1.
Corps of Discovery
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The Corps of Discovery was a specially-established unit of the United States Army which formed the nucleus of the Lewis and Clark Expedition that took place between May 1804 and September 1806. The Corps, which was a group of volunteers, were led jointly by Captain Meriwether Lewis. The foundations for the Corps of Discovery were laid when Thomas Jefferson met John Ledyard to discuss a proposed expedition to the Pacific Northwest in the 1780s, two years after taking the presidency, Jefferson asked Congress to fund an expedition through the Louisiana Purchase. The U. S. mint prepared special silver medals with a portrait of Jefferson and had a message of friendship and peace, the soldiers were to distribute them to the nations they met. But the Corps would be prepared for any acts of hostility because it would be equipped with the most advanced weapons available, such as rifles and a.46 caliber Girandoni Air Rifle. The Corps of Discovery was equipped with sufficient black powder and lead for their firearms, knives, blacksmithing supplies. They also carried flags, gift bundles, medicine and other items they would need for their journey, much time went into ensuring a sufficient supply of these items. To create the Corps of Discovery, and to any chance of success, Lewis wanted to find the best possible men he could. Men were expected to be excellent hunters and possess skills that would ensure their survival in the wilderness and he also wanted men who were brave, unmarried, and healthy. He first went to Louisville, Kentucky where he found his first recruits in then Clarksville, in total almost a third of the partys permanent members – forming the heart of the Corps – were from Louisville, Clarksville or their surrounding areas. A total of 33 volunteers, including 29 in training, spent the 1803–1804 winter at Camp Dubois in Indiana Territory, on May 14,1804, the Corps left Dubois by canoe in order to meet up with Lewis at St. Charles, Missouri. The expedition then set off west following the Missouri River on 21 May, Three days later, they passed La Charrette, the last Euro-American settlement on the Missouri. The expedition followed the Missouri through what is now Kansas City, Missouri, on August 20,1804, Sergeant Charles Floyd died, apparently from acute appendicitis. He would be the only death on the expedition over the next two years. Floyd was buried at Floyds Bluff in what is now Sioux City, during the coming weeks, the expedition would reach the Great Plains. They would be among a group of white people to see the area abounding with elk, deer, bison. Over the next two years, the Lewis and Clark Expedition established relations with more than two dozen indigenous nations between Missouri and the Pacific Ocean. Researchers now acknowledge that such contact or help, the Corps of Discovery would have undoubtedly starved to death or become hopelessly lost in the Rocky Mountains
2.
St. Louis
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St. Louis is an independent city and major U. S. port in the state of Missouri, built along the western bank of the Mississippi River, on the border with Illinois. Prior to European settlement, the area was a regional center of Native American Mississippian culture. The city of St. Louis was founded in 1764 by French fur traders Pierre Laclède and Auguste Chouteau, in 1764, following Frances defeat in the Seven Years War, the area was ceded to Spain and retroceded back to France in 1800. In 1803, the United States acquired the territory as part of the Louisiana Purchase, during the 19th century, St. Louis developed as a major port on the Mississippi River. In the 1870 Census, St. Louis was ranked as the 4th-largest city in the United States and it separated from St. Louis County in 1877, becoming an independent city and limiting its own political boundaries. In 1904, it hosted the Louisiana Purchase Exposition and the Summer Olympics, the economy of metro St. Louis relies on service, manufacturing, trade, transportation of goods, and tourism. This city has become known for its growing medical, pharmaceutical. St. Louis has 2 professional sports teams, the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball, the city is commonly identified with the 630-foot tall Gateway Arch in Downtown St. Louis. The area that would become St. Louis was a center of the Native American Mississippian culture and their major regional center was at Cahokia Mounds, active from 900 AD to 1500 AD. Due to numerous major earthworks within St. Louis boundaries, the city was nicknamed as the Mound City and these mounds were mostly demolished during the citys development. Historic Native American tribes in the area included the Siouan-speaking Osage people, whose territory extended west, European exploration of the area was first recorded in 1673, when French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette traveled through the Mississippi River valley. Five years later, La Salle claimed the region for France as part of La Louisiane. The earliest European settlements in the area were built in Illinois Country on the east side of the Mississippi River during the 1690s and early 1700s at Cahokia, Kaskaskia, migrants from the French villages on the opposite side of the Mississippi River founded Ste. In early 1764, after France lost the 7 Years War, Pierre Laclède, the early French families built the citys economy on the fur trade with the Osage, as well as with more distant tribes along the Missouri River. The Chouteau brothers gained a monopoly from Spain on the fur trade with Santa Fe, French colonists used African slaves as domestic servants and workers in the city. In 1780 during the American Revolutionary War, St. Louis was attacked by British forces, mostly Native American allies, the founding of St. Louis began in 1763. Pierre Laclede led an expedition to set up a fur-trading post farther up the Mississippi River, before then, Laclede had been a very successful merchant. For this reason, he and his trading partner Gilbert Antoine de St. Maxent were offered monopolies for six years of the fur trading in that area
3.
Continental Divide of the Americas
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The Continental Divide of the Americas is the principal, and largely mountainous, hydrological divide of the Americas. The Continental Divide of the Americas begins at Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, the Divide crosses into the United States in northwestern Montana, at the boundary between Waterton Lakes National Park and Glacier National Park. In Canada, it forms the boundary of Waterton Lakes National Park. The Divide crosses into Wyoming within Yellowstone National Park and continues southeast into Colorado where it reaches its highest point in North America at the summit of Grays Peak at 4,352 m. It crosses US Hwy 160 in southern Colorado at Wolf Creek Pass, the Divide then proceeds south into western New Mexico, passing along the western boundary of the endorheic Plains of San Agustin. Although the Divide represents the height of land between watersheds, it not always follow the highest ranges/peaks within each state or province. In Mexico, it passes through Chihuahua, Durango, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, Jalisco, Guanajuato, Querétaro, México, the Federal District, Morelos, Puebla, Oaxaca, and Chiapas. In Central America, it continues through southern Guatemala, southwestern Honduras, western Nicaragua, western/southwestern Costa Rica, the divide reaches its lowest point in Central America at the Isthmus of Rivas at 47 m in Nicaragua. In North America, another, mainly non-mountainous divide, the Laurentian Divide, secondary divides separate the watersheds that flow into the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River from watersheds that flow to the Atlantic via the Missouri-Mississippi complex. Another secondary divide follows the Appalachian chain, which separates those streams, Triple Divide Peak in Glacier National Park, Montana, is the point where two of the principal continental divides in North America converge, the Great Divide and the Northern or Laurentian Divide. From this point, waters flow to the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean via the Gulf of Mexico, most geographers, geologists, meteorologists, and oceanographers consider this point the hydrological apex of North America. This is not the place on earth where two oceanic divides meet, i. e. where waters from a single point area feed into three different oceans. This status of Triple Divide Peak is the reason behind the designation of Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park as the Crown of the Continent of North America. Sources differ, however, on whether Hudson Bay is part of the Atlantic or Arctic Ocean, Hudson Bays waters flow predominantly to the Atlantic and do not directly contribute to the Arctic Ocean. Another triple divide or triple point occurs in Canada at an unimportant-looking hump on the border between Alberta and British Columbia, on the slope of Snow Dome. At 3,456 metres, the point is higher than Triple Divide Peak, the exact location of the triple point is somewhat indeterminate because the Columbia Icefield and the snow on top of it shift from year to year. The snow that falls on it doesnt really flow downhill as water, ice flowing away from that point down the Athabasca Glacier goes to the Arctic Ocean, via the Athabasca and Mackenzie Rivers. Ice flowing west goes to the Pacific Ocean via Bryce Creek, ice flowing down the Saskatchewan Glacier goes via the North Saskatchewan, Saskatchewan, and Nelson Rivers into Hudson Bay
4.
