1.
Edmund Landau
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Edmund Georg Hermann Landau was a German born mathematician who worked in the fields of number theory and complex analysis. Edmund Landau was born to Jewish family in Berlin and his father was Leopold Landau, a gynecologist and his mother was Johanna Jacoby. Landau studied mathematics at the University of Berlin, receiving his doctorate in 1899 and his doctoral thesis was 14 pages long. He taught at the University of Berlin from 1899 to 1909 and he married Marianne Ehrlich, the daughter of the Nobel Prize-winning biologist Paul Ehrlich, in 1905. During the 1920s, Landau was instrumental in establishing the Mathematics Institute at the nascent Hebrew University of Jerusalem and he negotiated with the Universitys president, Judah Magnes, regarding a position at the University and the building that was to house the Mathematics Institute. Landau and his emigrated to Palestine in 1927 and he began teaching at the Hebrew University. The family had difficulty adjusting to the living standards then available in Jerusalem. In addition, Landau became a pawn in a struggle for control of the University between Magnes and Chaim Weizmann and Albert Einstein, Magnes suggested that Landau be appointed Rector of the University, but Einstein and Weizmann supported Selig Brodetsky. Landau was disgusted by the dispute and decided to return to Göttingen, thereafter, he lectured only outside Germany. He moved to Berlin in 1934, where he died in early 1938 of natural causes and he also made important contributions to complex analysis. G. H. Hardy wrote that no one was ever more devoted to mathematics than Landau. Foundations of Analysis, Chelsea Pub Co, differential and Integral Calculus, American Mathematical Society. Elementary Number Theory, American Mathematical Society, journal of the London Mathematical Society. Obituary and review of work and books. OConnor, John J. Robertson, Edmund F. Edmund Landau, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, Edmund Landau at the Mathematics Genealogy Project Edmund Landau, The Master Rigorist by Eli Maor, Trigonometric Delights, page 192. Translation of his thesis, Neuer Beweis der Gleichung ∑ k =1 ∞ μ k =0
2.
Baku
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Baku is the capital and largest city of Azerbaijan, as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and of the Caucasus region. Baku is located 28 metres below sea level, which makes it the lowest lying national capital in the world and it is located on the southern shore of the Absheron Peninsula, alongside the Bay of Baku. At the beginning of 2009, Bakus urban population was estimated at just over two million people, officially, about 25 percent of all inhabitants of the country live in Bakus metropolitan area. Baku is divided into administrative districts and 48 townships. Among these are the townships on the islands of the Baku Archipelago, the Inner City of Baku, along with the Shirvanshahs Palace and Maiden Tower, were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000. According to the Lonely Planets ranking, Baku is also among the top ten destinations for urban nightlife. The city is the scientific, cultural and industrial center of Azerbaijan, many sizeable Azerbaijani institutions have their headquarters there. The Baku International Sea Trade Port is capable of handling two million tons of general and dry bulk cargoes per year, in recent years, Baku has become an important venue for international events. The city is renowned for its winds, which is reflected in its nickname. Indeed, the city is renowned for its fierce winter snow storms and this is also reflected in the citys nickname as the City of Winds. A less probable folk etymology explains the name as deriving from Baghkuy, baga and kuy are the Old Persian words for god and town respectively, the name Baghkuy may be compared with Baghdād in which dād is the Old Persian word for give. Arabic sources refer to the city as Baku, Bakukh, Bakuya, around 100,000 years ago, the territory of modern Baku and Absheron was savanna with rich flora and fauna. Traces of human settlement go back to the Stone age, from the Bronze age there have been rock carvings discovered near Bayil, and a bronze figure of a small fish discovered in the territory of the Old City. These have led some to suggest the existence of a Bronze Age settlement within the citys territory, further archeological excavations revealed various prehistoric settlements, native temples, statues and other artifacts within the territory of the modern city and around it. In the 1st century, the Romans organized two Caucasian campaigns and reached Baku, near the city, in Gobustan, Roman inscriptions dating from 84–96 AD were discovered. This is one of the earliest written evidences for Baku, during the 8th century Baku was the realm of the Shirvanshahs. The city frequently came under assault of the Khazars and the Rus, shirvanshah Akhsitan I built a navy in Baku and successfully repelled another Rus assault in 1170. After a devastating earthquake struck Shamakhy, the capital of Shirvan, the Shirvan era greatly influenced Baku and the remainder of Azerbaijan
3.
Baku Governorate
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Baku Governorate was one of the guberniyas of the Russian Empire, with its centre in Baku. Area,34,4000 sq. verstas, population,789,659, the only foreign border of the governorate was Persia, in the south. Within the empire it bordered with Elisabethpol Governorate and Dagestan Oblast and it belonged to the Caucasus Viceroyalty. The governorate was established in 1846 as Shemakha Governorate, in place of several military precincts, in 1849 Shahur-Daralagoz uzeyd was part of newly founded Erivan Governorate. After the devastating 1859 Shamakhi earthquake it was decided to transfter the capital of the governorate from Shemakha to Baku, on July 12,1859 the governorates name was changed accordingly. The coat of arms of the governorate was instituted on July 5,1878, initially Baku Governorate included Karabakh and Zangezur, which were separated in 1868 to create Elisabethpol Governorate. The governorate was preserved until the establishment of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, Baku Governorate had six uyezds, Baku Kuba Shemakha Geokchai Dzhevat Lenkoran As of 1897,789,659 people populated the governorate, of them 55% were male. Azeris constituted the majority of the population, significant minorities consisted of Russians, Armenians, Lezgins, Tats, Talysh and Jews. The ethnic group composition was notable different as compared to several decades earlier.3 thousand ->, muslims generally lived in the historical center, surrounded by the khans castle in the west of the city. In the industrial zone lived the Armenians - in the north of the city, during the construction of the new city center, various ethnic groups started to live in different districts
4.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
5.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
6.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
7.
