currently listed as Gamma World City and Germanys Boomtown. Outside of Leipzig the Neuseenland district forms a lake area of approximately 300 square kilometres. Leipzig is derived from the Slavic word Lipsk, which means settlement where the linden trees stand, an older spelling of the name in English is Leipsic. The Latin name Lipsia was also used, the name is cognate with Lipetsk in Russia and Liepāja in Latvia. In 1937 the Nazi government officially renamed the city Reichsmessestadt Leipzig, the common usage of this nickname for Leipzig up until the present is reflected, for example, in the name of a popular blog for local arts and culture, Heldenstadt. de. Leipzig was first documented in 1015 in the chronicles of Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg as urbs Libzi and endowed with city, Leipzig Trade Fair, started in the Middle Ages, became an event of international importance and is the oldest remaining trade fair in the world. During the Thirty Years War, two battles took place in Breitenfeld, about 8 kilometres outside Leipzig city walls, the first Battle of Breitenfeld took place in 1631 and the second in 1642. Both battles resulted in victories for the Swedish-led side, on 24 December 1701, an oil-fueled street lighting system was introduced. The city employed light guards who had to follow a schedule to ensure the punctual lighting of the 700 lanterns. The Leipzig region was the arena of the 1813 Battle of Leipzig between Napoleonic France and a coalition of Prussia, Russia, Austria and Sweden. It was the largest battle in Europe prior to the First World War, in 1913 the Monument to the Battle of the Nations celebrating the centenary of this event was completed. The railway station has two entrance halls, the eastern one for the Royal Saxon State Railways and the western one for the Prussian state railways
Leipzig
Leipzig
Leipzig
Leipzig
46.
Copenhagen
–
Copenhagen, Danish, København, Latin, Hafnia) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark. Copenhagen has an population of 1,280,371. The Copenhagen metropolitan area has just over 2 million inhabitants, the city is situated on the eastern coast of the island of Zealand, another small portion of the city is located on Amager, and is separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the strait of Øresund. The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road, originally a Viking fishing village founded in the 10th century, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century. Beginning in the 17th century it consolidated its position as a centre of power with its institutions, defences. After suffering from the effects of plague and fire in the 18th century and this included construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and founding of such cultural institutions as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. Later, following the Second World War, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing, since the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure. The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark, Copenhagens economy has seen rapid developments in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology. Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has become integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö. With a number of connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterized by parks, promenades. Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark, the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark. Copenhagen is home to the FC København and Brøndby football clubs, the annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980. Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world, the Copenhagen Metro serves central Copenhagen while the Copenhagen S-train network connects central Copenhagen to its outlying boroughs. Serving roughly 2 million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the largest airport in the Nordic countries, the name of the city reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce. The original designation, from which the contemporary Danish name derives, was Køpmannæhafn, meaning merchants harbour, the literal English translation would be Chapmans haven. The English name for the city was adapted from its Low German name, the abbreviations Kbh. or Kbhvn are often used in Danish for København, and kbh. for københavnsk. The chemical element hafnium is named for Copenhagen, where it was discovered, the bacterium Hafnia is also named after Copenhagen, Vagn Møller of the State Serum Institute in Copenhagen named it in 1954. Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century, the remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen
Copenhagen
–
From upper left:
Christiansborg Palace,
Frederik's Church,
Tivoli Gardens and
Nyhavn.
Copenhagen
–
Reconstruction of Copenhagen c. 1500
Copenhagen
–
The
Tøjhus Arsenal (
1604)
Copenhagen
–
The
Børsen, former stock exchange (completed
1640)
47.
Niels Bohr Institute
–
The Niels Bohr Institute is a research institute of the University of Copenhagen. The research of the institute spans astronomy, geophysics, nanotechnology, particle physics, on the 80th anniversary of Niels Bohrs birth - October 7,1965 - the Institute officially became The Niels Bohr Institute. Much of its funding came from the charitable foundation of the Carlsberg brewery. During the 1920s, and 1930s, the Institute was the center of the disciplines of atomic physics. Physicists from across Europe often visited the Institute to confer with Bohr on new theories and discoveries, the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics is named after work done at the Institute during this time. On January 1,1993 the institute was merged with the Astronomic Observatory, the Ørsted Laboratory, the new resulting institute retained the name Niels Bohr Institute. In 2010, the year of the 125th anniversary of the birth of Niels Bohr and it is an annual award for a particularly outstanding researcher who is working in the spirit of Niels Bohr, International cooperation and the exchange of knowledge. The medal is made by Danish sculptor Rikke Raben for the Niels Bohr Institute, on the front is a portrait of Niels Bohr, the atom sign and stars. The illustration on the back is inspired by a quote from Bohr and our task is to communicate experience and ideas to others. On the back of the medal, Unity of Knowledge - the title of a given by Bohr at Columbia University in 1954. Nosce te ipsum is latin and means know thyself and this quote originates from the Oracle of Delphi, in the Temple of Apollo in Greece
Niels Bohr Institute
–
The Niels Bohr Institute
Niels Bohr Institute
–
Niels Bohr Institute Medal-A
Niels Bohr Institute
–
Niels Bohr Institute Medal-R
48.