Meriwether Lewis
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They also collected scientific data, and information on indigenous nations. President Thomas Jefferson appointed him Governor of Upper Louisiana in 1806 and he died of gunshot wounds in what was either a murder or suicide, in 1809. Meriwether Lewis was born in Albemarle County, Colony of Virginia and he was the son of Lt. William Lewis of Locust Hill, who was of Welsh ancestry, and Lucy Meriwether, daughter of Thomas Meriwether and Elizabeth Thornton, who were both of English ancestry. After his father died of pneumonia, he moved with his mother and stepfather Captain John Marks to Georgia in May 1780 and they settled along the Broad River in the Goosepond Community within the Broad River Valley in Wilkes County. Lewis had no formal education until he was 13 years of age and he would often venture out in the middle of the night in the dead of winter with only his dog to go hunting. Even at an age, he was interested in natural history. His mother taught him how to gather wild herbs for medicinal purposes, in the Broad River Valley, Lewis first dealt with American Indians. This was the territory of the Cherokee, who resented encroachment by the colonists. Lewis seems to have been a champion for them among his own people, while in Georgia, he met Eric Parker, who encouraged him to travel. At thirteen, Lewis was sent back to Virginia for education by private tutors and his fathers older brother Nicholas Lewis became his guardian. One of his tutors was Parson Matthew Maury, an uncle of Matthew Fontaine Maury, in 1793, Lewis graduated from Liberty Hall. That year he joined the Virginia militia, and in 1794 he was sent as part of a detachment involved in putting down the Whiskey Rebellion, in 1795 Lewis joined the U. S. Army, commissioned as an Ensign. By 1800 he rose to Captain, and ended his service there in 1801, among his commanding officers was William Clark, who would later become his companion in the Corps of Discovery. On April 1,1801, Lewis was appointed as an aide by President Thomas Jefferson, Lewis resided in the presidential mansion, and frequently conversed with various prominent figures in politics, the arts and other circles. When Jefferson began to plan for an expedition across the continent, Meriwether Lewis recruited Clark, then age 33, to share command of the expedition. After the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, Thomas Jefferson wanted to get a sense of the new land. The President also hoped to find a direct and practicable water communication across this continent, in addition, Jefferson placed special importance on declaring U. S. sovereignty over the Native Americans along the Missouri River. When they left Fort Mandan in April 1805 they were accompanied by the sixteen-year-old Shoshone Indian woman, Sacagawea, the Corps of Discovery made contact with many Native Americans in the trans-Mississippi West and found them accustomed to dealing with European traders and already connected to global markets
5.
William Clark
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William Clark was an American explorer, soldier, Indian agent, and territorial governor. A native of Virginia, he grew up in prestatehood Kentucky before later settling in what became the state of Missouri, Clark was a planter and slaveholder. Before the expedition, he served in a militia and the United States Army, afterward, he served in a militia and as governor of the Missouri Territory. From 1822 until his death in 1838, he served as Superintendent of Indian Affairs, William Clark was born in Caroline County, Virginia, on August 1,1770, the ninth of ten children of John and Ann Rogers Clark. His parents were natives of King and Queen County, and were of English, the Clarks were common planters in Virginia, owners of modest estates and a few slaves, and members of the Anglican Church. Clark did not have any education, like many of his contemporaries. The spelling of American English was not standardized in Clarks youth, Clarks five older brothers fought in Virginia units during the American Revolutionary War, but William was too young. His oldest brother, Jonathan Clark, served as a colonel during the war and his second-oldest brother, George Rogers Clark, rose to the rank of general, spending most of the war in Kentucky fighting against British-allied American Indians. After the war, the two oldest Clark brothers made arrangements for their parents and family to relocate to Kentucky. William, his parents, his three sisters, and the Clark familys slaves arrived in Kentucky in March 1785, having first traveled overland to Redstone Landing in present-day Brownsville and they completed the journey down the Ohio River by flatboat. The Clark family settled at Mulberry Hill, a plantation along Beargrass Creek near Louisville and this was William Clarks primary home until 1803. In Kentucky, his older brother George Rogers Clark taught William wilderness survival skills, kentuckians fought the Northwest Indian War against American Indians, who were trying to preserve their territory north of the Ohio River. In 1789, 19-year-old William Clark joined a militia force under Major John Hardin. Clark kept a journal of the expedition, beginning a lifelong practice. Hardin was advancing against the Wea Indians, who had been raiding settlements in Kentucky, in error, the undisciplined Kentucky militia attacked a peaceful Shawnee hunting camp, where they killed a total of eight men, women, and children. In 1790, Clark was commissioned by General Arthur St. Clair, governor of the Northwest Territory, as a captain in the Clarksville, Indiana militia. One older source says he was sent on a mission to the Creek and Cherokee and he may have visited New Orleans at that time. His travels prevented him participating in General Josiah Harmars disastrous campaign into the Northwest Territory that year
6.
Thomas Jefferson
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Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law and he became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nations first Secretary of State in 1790–1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System, as President, Jefferson pursued the nations shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the countrys territory, as a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jeffersons second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U. S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory. Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and he was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jeffersons keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society and he shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages and he founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full-length book is Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. Most historians now believe that, after the death of his wife in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jeffersons private life, pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his political principles, for example. Presidential scholars, however, consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,1743, at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject and his father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen, his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of a friend who had named him guardian of his children, the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757, his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres of land, including Monticello and he assumed full authority over his property at age 21
7.
Louisiana Purchase
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The Louisiana Purchase was the acquisition of the Louisiana territory by the United States from France in 1803. The U. S. paid fifty million francs and a cancellation of debts worth eighteen million francs for a total of sixty-eight million francs, the Louisiana territory included land from fifteen present U. S. states and two Canadian provinces. Its non-native population was around 60,000 inhabitants, of whom half were African slaves, the Kingdom of France controlled the Louisiana territory from 1699 until it was ceded to Spain in 1762. Napoleon in 1800, hoping to re-establish an empire in North America, however, Frances failure to put down the revolt in Saint-Domingue, coupled with the prospect of renewed warfare with the United Kingdom, prompted Napoleon to sell Louisiana to the United States. The Americans originally sought to purchase only the city of New Orleans and its adjacent coastal lands. The Louisiana Purchase occurred during the term of the third President of the United States, before the purchase was finalized, the decision faced Federalist Party opposition, they argued that it was unconstitutional to acquire any territory. Constitution did not contain provisions for acquiring territory, but he asserted that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties was sufficient. Throughout the second half of the 18th century, Louisiana was a pawn on the chessboard of European politics and it was controlled by the French, who had a few small settlements along the Mississippi and other main rivers. Following French defeat in the Seven Years War, Spain gained control of the territory west of the Mississippi, the United States controlled the area east of the Mississippi and north of New Orleans. The main issue for the Americans was free transit of the Mississippi to the sea, as the lands were being gradually settled by a few American migrants, many Americans, including Jefferson, assumed that the territory would be acquired piece by piece. The risk of power taking it from a weakened Spain made a profound reconsideration of this policy necessary. New Orleans was already important for shipping goods to and from the areas of the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains. Pinckneys Treaty, signed with Spain on October 27,1795, gave American merchants right of deposit in New Orleans, Americans used this right to transport products such as flour, tobacco, pork, bacon, lard, feathers, cider, butter, and cheese. The treaty also recognized American rights to navigate the entire Mississippi, in 1798 Spain revoked this treaty, prohibiting American use of New Orleans, and greatly upsetting the Americans. In 1801, Spanish Governor Don Juan Manuel de Salcedo took over from the Marquess of Casa Calvo, Napoleon Bonaparte had gained Louisiana for French ownership from Spain in 1800 under the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso, but the treaty was kept secret. Louisiana remained nominally under Spanish control, until a transfer of power to France on November 30,1803, another ceremony was held in St. Louis a few months later, in part because during winter conditions the news of the New Orleans formalities did not reach Upper Louisiana. The March 9–10,1804, event is remembered as Three Flags Day, James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston had traveled to Paris to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans in January 1803. Their instructions were to negotiate or purchase control of New Orleans and its environs, the Louisiana Purchase was by far the largest territorial gain in U. S. history
8.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
9.