Novodevichy Cemetery
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For the cemetery in St. Petersburg, see Novodevichy Cemetery Novodevichy Cemetery is the most famous cemetery in Moscow. It lies next to the wall of the 16th-century Novodevichy Convent. It should not be confused with the Novodevichy Cemetery in Saint Petersburg, the cemetery was designed by Ivan Mashkov and inaugurated in 1898. Its importance dates from the 1930s, when the necropoleis of the medieval Muscovite monasteries were scheduled for demolition, only the Donskoy survived the Joseph Stalin era relatively intact. The remains of many famous Russians buried in other abbeys, such as Nikolai Gogol, a 19th-century necropolis within the walls of the Novodevichy convent, which contained the graves of about 2000 Russian noblemen and university professors, also underwent reconstruction. The vast majority of graves were destroyed and it was at that time that the remains of Anton Chekhov were moved outside the monastery walls. His grave served as the kernel of the cherry orchard - a section of the cemetery which contains the graves of Constantin Stanislavski. Under Soviet rule, burial in the Novodevichy Cemetery was second in only to burial in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis. Among the Soviet leaders, only Nikita Khrushchev was buried at the Novodevichy rather than at the Red Square, since the fall of the Soviet Union, the Kremlin Wall is no longer used for burials and the Novodevichy Cemetery is used for only the most symbolically significant burials. For example, in April 2007, within one week both the first President of the Russian Federation Boris Yeltsin and world-renowned cellist Mstislav Rostropovich were buried there. Today, the cemetery holds the tombs of Russian authors, musicians, playwrights, and poets, as well as actors, political leaders. More than 27,000 are buried at Novodevichy, there is scant space for more burials. A new national cemetery is under construction in Mytishchi north of Moscow, the cemetery has a park-like ambiance, dotted with small chapels and large sculpted monuments. It is divided into the old, new and newest sections, hi-resolution photos Famous and picturesque memorials photographed June 2005 Novodevichii Cemetery – article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia Novodevichy Cemetery, Where History sleeps -VIDEO
8.
Baku State University
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Baku State University is a public university located in Baku, Azerbaijan. The first rector of BSU was V. I. Razumovsky, in 1930, the government ordered the University shut down in accordance with a reorganization of higher education, and the University was replaced with the Supreme Pedagogical Institute. However, in 1934 the University was reestablished again, and continued to work through the years of World War II experiencing a shortage of faculty members. By its 40th anniversary in 1959, the University already had 13 faculties, the Azerbaijan Medical University and Azerbaijan State Economic University were both spun-offs of the original respective faculties at BSU. Among the graduates of BSU were two presidents of Azerbaijan, Abulfaz Elchibey and Heydar Aliyev. The former graduated from the Faculty of Arabic Language and Literature, while the latter, nobel Prize-winning physicist Lev Landau studied at BSU between 1922 and 1924. BSU was established on September 1,1919 by the decision of the Parliament of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, in its first year, the university had two faculties — Faculty of Philology and the Medical Faculty — and an enrollment of 1094 students. Among the leading professors in 1920-40 were Azerbaijani writer Abdurrahim bek Haqverdiyev, during that period the administration of the university invited to Baku such teachers as N. Y. Bartold, the academician of the Eastern Science Academy Fuad bek Kuprulluzade, in 1930 the university was liquidated according to the decision made by Council of the People’s Commissar on reorganization. The High Pedagogical Institute was created, only in 1943 the state university resumed its activity and very soon became the republic’s scientific-pedagogical center. Despite the great shortage of university teachers because most of teachers went to the Second World War, in 1945 the teachers took an active part in founding the Azerbaijan Academy of Science. The years after 1969 can be considered as the years of development in the direction of knowledge, covering a wide historical period, in those years there were founded faculties on modern specialties, departments and about 30 scientific research laboratories started. As a result, there was created a strong assurance of future development
9.