Cambridge
–
Cambridge is a university city and the county town of Cambridgeshire, England, on the River Cam about 50 miles north of London. At the United Kingdom Census 2011, its population was 123,867, there is archaeological evidence of settlement in the area in the Bronze Age and in Roman Britain, under Viking rule, Cambridge became an important trading centre. The first town charters were granted in the 12th century, although city status was not conferred until 1951, the University of Cambridge, founded in 1209, is one of the top five universities in the world. The university includes the Cavendish Laboratory, Kings College Chapel, the citys skyline is dominated by the last two buildings, along with the spire of the Our Lady and the English Martyrs Church, the chimney of Addenbrookes Hospital and St Johns College Chapel tower. Anglia Ruskin University, evolved from the Cambridge School of Art, Cambridge is at the heart of the high-technology Silicon Fen with industries such as software and bioscience and many start-up companies spun out of the university. More than 40% of the workforce has a higher education qualification, the Cambridge Biomedical Campus, one of the largest biomedical research clusters in the world, is soon to be home to AstraZeneca, a hotel and the relocated Papworth Hospital. Parkers Piece hosted the first ever game of Association football, the Strawberry Fair music and arts festival and Midsummer Fairs are held on Midsummer Common, and the annual Cambridge Beer Festival takes place on Jesus Green. The city is adjacent to the M11 and A14 roads, settlements have existed around the Cambridge area since prehistoric times. The earliest clear evidence of occupation is the remains of a 3, the principal Roman site is a small fort Duroliponte on Castle Hill, just northwest of the city centre around the location of the earlier British village. The fort was bounded on two sides by the lines formed by the present Mount Pleasant, continuing across Huntingdon Road into Clare Street, the eastern side followed Magrath Avenue, with the southern side running near to Chesterton Lane and Kettles Yard before turning northwest at Honey Hill. It was constructed around AD70 and converted to use around 50 years later. Evidence of more widespread Roman settlement has been discovered including numerous farmsteads, evidence exists that the invading Anglo-Saxons had begun occupying the area by the end of the century. Their settlement—also on and around Castle Hill—became known as Grantebrycge, Anglo-Saxon grave goods have been found in the area. During this period, Cambridge benefited from good trade links across the hard-to-travel fenlands, by the 7th century, the town was less significant and described by Bede as a little ruined city containing the burial site of Etheldreda. Cambridge was on the border between the East and Middle Anglian kingdoms and the settlement slowly expanded on both sides of the river, the arrival of the Vikings was recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 875. Viking rule, the Danelaw, had been imposed by 878 Their vigorous trading habits caused the town to grow rapidly. During this period the centre of the town shifted from Castle Hill on the bank of the river to the area now known as the Quayside on the right bank. In 1068, two years after his conquest of England, William of Normandy built a castle on Castle Hill, like the rest of the newly conquered kingdom, Cambridge fell under the control of the King and his deputies
Cambridge
–
King's College Chapel, seen from
the Backs
Cambridge
–
St Bene't's Church, the oldest standing building in Cambridge.
Cambridge
–
Peterhouse was the first college to be founded in the University of Cambridge.
Cambridge
–
Cambridge in 1575
49.
Novodevichy cemetery
–
For the cemetery in St. Petersburg, see Novodevichy Cemetery Novodevichy Cemetery is the most famous cemetery in Moscow. It lies next to the wall of the 16th-century Novodevichy Convent. It should not be confused with the Novodevichy Cemetery in Saint Petersburg, the cemetery was designed by Ivan Mashkov and inaugurated in 1898. Its importance dates from the 1930s, when the necropoleis of the medieval Muscovite monasteries were scheduled for demolition, only the Donskoy survived the Joseph Stalin era relatively intact. The remains of many famous Russians buried in other abbeys, such as Nikolai Gogol, a 19th-century necropolis within the walls of the Novodevichy convent, which contained the graves of about 2000 Russian noblemen and university professors, also underwent reconstruction. The vast majority of graves were destroyed and it was at that time that the remains of Anton Chekhov were moved outside the monastery walls. His grave served as the kernel of the cherry orchard - a section of the cemetery which contains the graves of Constantin Stanislavski. Under Soviet rule, burial in the Novodevichy Cemetery was second in only to burial in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis. Among the Soviet leaders, only Nikita Khrushchev was buried at the Novodevichy rather than at the Red Square, since the fall of the Soviet Union, the Kremlin Wall is no longer used for burials and the Novodevichy Cemetery is used for only the most symbolically significant burials. For example, in April 2007, within one week both the first President of the Russian Federation Boris Yeltsin and world-renowned cellist Mstislav Rostropovich were buried there. Today, the cemetery holds the tombs of Russian authors, musicians, playwrights, and poets, as well as actors, political leaders. More than 27,000 are buried at Novodevichy, there is scant space for more burials. A new national cemetery is under construction in Mytishchi north of Moscow, the cemetery has a park-like ambiance, dotted with small chapels and large sculpted monuments. It is divided into the old, new and newest sections, hi-resolution photos Famous and picturesque memorials photographed June 2005 Novodevichii Cemetery – article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia Novodevichy Cemetery, Where History sleeps -VIDEO
Novodevichy cemetery
–
Cemetery entrance
Novodevichy cemetery
–
The cemetery wall is used as a
columbarium.
Novodevichy cemetery
–
Mikhail Bulgakov
Novodevichy cemetery
–
Anton Chekhov
listen); January 22 [O.S. January 9] 1908 – 1 April 1968) was a Soviet physicist who made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics. His accomplishments include the independent co-discovery of the density matrix method[1] in quantum mechanics (alongside John von Neumann), the quantum mechanical theory of diamagnetism, the theory of superfluidity, the theory of second-order phase transitions, the Ginzburg–Landau theory of superconductivity, the theory of Fermi liquid, the explanation of Landau damping in plasma physics, the Landau pole in quantum electrodynamics, the two-component theory of neutrinos, and Landau's equations for S matrix singularities.[2] He received the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physics for his development of a mathematical theory of superfluidity that accounts for the properties of liquid helium II at a temperature below 2.17 K (−270.98 °C).[3]
.
Media related to Lev Landau at Wikimedia Commons