Missouri River
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The Missouri River is the longest river in North America. Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana, the Missouri flows east and south for 2,341 miles before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis, Missouri. The river takes drainage from a populated, semi-arid watershed of more than half a million square miles. When combined with the lower Mississippi River, it forms the fourth longest river system. For over 12,000 years, people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation. More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed, most leading a nomadic lifestyle, the Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century. The growth of the fur trade in the early 1800s laid much of the groundwork as trappers explored the region, pioneers headed west en masse beginning in the 1830s, first by covered wagon, then by the growing numbers of steamboats entering service on the river. Former Native American lands in the watershed were taken over by settlers, leading to some of the most longstanding, during the 20th century, the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation, flood control and the generation of hydroelectric power. Fifteen dams impound the main stem of the river, with more on tributaries. Meanders have been cut and the river channelized to improve navigation, from the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming, three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River. The longest begins near Browers Spring,9,100 feet above sea level, on the southeastern slopes of Mount Jefferson in the Centennial Mountains. Flowing west then north, it runs first in Hell Roaring Creek, then west into the Red Rock, swings northeast to become the Beaverhead and these two streams then flow north and northwest into Montana. The Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri Headwaters State Park near Three Forks, Montana, the Missouri then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake, a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains. Issuing from the mountains near Cascade, the flows northeast to the city of Great Falls, where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri. Farther on, the passes through the Fort Peck Dam, and immediately downstream. At the confluence, the Yellowstone is actually the larger river, the Missouri then meanders east past Williston and into Lake Sakakawea, the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam. Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck, the capital of North Dakota and it slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the Cannonball River confluence. While it continues south, eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota, the Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains, receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest
10.
Centennial Exposition
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Nearly 10 million visitors attended the exhibition and thirty-seven countries participated in it. The Great Central Fair of 1864, one of the fairs held during the Civil War, anticipated the combination of public, private. They also made Philadelphia a vital center in the Union war effort, the idea of the Centennial Exposition is credited to John L. Campbell, a professor of mathematics, natural philosophy and astronomy at Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Indiana. In December 1866, Campbell suggested to Philadelphias mayor that the United States Centennial be celebrated with an exposition in Philadelphia. Detractors said the project would not be able to find funding, other nations might not attend, the Franklin Institute became an early supporter of the exposition and asked the Philadelphia City Council for use of Fairmount Park. The Philadelphia City Council and the Pennsylvania General Assembly created a committee to study the project, congressman William D. Kelley spoke for the city and state and Daniel Johnson Morrell introduced a bill to create a United States Centennial Commission. The bill, which passed on March 3,1871, provided that the U. S. government would not be liable for any expenses, the United States Centennial Commission organized on March 3,1872, with Joseph R. Hawley of Connecticut as president. The Centennial Commissions commissioners included one representative from state and territory in the United States. On June 1,1872, Congress created a Centennial Board of Finance to help raise money, the boards president was John Welsh, brother of philanthropist William Welsh, who had raised funds for The Great Sanitary Fair in 1864. The board was authorized to sell up to US$10 million in stock via US$10 shares, the board sold US$1,784,320 worth of shares by February 22,1873. Philadelphia contributed US$1.5 million and Pennsylvania gave US$1 million, on February 11,1876, Congress appropriated US$1.5 million in a loan. John Welsh enlisted help from the women of Philadelphia who had helped him in The Great Sanitary Fair, a Womens Centennial Executive Committee was formed with Elizabeth Duane Gillespie, a descendant of Benjamin Franklin, as president. In its first few months, the group raised US$40,000, when the group learned the planning commission was not doing much to display the work of women, the group raised US$30,000 for a womens exhibition building. In 1873, the Centennial Commission named Alfred T. Goshorn as the general of the Exposition. The Fairmount Park Commission set aside 450 acres of West Fairmount Park for the exposition, the Commission decided to classify the exhibits into seven departments, agriculture, art, education and science, horticulture, machinery, manufactures, and mining and metallurgy. Newspaper publisher John W. Forney agreed to head and pay for a Philadelphia commission sent to Europe to invite nations to exhibit at the exposition, despite fears of a European boycott and high American tariffs making foreign goods not worthwhile, no European country declined the invitation. To accommodate out-of-town visitors, temporary hotels were constructed near the Centennials grounds, Philadelphia streetcars increased service and the Pennsylvania Railroad ran special trains from Philadelphias Market Street, New York City, Baltimore and Pittsburgh. The Philadelphia and Reading Railroad ran special trains from the Center City part of Philadelphia, a small hospital was built on the Expositions grounds by the Centennials Medical Bureau, but despite a heat wave during the summer, no mass deaths or epidemics occurred
11.
Louisiana Purchase Exposition
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The Louisiana Purchase Exposition, informally known as the St. Louis Worlds Fair, was an international exposition held in St. Louis, Missouri, United States, from April 30 to December 1,1904. Local, state, and federal funds totaling $15 million were used to finance the event, more than 60 countries and 43 of the 45 American states maintained exhibition spaces at the fair, which was attended by nearly 19.7 million people. Historians generally emphasize the prominence of themes of race and empire, from the point of view of the memory of the average person who attended the fair, it primarily promoted entertainment, consumer goods and popular culture. In 1904, St. Louis hosted a Worlds Fair to celebrate the centennial of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, an additional $5 million was generated through private donations by interested citizens and businesses from around Missouri, a fundraising target reached in January 1901. The fundraising mission was aided by the support of President of the United States William McKinley. The exposition remained in operation from its opening until December 1,1904, the fairs 1, 200-acre site, designed by George Kessler, was located at the present-day grounds of Forest Park and on the campus of Washington University, and was the largest fair to date. There were over 1,500 buildings, connected by some 75 miles of roads and it was said to be impossible to give even a hurried glance at everything in less than a week. The Palace of Agriculture alone covered some 20 acres, exhibits were staged by approximately 50 foreign nations, the United States government, and 43 of the then-45 U. S. states. These featured industries, cities, private organizations and corporations, theater troupes, over 19 million individuals were in attendance at the fair. In conjunction with the Exposition the U. S, post Office issued a series of five commemorative stamps celebrating the 100th anniversary of the Louisiana Purchase. Louisiana Purchase Commemoratives Kessler, who designed many parks in Texas. A popular myth says that Frederick Law Olmsted, who had died the year before the Fair, designed the park, there are several reasons for this confusion. First, Kessler in his twenties had worked briefly for Olmsted as a Central Park gardener, second, Olmsted was involved with Forest Park in Queens, New York. Third, Olmsted had planned the renovations in 1897 to the Missouri Botanical Garden several blocks to the southeast of the park, finally, Olmsteds sons advised Washington University on integrating the campus with the park across the street. Taylor quickly appointed Emmanuel Louis Masqueray to be his Chief of Design, Masqueray resigned shortly after the Fair opened in 1904, having been invited by Archbishop John Ireland of St. Paul, Minnesota to design a new cathedral for the city. Paul J. Pelz was architect for the Palace of Machinery, many African Americans contributed to architecture design, but were not credited. Florence Hayward, a freelance writer in St. Louis in the 1900s was determined to play a role in the Worlds Fair. She negotiated a position on the otherwise all-male Board of Commissioners, Hayward learned that one of the potential contractors for the fair was not reputable and warned the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company
12.
Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition
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During the expositions four-month run, it attracted over 1.6 million visitors, and featured exhibits from 21 countries. Portland grew from 161,000 to 270,000 residents between 1905 and 1910, a spurt that has been attributed to the exposition, since its founding in 1845, Portland had evolved into a major economic center, largely fueled by the arrival of the railroads. Three transcontinental railroads used Portland as their Pacific coast terminus – the Northern, Southern, and Union Pacific Railroads. During this time, Oregons population grew from 13,294 in 1850 to 413,536 in 1900, despite all these positive factors, though, Oregon was not unaffected by the nationwide Long Depression, which had particular effect in 1893. Jobs were lost across the country as railroads grew too fast on a banking system. The state’s elite business leaders all attempted to devise plans to boost the economy. Dan McAllen, a dry goods merchant, suggested in 1895 “that Portland mark the new century and pull out of its economic slump by holding some sort of international fair. ”Since the area’s focus was on other issues. The idea of a fair came up occasionally, but no concentrated effort was made for various reasons. It was not until mid-1900 that this sort of action began, Long of the Portland Board of Trade put together a provisional committee” to begin planning some sort of fair. Soon, a permanent board was conceived, and the head of the Portland General Electric Company, Henry W. Goode and these were some of Portland’s most wealthy and powerful men, working together to create an event of unmatched grandeur and power. Although the true motivation for the fair came from an economic and business standpoint, it was crucial to have a theme for publicity. The theme for the Portland fair came from the advice of the Oregon Historical Society and they suggested that the centennial anniversary of the Lewis and Clark Expeditions stay in Oregon would be a perfect event to commemorate. In addition, a motto was decided on, to focus the festivities and bolster publicity, once a theme was set, the men began securing exhibits and getting support for their investments. In addition, approximately 3,000 average citizens purchased stock certificates both as investment opportunities and to support what they viewed as a worthwhile venture and these individual investments eventually paid off greatly. Seeing the potential benefits of the success, the state legislature began planning appropriations for the fair. Although they had interest in the heroes and their 2, 000-mile trek … they the vision of Pacific trade that had motivated the exploration. Thus, the Legislature passed An Act Celebrating the One Hundredth Anniversary of the Exploration of the Oregon Country, the proceeds from the Exposition were expended entirely under the direction of the Corporation. The government of the United States appropriated $475,000 and about a value in exhibits
13.