Saint Petersburg State University
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Saint Petersburg State University is a Russian federal state-owned higher education institution based in Saint Petersburg. It is the oldest and one of the largest universities in Russia, the university has two primary campuses, one on Vasilievsky Island and the other in Peterhof. During the Soviet period, it was known as Leningrad State University and it was named after Andrei Zhdanov in 1948. Saint Petersburg State University is the second best multi-faculty university in Russia after Moscow State University, the university has a reputation for having educated the majority of Russias political elite, these include presidents Vladimir Putin and Dimitry Medvedev, both of whom studied Law at the university. The university is Russias oldest university, founded in 1724 by Peter the Great, Saint Petersburg state university is included in all ratings and lists of the best universities in the world and is one of the leaders in all indicators in Russia. The university was the first from Russian universities to join The Coimbra Group and it is disputed by the university administration whether Saint Petersburg State University or Moscow State University is the oldest higher education institution in Russia. The Petersburg Pedagogical Institute, renamed the Main Pedagogical Institute in 1814, was established in 1804, in 1823 most of the university moved from the Twelve Collegia to the southern part of the city beyond the Fontanka. In 1824 a modified version of the charter of Moscow University was adopted as the first charter of the Saint Petersburg Imperial University, in 1829 there were 19 full professors and 169 full-time and part-time students at the university. In 1830 Tsar Nicholas returned the building of the Twelve Collegia back to the university. In 1835 a new Charter of the Imperial Universities of Russia was approved, however, Pyotr Pletnyov was reappointed Rector and ultimately became the longest-serving rector of Saint Petersburg University. In 1855 Oriental studies were separated from the Faculty of History and Philology, in 1859–1861 female part-time students could attend lectures in the university. In 1861 there were 1,270 full-time and 167 part-time students in the university, of them 498 were in the Faculty of Law, many Russian, Georgian etc. managers, engineers and scientists studied at the Faculty of law therefore. During 1861–1862 there was student unrest in the university, and it was closed twice during the year. The students were denied freedom of assembly and placed under police surveillance, after the unrest, in 1865, only 524 students remained. A decree of the Emperor Alexander II of Russia adopted on 18 February 1863 restored the right of the university assembly to elect the rector and it also formed the new faculty of the theory and history of art as part of the faculty of history and philology. In March 1869, student unrest shook the university again but on a smaller scale, by 1869,2,588 students had graduated from the university. In 1880 the Ministry of National Enlightenment forbade students to marry, in 1882 another student unrest took place in the university. In 1884 a new Charter of the Imperial Russian Universities was adopted, on March 1,1887 a group of the university students was arrested while planning an attempt on the life of Alexander III of Russia
10.
Diploma
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In some countries, e. g. the United Kingdom and Australia, the word diploma also refers to an academic award. Historically, it can refer to a charter or official document, thus diplomatic, diplomat. Alternatively, this document can simply be referred to as a certificate or graduation certificate. The certificate that a Nobel laureate receives is also called a diploma, the term diploma is also used in some historical contexts, to refer to documents signed by a King affirming a grant or tenure of specified land and its conditions. It is typically completed with 12 to 18 months of full-time study, when accepted for credit as part of a bachelors degree, it is usually deemed to be equivalent to the first year of the degree. An Advanced Diploma, which is equivalent to an Australian Associate Degree, a Graduate Diploma, which is undertaken after completing a bachelors degree. This can be in a other than that covered by said degree. It can also be a coursework-only qualification undertaken as additional study in a specialisation within ones degree area, the Vocational Graduate Diploma was a short lived AQF qualification equivalent to the Graduate Diploma, intended to be delivered exclusively in the VET sector. On January 1,2015, all such qualifications being offered lost the word Vocational from their title, in Ontario, Canada, diplomas are awarded by colleges of applied arts and technology whereas bachelor degrees are awarded by universities. In Canada, depending on the legislation, there may also be a difference between a college and a university. In Greece, diplomas can be awarded by educational institutes as a proof of an educational level. In Hong Kong, advanced diploma, higher diploma, and associate degree are below the standard of the bachelors degree. Certificate and diploma are below the standard of advanced diploma, higher diploma, Postgraduate Certificates and Postgraduate Diplomas are taken after the bachelors degree, and are more vocational oriented than a masters degree. In India, a diploma is an academic award usually earned in professional/vocational courses, e. g. Diploma in Nursing Engineering, Pharmacy, Design. Also, a diploma is concentrated for the area of study, for example, a Diploma in Engineering of Electronics Engineering may be in Advanced Communication Systems or Integrated Circuits or Industrial Electronics. On successful completion of Parts I and II Technician Examination of Institution of Mechanical Engineers, similarly Diploma in Engineering of Civil Engineering is rated differently than Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering but is equivalent to Bachelor of Science in Geology. Another example of a diploma concentrated for the area of study is Diploma in Engineering of Civil Engineering, on successful completion of Parts I and II Technician Examination of Institution of Civil Engineers, it is equivalent to Diploma in Civil Engineering as per a government of India circular. Successful completion of the Diploma Studies allows articulation into the year of Bachelor of Engineering/Bachelor of Technology programs
11.