Camp Dubois
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Camp Dubois, near present-day Wood River, Illinois, served as the winter camp and starting point for the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Founded at the confluence with the Rivière du Bois on December 12,1803 and this was important because the transfer of the Louisiana Purchase to France from Spain did not occur until March 9,1804, and then from France to the United States on March 10,1804. The expedition returned again to the camp on their journey on September 23,1806. In 1803, at Cahokia, Lewis and Clark had met a well known French citizen, Nicholas Jarrot, who owned 400 acres on the du Bois, william Clark established Camp Dubois, with a group of men that he recruited from Kaskaskia and Fort Massac. There, they constructed a frontier fort, captain Meriwether Lewis joined the camp several weeks later after gathering information about Upper Louisiana and the west from Cahokia, Kaskaskia, St. Louis and other locations. Also during this time, Lewis took the opportunity to smooth relations with the Spanish authorities in St Louis to make the transfer of the Louisiana Purchase easier, Camp Dubois was a fully operating military camp. Soldiers stationed at the camp were required to participate in training, maintain personal cleanliness, police the camp and they had inspections, marched, stood guard duty and hunted to supplement their military rations. Sergeant John Ordway was in charge of the camp during periods in which both Lewis and Clark were away, on May 14,1804, the Expedition, under Clarks command, left Camp River Dubois on the east side of the Mississippi River and sailed up the Missouri River. The Lewis and Clark State Historic Site has been established south of the winter camp site of the Expedition in Hartford. It is located across the Mississippi from the present mouth of the Missouri, as the camp was, however the rivers have altered their courses. The Historic Site contains a center and reconstructed replica of Camp Dubois. DVD Documentary of Camp Dubois by Solstice Productions
14.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
15.
St. Charles, Missouri
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St. Charles is a city in, and the county seat of, St. Charles County, Missouri, United States. The population was 65,794 at the 2010 census, making St. Charles the ninth-largest city in Missouri and it lies to the northwest, and is a suburb of St. Louis, Missouri on the Missouri River. For a time, it played a significant role in the United States westward expansion, the city served as the first Missouri capital from 1821 to 1826, and is the site of the Saint Rose Philippine Duchesne shrine. Native American peoples inhabited the area for at least 7,000 years, when the Europeans arrived the area was inhabited by the Ilini, Osage and Missouri nations. According to Hopewells Romantic Legends of the Missouri and Mississippi, Blanchette met another French Canadian at the site of St. Charles in 1765. Blanchette, determined to settle there, asked if Guillet, who had become a chief of a Dakota tribe, had chosen a name for it, I called the place Les Petites Côtes replied Bernard, from the sides of the hills that you see. By that name shall it be called, said Blanchette Chasseur, Blanchette settled there in about 1769 under the authority of the Spanish governor of Upper Louisiana. He was appointed as the civil and military leader, serving until his death in 1793. Although the settlement was under Spanish jurisdiction, the settlers were primarily Native American, considered to begin in St. Charles, the Boones Lick Trail along the Missouri River lowlands was the major overland route for settlement of central and western Missouri. This area became known as the Boonslick or Boonslick Country, at Franklin, Missouri, the trail ended. Westward progress continued on the Santa Fe Trail, the first church, built in 1791, was Catholic and dedicated to the Italian saint Charles Borromeo, under the Spanish version of his name, San Carlos Borromeo. The town became known as San Carlos del Misuri, St. Charles of the Missouri, the original location of the church is not known but a replica has been built just off Main Street. The fourth St. Charles Borromeo Church now stands on Fifth Street, the name of the town, San Carlos, was anglicized to St. Charles. William Clark arrived in St. Charles on May 16,1804, with him were 40 men and three boats, they made final preparations, as they waited for Meriwether Lewis to arrive from St. Louis. They attended dances, dinners, and a service during this time. Lewis arrived via St. Charles Rock Road on May 20, the expedition launched the next day in a keel boat at 3,30 pm. St. Charles was the last established American town the expedition visited for more than two and a half years. When Missouri was granted statehood in 1821, the decided to build a City of Jefferson to serve as the state capital, in the center of the state
16.
Charles Floyd (explorer)
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Charles Floyd was a United States explorer, a non-commissioned officer in the U. S. Army, and quartermaster in the Lewis and Clark Expedition. A native of Kentucky, he was a son of Robert Clark Floyd, a nephew of James John Floyd, a cousin of Virginia governor John Floyd and he was one of the first men to join the expedition, and the only person to die on the expedition. While exploring the Louisiana Purchase with Lewis and Clark, he took ill at the end of July 1804, on July 31, Floyd wrote in his diary, I am very sick and have been for sometime but have recovered my health again. However, this apparent recovery was soon followed by a turn for the worse. William Clark described Floyds death as one with a deal of composure. A funeral was held and Floyd was buried on a bluff overlooking the Missouri River, the expedition named the location Floyds Bluff in his honor. The brief recovery Floyd described may have represented the temporary relief afforded by the bursting of the organ, which would have been followed by a fatal peritonitis. If that were the case, because there was no cure for appendicitis at that time. Floyds Bluff is currently within the city limits of Sioux City, the Sergeant Floyd Monument was declared a U. S. National Historic Landmark in 1960. This monument is now located in a 23-acre park that offers visitors a view of the Missouri River valley, Floyds final resting place is located on old U. S. Highway 75, in the southern part of Sioux City, Iowa, in the United States. After Floyds expedition journal was published in 1894, new interest was taken in him and he was re-buried once more on August 20,1895, with a monument. A marble cornerstone three feet wide and seven feet long was placed in 1900, when the obelisk of white sandstone standing 100 feet high was completed on May 30,1901, Floyds grave was moved for the fourth time to rest nearby. It was designated a National Historic Landmark on June 30,1960, Charles Floyd is the namesake of Floyd County, Iowa. The Interstate 129 bridge between Sioux City and South Sioux City, Nebraska is named the Sergeant Floyd Memorial Bridge in his honor, George H. Yater and Caroline Denton, Nine Young Men from Kentucky, We Proceeded On Publication No. James J. Holmberg, Curator of Special Collections of the Filson Historical Society, Annual Sally Keith Lecture, mathews Historical Society, October 19,2003. The Definitive Journals of Lewis and Clark, John Speedway and Charles Floyd ISBN 0-8032-8021-1 Lewis and Clark Trail, Floyd Monument NPS George Catlins 1832 painting of Floyds Bluff Floyd Biography Charles Floyd at Find a Grave
17.
Osage River
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The Osage River is a 276-mile-long tributary of the Missouri River in central Missouri in the United States. The Osage River is the 8th largest river in Missouri, the river drains a mostly rural area of 15,300 square miles. The watershed includes an area of east-central Kansas and a portion of west-central and central Missouri where it drains northwest areas of the Ozark Plateau. The river flows generally easterly, then northeasterly for the final 80 miles where it joins the Missouri River and it is impounded in two major locations. Most of the river has been converted into a chain of two reservoirs, the Harry S. Truman Reservoir and the Lake of the Ozarks. The Osage is formed in southwestern Missouri, approximately 14 miles northeast of Nevada on the Bates-Vernon county line, by the confluence of the Marais des Cygnes and Little Osage rivers. The combined stream flows east past the Schell-Osage Wildlife Area into St. Clair County, widening into a long meandering arm of the Harry S. Truman Reservoir, approximately 40 miles long. The lake receives the South Grand River as an arm of the reservoir from the northwest. The two arms of the reservoir join near the Harry S. Truman Dam in central Benton County, downstream from the Truman Dam, the river becomes the serpentine Lake of the Ozarks, stretching eastward for nearly 92 miles to Bagnell Dam in Camden County and southwestern Miller County. Constructed in 1931, it collects the Niangua River, downstream from the dam, the Osage flows freely to the northeast in broad oxbow meanders through forested bluffs, joining the Missouri approximately 15 miles east and downstream of Jefferson City. The river is named for the Osage Nation, the people in area at the time of the arrival of the first European settlers. The Missouri Legislature attempted as early as 1839 to deepen the channel of the river, early attempts failed because of lack of funding for the immense task. Commercial navigation on the river in the 19th century was confined mostly to smaller craft that could navigate the tight bends, improvements in the channel by the last two decades of the century led to greater commercial traffic. The construction of the Bagnell Dam, primarily for hydroelectricity, commenced in 1922 and was completed nine years. It effectively ended commercial navigation on the river, the Truman Dam was authorized by the Flood Control Act of 1954 and completed in 1979. The two dams on the river currently provide power for the St. Louis metropolitan area, the reservoirs are popular tourist destinations in the region. List of Kansas rivers List of Missouri rivers Navigating the Osage River in Missouri, 1839-1926 *dead link*
18.
Pirogue
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A pirogue can be one of several kinds of small boats. One kind is associated particularly with the Cajuns of the Louisiana marsh, the early Cajun pirogues were cypress dugouts but today they are usually flat-bottomed boats. Pirogues are not usually intended for travel but are light. The design also allows the pirogue to move through the shallow water of marshes. A pirogue has hard chines which means that instead of a curve from the gunwales to the keel. The pirogue is usually propelled by paddles that have one blade and it can also be punted with a push pole in shallow water. Small sails can also be employed, outboard motors are increasingly being used in many regions. In West Africa they were used as fishing boats. The word comes from the Spanish word piragua, which comes from the Carib piraua, traditionally, it was just another name for dugout canoes, but it came to refer to a specific type of canoe. Naturally, in Louisiana the boats were constructed of cypress, plywood is the common material for modern pirogues. Many modern duck hunters and fisherman in the swamps of south Louisiana use pirogues made of fiberglass, in his 1952 classic song Jambalaya, Hank Williams refers to the pirogue in the line me gotta go pole the pirogue down the bayou. Johnny Horton, an avid Louisiana fisherman who celebrated Cajun customs and culture, Hank Williams, Jr. had a hit song in 1969, Cajun Baby, which refers to the pirogue in the line ride around in my old pirogue. Doug Kershaws 1961 hit Louisiana Man includes the line. he jumps in his pirogue headed down the bayou, many online lyrics sites mis-understand this line, saying hero or sometimes biro instead. On the Lewis and Clark expedition, pirogues were among the boats used during the journey, the term usually referred to the medium-sized boats of the company carrying eight rowers and a pilot, capable of carrying eight tons of cargo. Henry D. Thoreau writes of using heavy pirogues in his book The Maine Woods, there are accounts of 17th and 18th century Caribbean pirates using pirogues to attack and take-by-force much larger vessels including sloops and even barca-longas. Pirogues were used extensively by pirates and buccaneers throughout the Caribbean, the now-Mexican and Gulf Coasts, for the most part, though, such vessels were used for scouting or as tenders. Pirogues were used by Lewis and Clark on the Missouri River and westward from 1804–1806, in addition to bateaux, there is not one pirogue design, but several. Besides small pirogues as seen above, there are also pirogues that can hold up to ten men with paddles and these too, however, are not designed for open waters
19.
George Rogers Clark
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He served as leader of the militia in Kentucky throughout much of the war. Clark is best known for his celebrated captures of Kaskaskia and Vincennes during the Illinois Campaign, because the British ceded the entire Northwest Territory to the United States in the 1783 Treaty of Paris, Clark has often been hailed as the Conqueror of the Old Northwest. Clarks major military achievements occurred before his thirtieth birthday, afterwards, he led militia in the opening engagements of the Northwest Indian War, but was accused of being drunk on duty. Despite his demand for a investigation into the accusations, he was disgraced and forced to resign. Clark left Kentucky to live on the Indiana frontier, never fully reimbursed by Virginia for his wartime expenditures, Clark spent the final decades of his life evading creditors and living in increasing poverty and obscurity. He was involved in two failed attempts to open the Spanish-controlled Mississippi River to American traffic, after suffering a stroke and the amputation of his right leg, Clark became an invalid. He was aided in his final years by members, including his younger brother William, one of the leaders of the Lewis. George Rogers Clark died of a stroke on February 13,1818, George Rogers Clark was born on November 19,1752 in Albemarle County, Virginia, near Charlottesville, the hometown of Thomas Jefferson. He was the second of ten children of John and Ann Rogers Clark, five of their six sons became officers during the American Revolutionary War. Their youngest son, William Clark, was too young to fight in the war and he lived with his grandfather so he could receive a common education at Donald Robertsons school with James Madison and John Taylor of Caroline and. He was also tutored at home, as was usual for Virginian planters children of the period, Clarks grandfather trained him to be a surveyor. In 1771, at age nineteen, Clark left his home on his first surveying trip into western Virginia, in the meantime, thousands of settlers were entering the area as a result of the Treaty of Fort Stanwix of 1768. Clarks military career began in 1774, when he served as a captain in the Virginia militia, although most of Kentucky was not inhabited by Native Americans, several tribes used the area for hunting. Tribes in the Ohio country that had not been party to the treaty signed with the Cherokee were angry because the Kentucky hunting grounds had been ceded to Great Britain without their approval. As a result, they tried to push the European-American settlers to out of the area, Clark spent a few months surveying in Kentucky, as well as assisted in organizing Kentucky as a county for Virginia prior to the American Revolutionary War. As the American Revolutionary War began in the East, Kentuckys settlers became involved in a dispute about the regions sovereignty, richard Henderson, a judge and land speculator from North Carolina, had purchased much of Kentucky from the Cherokee in an illegal treaty. Henderson intended to create a colony known as Transylvania. In June 1776, these settlers selected Clark and John Gabriel Jones to deliver a petition to the Virginia General Assembly, Clark and Jones traveled the Wilderness Road to Williamsburg, where they convinced Governor Patrick Henry to create Kentucky County, Virginia
20.
Sioux
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The Sioux /ˈsuː/ are groups of Native American tribes and First Nations peoples in North America. The term can refer to any group within the Great Sioux Nation or to any of the nations many language dialects. The Sioux comprise three major divisions based on divisions, the Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota. The Santee Dakota reside in the extreme east of the Dakotas, Minnesota, the Yankton and Yanktonai Dakota, collectively also referred to by the endonym Wičhíyena, reside in the Minnesota River area. They are considered to be the middle Sioux, and have in the past been erroneously classified as Nakota, the actual Nakota are the Assiniboine and Stoney of Western Canada and Montana. The Lakota, also called Teton, are the westernmost Sioux, known for their hunting, the name Sioux was adopted in English by the 1760s from French. It is abbreviated from Nadouessioux, first attested by Jean Nicolet in 1640, the name is sometimes said to be derived from an Ojibwe exonym for the Sioux meaning little snakes. The spelling in -x is due to the French plural marker, the Proto-Algonquian form *na·towe·wa, meaning Northern Iroquoian, has reflexes in several daughter languages that refer to a small rattlesnake. An alternative explanation is derivation from an exonym na·towe·ssiw, from a verb meaning to speak a foreign language. The current Ojibwe term for the Sioux and related groups is Bwaanag, presumably, this refers to the style of cooking the Sioux used in the past. The alternative English spelling of Ogallala is considered improper, the historical Sioux referred to the Great Sioux Nation as the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, meaning Seven Council Fires. Each fire was a symbol of an oyate, the seven nations that comprise the Sioux are, Bdewákaŋthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ, Waȟpékhute, Sisíthuŋwaŋ, the Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ, Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna, and the Thítȟuŋwaŋ. The Seven Council Fires would assemble each summer to hold council, renew kinships, decide tribal matters, the seven divisions would select four leaders known as Wičháša Yatápika from among the leaders of each division. The last meeting of the Seven Council Fires was in 1850, today the Teton, Santee and the Minnesota Dakota, and Yankton/Yanktonai are usually known, respectively, as the Lakota, Eastern Dakota, or Western Dakota. In any of the three dialects, Lakota or Dakota translate to mean friend or ally, referring to the alliance that once bound the Great Sioux Nation. The Dakota are first recorded to have resided at the source of the Mississippi River during the seventeenth century, by 1700 some had migrated to present-day South Dakota. Late in the 17th century, the Dakota entered into an alliance with French merchants, the French were trying to gain advantage in the struggle for the North American fur trade against the English, who had recently established the Hudsons Bay Company. The first recorded encounter between the Sioux and the French occurred when Radisson and Groseilliers reached what is now Wisconsin during the winter of 1659–60
21.