Landau damping
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In physics, Landau damping, named after its discoverer, the eminent Soviet physicist Lev Landau, is the effect of damping of longitudinal space charge waves in plasma or a similar environment. This phenomenon prevents an instability from developing, and creates a region of stability in the parameter space, Landau damping can be manipulated exactly in numerical simulations such as particle-in-cell simulation. It was proved to exist experimentally by Malmberg and Wharton in 1964 and this is proved experimentally with a Traveling-wave tube. In a collisionless plasma the particle velocities are often taken to be approximately a Maxwellian distribution function, if the slope of the function is negative, the number of particles with velocities slightly less than the wave phase velocity is greater than the number of particles with velocities slightly greater. Hence, there are more particles gaining energy from the wave than losing to the wave, hence, there are more particles losing energy to the wave than gaining from the wave, which leads to a resultant increase in the wave energy. The mathematical theory of Landau damping is somewhat involved—see the section below, however, there is a simple physical interpretation, which, though not strictly correct, helps to visualize this phenomenon. It is possible to imagine Langmuir waves as waves in the sea, also, a boat that moves very fast does not exchange much energy with the wave. A simple mechanical description of particle dynamics provides an estimate of the synchronization of particles with the wave. A more rigorous approach shows the strongest synchronization occurs for particles with a velocity in the wave frame proportional to the damping rate, since Landau damping occurs for waves with arbitrarily small amplitudes, this shows the most active particles in this damping are far from being trapped. This is natural, since trapping involves diverging time scales for such waves, theoretical treatment starts with the Vlasov equation in the non-relativistic zero-magnetic field limit, the Vlasov–Poisson set of equations. Explicit solutions are obtained in the limit of a small E -field, the distribution function f and field E are expanded in a series, f = f 0 + f 1 + f 2, E = E1 + E2 and terms of equal order are collected. Later Nico van Kampen proved that the result can be obtained with Fourier transform. Decomposing the initial disturbance in these modes he obtained the Fourier spectrum of the resulting wave, damping is explained by phase-mixing of these Fourier modes with slightly different frequencies near ω p. It was not clear how damping could occur in a collisionless plasma, in fluid theory, in which the plasma is modeled as a dispersive dielectric medium, the energy of Langmuir waves is known, field energy multiplied by the Brillouin factor ∂ ω. But damping cannot be derived in this model, to calculate energy exchange of the wave with resonant electrons, Vlasov plasma theory has to be expanded to second order and problems about suitable initial conditions and secular terms arise. In Ref. these problems are studied, because calculations for an infinite wave are deficient in second order, a wave packet is analysed. Second-order initial conditions are found that suppress secular behavior and excite a wave packet of which the energy agrees with fluid theory, the figure shows the energy density of a wave packet traveling at the group velocity, its energy being carried away by electrons moving at the phase velocity. Total energy, the area under the curves, is conserved, the rigorous mathematical theory is based on solving the Cauchy problem for the evolution equation and proving estimates on the solution
12.
Landau distribution
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In probability theory, the Landau distribution is a probability distribution named after Lev Landau. Because of the long tail, the moments of the distribution. The distribution is a case of the stable distribution. The result does not change if c changes, for numerical purposes it is more convenient to use the following equivalent form of the integral, p =1 π ∫0 ∞ e − t log t − x t sin d t. The full family of Landau distributions is obtained by extending the standard distribution to a location-scale family and this distribution can be approximated by p =12 π exp . This distribution is a case of the stable distribution with parameters α =1. The characteristic function may be expressed as, φ = exp. where μ and c are real, if X ∼ Landau then X + m ∼ Landau The Landau distribution is a stable distribution with the stable distribution stability parameter α and skewness parameter β both equal to 1
13.
Gauge fixing
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In the physics of gauge theories, gauge fixing denotes a mathematical procedure for coping with redundant degrees of freedom in field variables. By definition, a gauge theory represents each physically distinct configuration of the system as a class of detailed local field configurations. Any two detailed configurations in the equivalence class are related by a gauge transformation, equivalent to a shear along unphysical axes in configuration space. Most of the physical predictions of a gauge theory can only be obtained under a coherent prescription for suppressing or ignoring these unphysical degrees of freedom. Although the unphysical axes in the space of detailed configurations are a property of the physical model. Hence there is an amount of freedom involved in taking a cross section representing each physical configuration by a particular detailed configuration. These field strength variables can be expressed in terms of the scalar potential φ. If another change is made then E also remains the same, hence, the E and B fields are unchanged if one takes any function ψ and simultaneously transforms A and φ via the transformations and. A particular choice of the scalar and vector potentials is a gauge, the existence of arbitrary numbers of gauge functions ψ corresponds to the U gauge freedom of this theory. Gauge fixing can be done in ways, some of which we exhibit below. Although classical electromagnetism is now spoken of as a gauge theory. Not until the advent of field theory could it be said that the potentials themselves are part of the physical configuration of a system. The earliest consequence to be predicted and experimentally verified was the Aharonov–Bohm effect. Nevertheless, gauge freedom is still true in these theories, for example, the Aharonov–Bohm effect depends on a line integral of A around a closed loop, and this integral is not changed by A → A + ∇ ψ. By looking at a cylindrical rod can one tell whether it is twisted, if the rod is perfectly cylindrical, then the circular symmetry of the cross section makes it impossible to tell whether or not it is twisted. However, if there were a line drawn along the length of the rod. Drawing a line is gauge fixing, drawing the line spoils the gauge symmetry, i. e. the circular symmetry U of the cross section at each point of the rod. The line is the equivalent of a function, it need not be straight
14.