Kaw Point
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Kaw Point is the name given to the point where the Kansas River terminates at the Missouri River in the West Bottoms area of Kansas City, Kansas. Kaw Point is also where the Missouri ceases its southerly course, Kaw Point was part of the land originally claimed by Spain, then by France, until ultimately the United States bought it as part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. The Lewis and Clark expedition party camped at Kaw Point June 26–28,1804, captain William Clark wrote on June 27,1804, that the Countrey about the mouth of this river is verry fine. It is the reason for the location of the Kansas City Metropolitan Area. At 94 degrees 36 minutes west longitude, Kaw Point was the basis for the state of Missouris western border from Iowa to Arkansas when it became a state in 1821, south of the Missouri River, that longitude still forms the border between Kansas and Missouri. North of the Missouri River, the state of Missouri extended its boundary farther to the west in 1836 with the Platte Purchase, Kaw Point became part of Kansas Territory in 1854 when the United States Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which opened the area for white settlement. In 1859 the city of Wyandotte, which included Kaw Point, was incorporated, Kaw Point became part of Kansas City, Kansas as part of the consolidation of 1886. Today, the point is the site of Kaw Point Riverfront Park, Kaw Point Satellite View Lewis and Clark in Wyandotte County Kaw Point page
22.
Kansas River
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The Kansas River is a river in northeastern Kansas in the United States. It is the southwestern-most part of the Missouri River drainage, which is in turn the northwestern-most portion of the extensive Mississippi River drainage and its name come from the Kanza people who once inhabited the area. The state of Kansas was named for the river, dropping 322 feet on its journey seaward, the water in the Kansas River falls less than 2 feet per mile. The Kansas River valley is only 115 miles long, the length of the river is due to meandering across the floodplain. The rivers course roughly follows the maximum extent of a Pre-Illinoian glaciation, and the river likely began as a path of glacial meltwater drainage. The Kansas drains 34,423 square miles of land in Kansas, along with 16,916 square miles in Nebraska and 8,775 square miles in Colorado, making a total of just over 60,000 square miles. When including the Republican River and its tributaries, the Kansas River system has a length of 743 miles. Its highest headwaters are at about 6,000 feet and extend nearly to Limon, much of the drainage of the river lies within the Great Plains, but the river itself exists entirely within the Mid Continent Region. The majority of the rest of the state is drained by the Arkansas, a portion of central-eastern Kansas is drained by the Marais des Cygnes River, which flows into Missouri to meet the Missouri River. A small area in the extreme northeast part of the state directly into the Missouri. In the Kansas City metro area, some streams drain east into the Blue River tributary of the Missouri, the Kansas River flows through what is known as the Stable Interior region. Since this region is near the center of the North American Plate, it has not experienced any extensive geologic faulting, folding, the river flows through limestone and shale strata that, except for diagenesis, remain largely undisturbed since deposition beneath the Western Interior Seaway. The age of the rock exposed by the river becomes progressively older as the river downstream for two main reasons. All of the rocks in the area are sedimentary, ranging from Late Pennsylvanian to recent, the first is sand and gravel brought down from the Rocky Mountains which have settled in the western extents of the Kansas River basin. The third is loess, a fine silt that may have originally been deposited by the water of the receding glaciers. The thickest loess deposits can be found in the northwest and north-central part of the Kansas River basin from southern Nebraska into northwest Kansas, as well as near the rivers mouth. The first map showing the Kansas River is French cartographer Guillaume de LIsles Carte de la Louisiane, on it the Petite Riv des Cansez flows into the Missouri River at about the 40th parallel. This map, with no changes except for the translation of French into English, was subsequently published by John Senex
23.
Independence Day (United States)
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It declared that the thirteen American colonies regarded themselves as a new nation, the United States of America, and were no longer part of the British Empire. Independence Day is the National Day of the United States, Congress debated and revised the wording of the Declaration, finally approving it two days later on July 4. A day earlier, John Adams had written to his wife Abigail, The second day of July,1776, I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by succeeding generations as the great anniversary festival. It ought to be commemorated as the day of deliverance, by acts of devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, adamss prediction was off by two days. Most historians have concluded that the Declaration was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2,1776, although not a signer of the Declaration of Independence, James Monroe, another Founding Father who was elected as President, also died on July 4,1831. He was the third President in a row who died on the anniversary of independence, calvin Coolidge, the 30th President, was born on July 4,1872, so far he is the only U. S. President to have been born on Independence Day. In 1777 thirteen gunshots were fired in salute, once at morning and once again as evening fell, on July 4 in Bristol, ships in port were decked with red, white, and blue bunting. In 1778, from his headquarters at Ross Hall, near New Brunswick, New Jersey, General George Washington marked July 4 with a ration of rum for his soldiers. Across the Atlantic Ocean, ambassadors John Adams and Benjamin Franklin held a dinner for their fellow Americans in Paris, in 1779, July 4 fell on a Sunday. The holiday was celebrated on Monday, July 5, in 1781 the Massachusetts General Court became the first state legislature to recognize July 4 as a state celebration. In 1783, Moravians in Salem, North Carolina, held a celebration of July 4 with a music program assembled by Johann Friedrich Peter. This work was titled The Psalm of Joy and this is recognized as the first recorded celebration and is still celebrated there today. In 1870 the U. S. Congress made Independence Day an unpaid holiday for federal employees, in 1938 Congress changed Independence Day to a paid federal holiday. Independence Day is a holiday marked by patriotic displays. Similar to other summer-themed events, Independence Day celebrations often take place outdoors, Independence Day is a federal holiday, so all non-essential federal institutions are closed on that day. Many politicians make it a point on day to appear at a public event to praise the nations heritage, laws, history, society. Families often celebrate Independence Day by hosting or attending a picnic or barbecue, many take advantage of the day off and, in some years, decorations are generally colored red, white, and blue, the colors of the American flag
24.
Atchison, Kansas
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Atchison is a city and county seat of Atchison County, Kansas, United States, and situated along the Missouri River. As of the 2010 census, its population was 11,021, the city is named in honor of David Rice Atchison, United States senator from Missouri, and was the original eastern terminus of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway. Atchison was the birthplace of aviator Amelia Earhart, and the Amelia Earhart Festival is held annually in July, Atchison is also home of Benedictine College, a Catholic liberal-arts college. However, it seems that all were not agreed upon the location he had selected, Martin and Neal Owens left Platte City, Missouri, to decide definitely upon a site. They found a site that was the outlet of a remarkably rich agricultural region just open to settlement. Million and Samuel Dickson had staked claims near the river, Dr. Stringfellow staked a tract north of Millions, million sold his claim for $1, 000—an exorbitant price. Eighteen persons were present when the company was formally organized by electing Peter T. Abell, president, James Burns, treasurer. The site was divided into 100 shares by the company, of each member retained five shares. At his meeting on the 21st, two institutions of vital interest to a new community were planned for—a hotel and a newspaper. The Squatter Sovereign, a paper with strong pro-slavery sentiments, was first issued on February 3,1855 and it had formerly been published at Liberty, Missouri, under the name of the Democratic Platform. In the spring of 1857 it was purchased by Samuel C, adams, who changed its policy and published it as a free-state paper until the fall of the same year, when Pomeroy became the sole owner. The first post office in Atchison was established April 10,1855 and it was opened in a small building in the block later occupied by the Otis house. Early merchants to establish businesses in the new town were George Challis, on August 30,1855, Atchison was incorporated. Dr. Stringfellow had North Atchison surveyed and platted in the fall of 1857 and this started a fever of additions. In February 1858, West Atchison was laid out by John Roberts, still another addition was made by John Challis. In 1858 the anti-slavery forces took control of the city, on February 12,1858, the legislature issued a charter to the city of Atchison, which was approved by the people on March 2 at a special election. The first city officers were elected at a special election on March 13,1858. The first schools in the town were private, including parochial schools operated by the Germans, one of the first English schools was opened in 1857 by Lizzie Bay
25.