Diamagnetism
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Diamagnetic materials are repelled by a magnetic field, an applied magnetic field creates an induced magnetic field in them in the opposite direction, causing a repulsive force. In contrast, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials are attracted by a magnetic field, diamagnetism is a quantum mechanical effect that occurs in all materials, when it is the only contribution to the magnetism the material is called diamagnetic. In paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances the weak force is overcome by the attractive force of magnetic dipoles in the material. The magnetic permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than μ0, the permeability of vacuum, diamagnetism was first discovered when Sebald Justinus Brugmans observed in 1778 that bismuth and antimony were repelled by magnetic fields. In 1845, Michael Faraday demonstrated that it was a property of matter and he adopted the term diamagnetism after it was suggested to him by William Whewell. Diamagnetism, to a greater or lesser degree, is a property of all materials, for materials that show some other form of magnetism, the diamagnetic contribution becomes negligible. Substances that mostly display diamagnetic behaviour are termed diamagnetic materials, or diamagnets, the magnetic susceptibility values of various molecular fragments are called Pascals constants. This means that diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields, however, since diamagnetism is such a weak property, its effects are not observable in everyday life. For example, the susceptibility of diamagnets such as water is χv = −9. 05×10−6. The most strongly diamagnetic material is bismuth, χv = −1. 66×10−4, nevertheless, these values are orders of magnitude smaller than the magnetism exhibited by paramagnets and ferromagnets. Note that because χv is derived from the ratio of the magnetic field to the applied field. All conductors exhibit an effective diamagnetism when they experience a magnetic field. The Lorentz force on electrons causes them to circulate around forming eddy currents, the eddy currents then produce an induced magnetic field opposite the applied field, resisting the conductors motion. Superconductors may be considered perfect diamagnets, because they expel all fields due to the Meissner effect, however this effect is not due to eddy currents, as in ordinary diamagnetic materials. If a powerful magnet is covered with a layer of water then the field of the magnet significantly repels the water and this causes a slight dimple in the waters surface that may be seen by its reflection. Diamagnets may be levitated in stable equilibrium in a magnetic field, Earnshaws theorem seems to preclude the possibility of static magnetic levitation. However, Earnshaws theorem applies only to objects with positive susceptibilities and these are attracted to field maxima, which do not exist in free space. Diamagnets are attracted to field minima, and there can be a minimum in free space
15.
Superfluidity
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Superfluidity is the characteristic property of a fluid with zero viscosity which therefore flows without loss of kinetic energy. When stirred a superfluid forms cellular vortices that continue to rotate indefinitely, superfluidity occurs in two isotopes of helium when they are liquified by cooling to cryogenic temperatures. It is also a property of other exotic states of matter theorized to exist in astrophysics, high-energy physics. Superfluidity was originally discovered in liquid helium, by Pyotr Kapitsa and it has since been described through phenomenology and microscopic theories. In liquid helium-4, the superfluidity occurs at far higher temperatures than it does in helium-3, each atom of helium-4 is a boson particle, by virtue of its integer spin. A helium-3 atom is a particle, it can form bosons only by pairing with itself at much lower temperatures. The discovery of superfluidity in helium-3 was the basis for the award of the 1996 Nobel Prize in Physics and this process is similar to the electron pairing in superconductivity. Superfluidity in an ultracold fermionic gas was experimentally proven by Wolfgang Ketterle, such vortices had previously been observed in an ultracold bosonic gas using 87Rb in 2000, and more recently in two-dimensional gases. As early as 1999 Lene Hau created such a condensate using sodium atoms for the purpose of slowing light, with a double light-roadblock setup, we can generate controlled collisions between shock waves resulting in completely unexpected, nonlinear excitations. We have observed hybrid structures consisting of vortex rings embedded in dark solitonic shells, the vortex rings act as phantom propellers leading to very rich excitation dynamics. The idea that superfluidity exists inside neutron stars was first proposed by Arkady Migdal, superfluid vacuum theory is an approach in theoretical physics and quantum mechanics where the physical vacuum is viewed as superfluid. The ultimate goal of the approach is to develop scientific models that unify quantum mechanics with gravity and this makes SVT a candidate for the theory of quantum gravity and an extension of the Standard Model. Boojum Condensed matter physics Macroscopic quantum phenomena Quantum hydrodynamics Slow light Supersolid Guénault, annett, James F. Superconductivity, superfluids, and condensates. The Universe in a helium droplet
16.
Superconductivity
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It was discovered by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes on April 8,1911, in Leiden. Like ferromagnetism and atomic spectral lines, superconductivity is a mechanical phenomenon. It is characterized by the Meissner effect, the ejection of magnetic field lines from the interior of the superconductor as it transitions into the superconducting state. The occurrence of the Meissner effect indicates that superconductivity cannot be simply as the idealization of perfect conductivity in classical physics. The electrical resistance of a metallic conductor decreases gradually as temperature is lowered, in ordinary conductors, such as copper or silver, this decrease is limited by impurities and other defects. Even near absolute zero, a sample of a normal conductor shows some resistance. In a superconductor, the resistance drops abruptly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature, an electric current flowing through a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source. In 1986, it was discovered that some cuprate-perovskite ceramic materials have a temperature above 90 K. Such a high temperature is theoretically impossible for a conventional superconductor. There are many criteria by which superconductors are classified, by theory of operation, It is conventional if it can be explained by the BCS theory or its derivatives, or unconventional, otherwise. By material, Superconductor material classes include chemical elements, alloys, ceramics, on the other hand, there is a class of properties that are independent of the underlying material. For instance, all superconductors have exactly zero resistivity to low applied currents when there is no magnetic field present or if the field does not exceed a critical value. The resistance of the sample is given by Ohms law as R = V / I, if the voltage is zero, this means that the resistance is zero. Superconductors are also able to maintain a current with no applied voltage whatsoever, experiments have demonstrated that currents in superconducting coils can persist for years without any measurable degradation. Experimental evidence points to a current lifetime of at least 100,000 years, theoretical estimates for the lifetime of a persistent current can exceed the estimated lifetime of the universe, depending on the wire geometry and the temperature. In a normal conductor, an electric current may be visualized as a fluid of electrons moving across an ionic lattice. As a result, the energy carried by the current is constantly being dissipated and this is the phenomenon of electrical resistance and Joule heating. The situation is different in a superconductor, in a conventional superconductor, the electronic fluid cannot be resolved into individual electrons
17.