Alexander Hamilton Willard
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Alexander Hamilton Willard was a blacksmith who joined the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Alexander Hamilton Willard Sr. was born in July 1777 in the town Charlestown, New Hampshire, he was the oldest son of Lt Jonathan Willard, Alexander was the 6th generation Willard born in America from Major Simon Willards line. Alexander had enlisted in a U. S. Army artillery company in 1800, during an unsuccessful search for Baker Bay, Willard and George Shannon were ordered to camp out and wait for the main party. Although Willard had redeemed himself by this point, he had received the harshest punishment distributed to a member of the Corps of Discovery. The charges were lying down and sleeping at his post while on guard duty, the punishment was issued on July 12,1804, and consisted of 100 lashes for each of four straight days at sunset. During a portage around the Missouri River Falls in July 1805, Alexander Willard was attacked by a White Bear, the island nearby later became known as White Bear Island in memory of that event. In 1806 during his stay at Fort Clatsop, both Willard and William E. Bratton fell ill, although Willard recovered, Bratton did not until after winter, with the Corps of Discovery, he assisted John Shields as a blacksmith. In 1808, Meriwether Lewis hired him as government blacksmith for the Sauk and Fox Indians and he later served in the War of 1812. Half a year after the completion of the expedition, February 14,1807 and she gave birth to their twelve children. Austin James Willard George Clark Willard Alexander Hamilton Willard Jr Eliza Martha Willard Roland Rudolph Willard Christiana D, Willard Joel Willard Nancy Adeline Willard Narcissa C. Willard Lewis Augustus Willard Willis Willard Alexander Hamilton Willard Sr. died in March 1865 and he is buried in Franklin Cemetery in Franklin, California, in Sacramento County. Lewis and Clark Journals, Members of the Expedition Discovering Lewis and Clark, Alexander Hamilton Willard Alexander Hamilton Willard Genealogy
26.
Platte River
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The Platte River /plæt/ is a major river in the state of Nebraska and is about 310 mi long. Measured to its farthest source via its tributary the North Platte River, the Platte River is a tributary of the Missouri River, which itself is a tributary of the Mississippi River which flows to the Gulf of Mexico. The Platte over most of its length is a muddy, broad, shallow, meandering stream with a swampy bottom and these characteristics made it too difficult for canoe travel, and it was never used as a major navigation route by European-American trappers or explorers. This expression is very close to the French words rivière plate, in central north Colorado is the North Park valley, ringed by mountains of 12,000 feet height, this is where the North Platte River originates. The nearest Colorado town is Walden, the county seat, the rugged Rocky Mountains Continental Divide surrounding Jackson County have at least twelve peaks over 11,000 feet in height. From Jackson County, the North Platte flows north about 200 miles out of the Routt National Forest and North Park near what is now Walden to Casper, Wyoming. Shortly after passing Casper, the North Platte turns to the east-southeast and flows about 350 miles to the city of North Platte, Nebraska. In Colorado and Wyoming, the North Platte is narrower and much swifter flowing than it is in Nebraska, the North Platte River has been dammed about eight times for water storage and irrigation purposes in Wyoming and Nebraska as it flows to its confluence with the South Platte River. The upper reaches of the river in the Rockies in Colorado and Wyoming are popular for rafting and lure and fly fishing for rainbow, brown, cutthroat trout. In western Nebraska, the banks and riverbed of the North Platte provide a green oasis amid an otherwise semi-arid region of North America, today, by the time the North Platte reaches Paxton, Nebraska it is much smaller due to the extensive water taken from it for irrigation. Historically, the North Platte River was up to a mile wide in places, as evidenced by the old streambed. The South Platte drains a part of the Front Range mountains east of the continental divide. The part of the river labeled the South Platte is formed in Park County, Colorado, located southwest of Denver, in the South Park grassland basin and mountains east of the continental divide. It is formed by the confluence of the South Fork South Platte River and Middle Fork South Platte River, approximately 15 miles southeast of Fairplay, Colorado. From Greeley, the South Platte turns east and flows about 200 miles to its confluence with the North Platte River near the city of North Platte, Nebraska. The South Platte River has been dammed about 20 times for storage, drinking water. The total number of dams in the South Platte drainage may exceed 1,000 as nearly all major streams have at least one dam on them, the South Platte River serves as the principal source of water for arid eastern Colorado. The South Platte River valley provided a major emigration path to Denver, the wagon trails followed the south side of the Platte/North Platte River
27.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
28.
Otoe
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The Otoe are a Native American people of the Midwestern United States. The Otoe language, Chiwere, is part of the Siouan family and closely related to that of the related Iowa, historically, the Otoe lived as a semi-nomadic people on the Central Plains along the Missouri River in Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa and Missouri. They lived in elm-bark lodges while they farmed, and used tipis while traveling and they often left their villages to hunt buffalo. In the early 19th century, many of their villages were destroyed due to warfare with other tribes, european-American encroachment and disease also played a role in their decline. Today, they are recognized as the Otoe tribes of Oklahoma. The Otoe were once part of the Siouan tribes of the Great Lakes region, at some point, a large group split off and began to migrate to the South and West. This group eventually split again, coalescing into at least three tribes, the Ioway, the Missouria and the Otoe. The Otoe settled in the lower Nemaha River valley and they adopted the horse culture and semi-nomadic lifestyle of the Great Plains, making the American bison central to their diet and culture. Following the Louisiana Purchase by the United States, the Lewis, the Otoe were the first tribe they encountered. They met at a place on the west bank of the Missouri River that would become known as the Council Bluff, like other Great Plains tribes, the Otoe periodically left their villages to hunt for buffalo. Between 1817 and 1841, the Otoe lived around the mouth of the Platte River in present-day Nebraska, during this time, the remaining families of the Missouria rejoined them. They gathered with others to trade for European goods, in the 1830s, the tribe was noted to have problems with alcohol, which was widely dispensed by traders. Some Otoe would trade vital supplies for alcohol, to the point of becoming destitute, as their dependence on alcohol grew, the men no longer hunted, but resorted to looting vacant Pawnee villages while the people were out hunting. Christian missionaries built a mission there, in 1854 the Otoe-Missouria ceded most of their lands south of the Platte River in eastern Nebraska to the U. S. by treaty. They retained the Oto Reservation along the Big Blue River on the present Kansas-Nebraska border and they struggled to adapt to reservation life. During the 1870s, the split into two factions. The Coyote band favored a move to Indian Territory, where they believed they could better perpetuate their traditional tribal life outside the influence of the whites. The Quaker band favored remaining on the Big Blue River land and they were willing to sell the western half of the reservation to whites to gain income for a tribal annuity
29.