USSR State Prize
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The USSR State Prize was the Soviet Unions state honor. It was established on September 9,1966, after the breakup of the Soviet Union, the prize was followed up by the State Prize of the Russian Federation. The State Stalin Prize, usually called the Stalin Prize, existed from 1941 to 1954 – some sources give an incorrect date of 1952. It essentially played the role, therefore upon the establishment of the USSR State Prize. In 1944 and 1945, the last two years of the Second World War the award ceremonies for the Stalin Prize were not held, instead, in 1946 the ceremony was held twice, in January for the works created in 1943–1944 and in June for the works of 1945. Often the prize was awarded to specific works rather than to individuals, each constituent Soviet republic and autonomous republic also had a State Prize. The Stalin Prize was a different from the Stalin Peace Prize. The latter was created on 21 December 1949 and was awarded to foreign recipients rather than to Soviet citizens. It should also not be confused with the Lenin Prize, rameyev, N. Trubnikov, A. Tsygankin, Yu. Isaak Dunaevsky, Music to the film The Kuban Cossacks Gevorg Emin, book of poetry New Road Bruno Freindlich, algis Petras Piskarskas, nonlinear optics Eugen Doga
18.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
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Theoretical physics
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Theoretical physics is a branch of physics that employs mathematical models and abstractions of physical objects and systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena. This is in contrast to physics, which uses experimental tools to probe these phenomena. The advancement of science depends in general on the interplay between experimental studies and theory, in some cases, theoretical physics adheres to standards of mathematical rigor while giving little weight to experiments and observations. Conversely, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for explaining the photoelectric effect, a physical theory is a model of physical events. It is judged by the extent to which its predictions agree with empirical observations, the quality of a physical theory is also judged on its ability to make new predictions which can be verified by new observations. A physical theory similarly differs from a theory, in the sense that the word theory has a different meaning in mathematical terms. A physical theory involves one or more relationships between various measurable quantities, archimedes realized that a ship floats by displacing its mass of water, Pythagoras understood the relation between the length of a vibrating string and the musical tone it produces. Other examples include entropy as a measure of the uncertainty regarding the positions and motions of unseen particles, Theoretical physics consists of several different approaches. In this regard, theoretical particle physics forms a good example, for instance, phenomenologists might employ empirical formulas to agree with experimental results, often without deep physical understanding. Modelers often appear much like phenomenologists, but try to model speculative theories that have certain desirable features, some attempt to create approximate theories, called effective theories, because fully developed theories may be regarded as unsolvable or too complicated. Other theorists may try to unify, formalise, reinterpret or generalise extant theories, or create completely new ones altogether. Sometimes the vision provided by pure mathematical systems can provide clues to how a system might be modeled, e. g. the notion, due to Riemann and others. Theoretical problems that need computational investigation are often the concern of computational physics, Theoretical advances may consist in setting aside old, incorrect paradigms or may be an alternative model that provides answers that are more accurate or that can be more widely applied. In the latter case, a correspondence principle will be required to recover the previously known result, sometimes though, advances may proceed along different paths. However, an exception to all the above is the wave–particle duality, Physical theories become accepted if they are able to make correct predictions and no incorrect ones. They are also likely to be accepted if they connect a wide range of phenomena. Testing the consequences of a theory is part of the scientific method, Physical theories can be grouped into three categories, mainstream theories, proposed theories and fringe theories. Theoretical physics began at least 2,300 years ago, under the Pre-socratic philosophy, during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the concept of experimental science, the counterpoint to theory, began with scholars such as Ibn al-Haytham and Francis Bacon
20.
Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute
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The National Technical University Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute, in the city of Kharkiv, is the largest and oldest technical university in eastern Ukraine. Founded in 1885, it is the second-oldest technical university in the former Russian Empire, the organizer and first rector of the institute was Viktor Kyrpychov, an honored professor specializing in mechanics and resistance in materials. In 1898, the institute was renamed the Emperor Alexander III Technological Institute, after the October Revolution in 1917, the Technological Institute continued its work. In 1921 the institute set up the first department for workers in Ukraine, Lenin institute of Technology was renamed the Kharkiv V. I. Lenin Polytechnic Institute, a name kept until the fall of the Soviet Union, in 1930, five independent higher-educational institutions were set up as five separate departments of the institute. KhPI, as a whole, temporarily ceased to exist after that, during World War II over 3,000 professors, students and institute employees joined the Army. Evacuated to Krasnoufimsk and Chirchiq, the institute continued training engineering staff, in 1949 four higher-educational institutions were reunited into the Kharkiv V. I. Lenin Polytechnic Institute. Professor Mikhail Semko was appointed its rector, and remained in position for 30 years. After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, KhPI continued its work as a Ukrainian institution of higher learning, in April 1994, the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine granted Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute university status and it was renamed the Kharkiv State Polytechnic University. In September 2000, the status of National Technical University has been given to KhSPU, by decree of the President of Ukraine, since then, in February 2010, NTU KhPI was granted the status of Autonomous Research National University by decree of the Ukrainian Cabinet of Ministers. NTU KhPI has been accredited as a university of the highest level and it trains full-time students in 91 fields and offers 69 fields for instruction by correspondence. It has the greatest number of matriculated students in eastern and southern Ukraine, the university consists of approximately 20 buildings. Most campuses are concentrated compactly — between Pushkinskaya and Architect Beketov underground stations, campuses have changed shape over time. Old buildings were built, as usual in the 19th century and they are built of red brick and are of great architectural and even historical value. New buildings were built in the Soviet era and their dimensions correspond to houses built at that time. U-1 is the highest building and one of the largest in the university, the body has a rectangular shape at the base. It has an area of glazing. It is the tallest in the university and one of the tallest buildings in the city — besides and you can see much of the city from there, all Nagirnyy region and adjacent neighbors, Holodna Gora, Saltovka, Novi doma
21.
National University of Kharkiv
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The University of Kharkiv or officially the Vasyl Karazin Kharkiv National University is one of the major universities in Ukraine, and earlier in the Russian Empire and Soviet Union. It was founded in 1804 through the efforts of Vasily Karazin becoming the second oldest university in modern-day Ukraine after the University of Lviv, on 29 January 1805, the Decree on the Opening of the Imperial University in Kharkiv came into force. The university became the university in the south of the Russian Empire. It was founded on the initiative of the community with Vasyly Karazin at the fore, whose idea was supported by the nobility. Count Severin Pototski was appointed the first supervisor of the university, the first periodicals in Slobozhanshchyna appear in the university around this time, including Kharkovski Ezhenedelnik, Ukrainski Vestnik, Ukrainski Zhurnal, etc. In 1839, a school, which in 1851 became an independent institute, was established at the university. By this time, the campus included laboratories, clinics, an observatory, a botanical garden. Previously, the university was autonomous with rectors being elected, however, from 1820 to 1850, all its activity was strictly controlled. Rectors were appointed by the Minister of Education, while scientific publications, in 1863, under a new Statute, the university became partly autonomous. The university has been publishing Scientific Notes since 1874, from the 19th century up to the early 20th century, the University of Kharkiv had four schools, School of Physics and Mathematics, School of History and Philology, School of Medicine, School of Law. The university exerted great influence on school-life in Slobozhanshchyna in the first period of its existence, from 1917 to 1920, there was a struggle between advocates of the Ukrainian statehood and Russian course. Some of the professors who opposed new political realities left, most of the Ukrainian professors remained in Kharkiv. In 1921, Kharkiv Medical Institute was founded based on the School of Medicine of the University of Kharkiv, in 1936, the university was named after the late Russian writer Maxim Gorky. During the German-Soviet war, it was evacuated to the city of Kizilord in Kazakhstan, in 1943/44, the university returned to Kharkiv. In 1951,800 university students suffered from persecution after they refused to pass exams in Russian, court trials were held behind closed doors. In 2004, the university was given a building, opposite Svobody square. According to the estimation of teaching quality, the university ranked seventh and fourth in Ukraine, according to one of the world leading university rankings, Kharkiv National University holds the fourth position among Ukrainian universities and the 1138th position in the world. Kharkiv National University holds the place in Ukraine in volume of publications and citations in scientific database Scopus
22.
Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology
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The National Scientific Center Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology is the oldest and largest physical science research centre in Ukraine. The National Scientific Center Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology was founded by Abram Ioffe in Kharkiv in Ukraine in 1928, the Lev Shubnikov Low Temperature Laboratory at the National Scientific Center Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology was founded in Kharkiv, Ukraine in 1931. Lev Shubnikov was a head of the laboratory at the National Scientific Center Kharkiv Institute of Physics. During the Stalin epoch, this was where the UPTI Affair occurred in 1938, the National Scientific Center Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology was the Laboratory no.1 in the nuclear physics, where the nuclear bomb was invented in the former USSR for the first time
23.
Russian Academy of Sciences
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Headquartered in Moscow, the Academy is considered a civil, self-governed, non-commercial organization chartered by the Government of Russia. It combines the members of RAS and scientists employed by institutions, the Academy currently includes around 650 institutions and 55,000 scientific researchers. There are three types of membership in the RAS, full members, corresponding members, and foreign members, Academicians and corresponding members must be citizens of the Russian Federation when elected. However, some academicians and corresponding members were elected before the collapse of the USSR and are now citizens of other countries, Members of RAS are elected based on their scientific contributions – election to membership is considered very prestigious. In the years 2005–2012, the academy had approximately 500 full and 700 corresponding members, but in 2013, after the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences and the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences became incorporated into the RAS, a number of the RAS members accordingly increased. As of November 2016, after the last elections, there were 944 full members and 1159 corresponding members in the renewed Russian Academy of Sciences, the RAS consists of 13 specialized scientific divisions, three territorial divisions, sometimes called branches, and 15 regional scientific centers. The Academy has numerous councils, committees, and commissions, all organized for different purposes, Siberian Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences The Siberian Division was established in 1957, with Mikhail Lavrentyev as founding chairman. Research centers are in Novosibirsk, Tomsk, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, Yakutsk, Ulan-Ude, Kemerovo, Tyumen, as of 2005, the Division employed over 33,000 employees,58 of whom were members of the Academy. Ural Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences The Ural Division was established in 1932, research centers are in Yekaterinburg, Perm, Cheliabinsk, Izhevsk, Orenburg, Ufa and Syktyvkar. As of 2007, the Division employed 3,600 scientists,590 full professors,31 full members, started with just three members, The RSSI now has 3,100 members, including 57 from the largest research institutions. Russian universities and technical institutes are not under the supervision of the RAS, the Academy is also increasing its presence in the educational area. In 1990 the Higher Chemical College of the Russian Academy of Sciences was founded, the Academy gives out a number of different prizes, medals and awards among which, Lomonosov Gold Medal Lobachevsky Prize Demidov Prize Kurchatov Medal Pushkin Prize S. V. Expeditions to explore parts of the country had Academy scientists as their leaders or most active participants. A separate organization, called the Russian Academy, was created in 1783 to work on the study of the Russian language, presided over by Princess Yekaterina Dashkova, the Russian Academy was engaged in compiling the six-volume Academic Dictionary of the Russian Language. The Russian Academy was merged into the Imperial Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1841, in December 1917, Sergey Fedorovich Oldenburg, a leading ethnographer and political activist in the Kadet party, met with Vladimir Lenin to discuss the future of the Academy. They agreed that the expertise of the Academy would be applied to addressing questions of state construction, in 1925 the Soviet government recognized the Russian Academy of Sciences as the highest all-Union scientific institution and renamed it the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. The Soviet Sciences Academy would be affected like all universities by the rules imposed particularly those pertaining to censorship, the Soviet Science Academy ended up with a leader of the philosophy department who was placed there simply to keep the man out of trouble. The government decided to not execute or send the famous writer to the gulag because he had won the Stalin award, doing this would have discredited the Stalin award and thus Stalin the leader of the Communist party himself
24.
Niels Bohr
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Niels Henrik David Bohr was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research, although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle of complementarity, that items could be analysed in terms of contradictory properties. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohrs thinking in science and philosophy. Bohr founded the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen, now known as the Niels Bohr Institute, Bohr mentored and collaborated with physicists including Hans Kramers, Oskar Klein, George de Hevesy, and Werner Heisenberg. He predicted the existence of a new element, which was named hafnium, after the Latin name for Copenhagen. Later, the element bohrium was named after him, during the 1930s, Bohr helped refugees from Nazism. After Denmark was occupied by the Germans, he had a meeting with Heisenberg. In September 1943, word reached Bohr that he was about to be arrested by the Germans, from there, he was flown to Britain, where he joined the British Tube Alloys nuclear weapons project, and was part of the British mission to the Manhattan Project. After the war, Bohr called for cooperation on nuclear energy. He had a sister, Jenny, and a younger brother Harald. Jenny became a teacher, while Harald became a mathematician and Olympic footballer who played for the Danish national team at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. Bohr was a footballer as well, and the two brothers played several matches for the Copenhagen-based Akademisk Boldklub, with Bohr as goalkeeper. Bohr was educated at Gammelholm Latin School, starting when he was seven, in 1903, Bohr enrolled as an undergraduate at Copenhagen University. His major was physics, which he studied under Professor Christian Christiansen and he also studied astronomy and mathematics under Professor Thorvald Thiele, and philosophy under Professor Harald Høffding, a friend of his father. This involved measuring the frequency of oscillation of the radius of a water jet, Bohr conducted a series of experiments using his fathers laboratory in the university, the university itself had no physics laboratory. To complete his experiments, he had to make his own glassware and his essay, which he submitted at the last minute, won the prize. He later submitted a version of the paper to the Royal Society in London for publication in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
25.
Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov
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Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov was a Soviet, Russian and American theoretical physicist whose main contributions are in the field of condensed matter physics. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2003, Abrikosov was born in Moscow, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union, on June 25,1928, to a couple of physicians, Prof. Alexei Ivanovich Abrikosov and Dr. Fani Abrikosova, née Wulf. He graduated from Moscow State University in 1948, from 1965 to 1988, he worked at the Landau Institute for Theoretical Physics. He has been a professor at Moscow State University since 1965, in addition, he held tenure at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology from 1972 to 1976, and at the Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys from 1976 to 1991. He served as a member of the USSR Academy of Sciences from 1987 to 1991. In 1991, he became a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In two works in 1952 and 1957, Abrikosov explained how magnetic flux can penetrate a class of superconductors and this class of materials is known as type-II superconductors. The accompanying arrangement of magnetic flux lines is called the Abrikosov vortex lattice, from 1991 until his retirement, he worked at Argonne National Laboratory in the U. S. state of Illinois. Abrikosov was an Argonne Distinguished Scientist at the Condensed Matter Theory Group in Argonne’s Materials Science Division and his recent research has focused on the origins of magnetoresistance, a property of some materials that change their resistance to electrical flow under the influence of a magnetic field. Abrikosov was awarded the Lenin Prize in 1966, the Fritz London Memorial Prize in 1972, in 1989 he received the Landau Prize from the Academy of Sciences, Russia. Two years later, in 1991, Abrikosov was awarded the Sony Corporation’s John Bardeen Award, the same year he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He is also a member of the Royal Academy of London, a fellow of the American Physical Society and he was the co-recipient of the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physics, with Vitaly Ginzburg and Anthony James Leggett, for theories about how matter can behave at extremely low temperatures. Other awards include, Abrikosov was the son of the physicians Alexei Ivanovich Abrikosov and his sister was Maria Alekseevna Abrikósova, physician. He was married to Svetlana Yuriyevna Bunkova and had 3 children and he died on 29 March 2017 at the age of 88. Media related to Alexej Abrikosov at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov at Wikiquote
. Bibcode:2002hep.ph....4295I.
Media related to Lev Landau at Wikimedia Commons