Missouria
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The Missouria or Missouri are a Native American tribe that originated in the Great Lakes region of United States before European contact. The tribe belongs to the Chiwere division of the Siouan language family, together with the Iowa, since Indian removal, today they live primarily in Oklahoma. They are federally recognized as the Otoe-Missouria Tribe of Indians, based in Red Rock, French colonists adapted a form of the Illinois language-name for the people, Wimihsoorita. Their name means One who has dugout canoes, in their own Siouan language, the Missouri call themselves Niúachi, also spelled Niutachi, meaning People of the River Mouth. The Osage called them the Waçux¢a, and the Quapaw called them the Wa-ju-xd¢ǎ, the state of Missouri and the Missouri River are named for the tribe. The tribes oral history tells that once lived north of the Great Lakes. They began migrating south in the 16th century, by 1600, the Missouria lived near the confluence of the Grand and Missouri rivers, where they settled through the 18th century. Their tradition says that they split from the Otoe tribe, which belongs to the same Chiwere branch of the Siouan language, the 17th century brought hardships to the Missouria. The Sauk and Fox frequently attacked them and their society was even more disrupted by the high fatalities from epidemics of smallpox and other Eurasian infectious diseases that accompanied contact with Europeans. The French explorer Jacques Marquette contacted the tribe in 1673 and paved the way for trade with the French, the Missouria migrated west of the Missouri River into Osage territory. During this time, they acquired horses and hunted buffalo, the French explorer Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont visited the people in the early 1720s. He married the daughter of a Missouria chief and they settled nearby, and Veniard created alliances with the people. He built Fort Orleans in 1723 as a trading post near present-day Brunswick, in 1730 an attack by the Sauk/Fox tribe nearly destroyed the Missouria, killing hundreds. Most survivors reunited with the Otoe, while some joined the Osage, after a smallpox outbreak in 1829, fewer than 100 Missouria survived, and they all joined the Otoe. They signed treaties with the US government in 1830 and 1854 to cede their lands in Missouri and they relocated to the Otoe-Missouria reservation, created on the Big Blue River at the Kansas-Nebraska border. The US pressured the two tribes into ceding more lands in 1876 and 1881, in 1880 the tribes split into two factions, the Coyote, who were traditionalists, and the Quakers, who were assimilationists. The Coyote settled on the Iowa Reservation in Indian Territory, the Quakers negotiated a small separate reservation in Indian Territory. By 1890 most of the Coyote band rejoined the Quakers on their reservation, under the Dawes Act, by 1907 members of the tribes were registered and allotted individual plots of land per household
30.
Council Bluffs, Iowa
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Council Bluffs is a city in and the county seat of Pottawattamie County, Iowa, United States. It is located on the east bank of the Missouri River, across from what is now the larger city of Omaha. Council Bluffs was known until 1852 as Kanesville — the historic starting point of the Mormon Trail, Council Bluffs population was 62,230 at the 2010 census. Council Bluffs is more than an older than Omaha. The latter, founded in 1854 by Council Bluffs businessmen and speculators following the Kansas-Nebraska Act, has grown to be a larger city. The first Council Bluff name was actually on the Nebraska side of the river at Fort Atkinson about 20 miles northwest of the current Council Bluffs and it was named by Lewis and Clark for a bluff where they met with the Otoe tribe on August 2,1804. Sauganashs English name was Billy Caldwell and the came to be called Caldwells Camp. The group was called the Bluff Indians. The U. S. Dragoons built a fort nearby. In 1838–39, the missionary Pierre-Jean De Smet founded St. Josephs Mission to minister to the Potawatomi, De Smet was appalled by the violence and brutality caused by the whiskey trade, and tried to protect the tribe from unscrupulous traders. However, he had success in persuading tribal members to convert to Christianity. During this time, De Smet contributed to Joseph Nicollet’s work in mapping the upper midwest, De Smet produced the first European-recorded, detailed map of the Council Bluffs area, it detailed the Missouri River valley system, from below the Platte River to the Big Sioux River. As more native Americans were pushed into the Council Bluffs area by pressure of European-American settlement to the east, the US Army built Fort Croghan in 1842, to keep order and try to control liquor traffic on the Missouri River. However that fort was destroyed in a flood the same year, by 1846 the Pottawatomi were forced to move again to a new reservation at Osawatomie, Kansas. In 1844, the Stephens-Townsend-Murphy Party crossed the Missouri River here, beginning in 1846, there was a large influx of Latter-day Saints into the area, although in the winter of 1847–1848 most Latter-day Saints crossed to the Nebraska side of the Missouri River. Initially, the area was called Millers Hollow, after Henry W. Miller, Miller also was the foreman for the construction of the Kanesville Tabernacle. Built at or next to Caldwells Camp, Kanesville became the outfitting point for the Mormon Exodus to Utah. Edwin Carter, who would become a noted naturalist in Colorado and he helped supply Mormon wagon trains
31.
Patrick Gass
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Patrick Gass served as sergeant in the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Gass was born in Falling Springs, Pennsylvania, of Scots-Irish ancestry and his parents were Benjamin and Mary McLene Gass. Benjamin Gass and his father, William, were prominent citizens and he began his military career in 1792, with a Virginia militia or ranger company stationed in Wheeling fighting against Indians. In 1794 he helped build the house of James Buchanan, Sr. near Mercersburg Pennsylvania and became acquainted with the young future U. S. President, James Buchanan and he joined the U. S. Army in 1799, serving under General Alexander Hamilton until 1800. He rejoined the army in 1803 and served in Kaskaskia, Illinois, on the return trip, Gass was given command of the majority of the party for a short period while Clark and Lewis led smaller detachments on separate explorations. He remained in the army after the expedition returned, serving in the War of 1812, in which he lost an eye, and fighting in the battle of Lundys Lane. During the Civil War, Gass at the age of 91 years had to be removed from a station after he wanted to enlist to fight the rebels. At the age of sixty he married Maria Hamilton, aged 20 and she bore 7 children over the remaining 15 years of her life. They settled in Wellsburg, West Virginia where he died,98 years of age and he kept a journal that was published in 1807, the first published journal from the expedition. In it, he coined the term “Corps of Discovery”, the book was first printed and sold by subscription in Pittsburgh at $1.00 per copy. It was later reprinted in England, and translated into French, a reprint is currently being sold by the University of Nebraska Press and the University of Nebraska at Lincoln online version of the Lewis and Clark journals give 222 entries from Gasss journal. Gass, Patrick, James Kendall Hosmer, ed. Gasss journal of the Lewis and Clark expedition, Chicago, history of Franklin County, Chicago, Warner, Beers, & Co. Life and Times of Patrick Gass, Wellsburg, VA, Jacob & Smith,1859. Pennsylvania Historical Marker University of Nebraska at Lincoln online edition of the Lewis and Clark Journal, including 222 entries from Gasss journal
32.
Mississippi River
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The Mississippi River is the chief river of the largest drainage system on the North American continent. Flowing entirely in the United States, it rises in northern Minnesota, with its many tributaries, the Mississippis watershed drains all or parts of 31 U. S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth longest and fifteenth largest river in the world by discharge, the river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries, most were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the way of life as first explorers, then settlers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. Formed from thick layers of the silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country. In recent years, the river has shown a shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta. The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe name for the river, see below in the History section for additional information. In addition to historical traditions shown by names, there are at least two measures of a rivers identity, one being the largest branch, and the other being the longest branch. Using the largest-branch criterion, the Ohio would be the branch of the Lower Mississippi. Using the longest-branch criterion, the Middle Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson-Beaverhead-Red Rock-Hellroaring Creek River would be the main branch and its length of at least 3,745 mi is exceeded only by the Nile, the Amazon, and perhaps the Yangtze River among the longest rivers in the world. The source of this waterway is at Browers Spring,8,800 feet above sea level in southwestern Montana and this is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase Trans-Mississippi as used in the name of the Trans-Mississippi Exposition. It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, the New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway, the Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca,1,475 feet above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, however, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams. From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river
33.
Lakota people
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They speak the Lakota language, the westernmost of the three Siouan language groups, occupying lands in both North and South Dakota. Siouan language speakers may have originated in the lower Mississippi River region and they were agriculturalists and may have been part of the Mound Builder civilization during the 9th–12th centuries CE. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Dakota-Lakota speakers lived in the upper Mississippi Region in present-day Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, conflicts with Anishnaabe and Cree peoples pushed the Lakota west onto the Great Plains in the mid- to late-17th century. Early Lakota history is recorded in their Winter counts, pictorial calendars painted on hides or later recorded on paper, the Battiste Good winter count records Lakota history back to 900 CE, when White Buffalo Calf Woman gave the Lakota people the White Buffalo Calf Pipe. Around 1730, Cheyenne people introduced the Lakota to horses, called šuŋkawakaŋ, after their adoption of horse culture, Lakota society centered on the buffalo hunt on horseback. The total population of the Sioux was estimated at 28,000 by French explorers in 1660, the Lakota population was first estimated at 8,500 in 1805, growing steadily and reaching 16,110 in 1881. The Lakota were, thus, one of the few Native American tribes to increase in population in the 19th century, the number of Lakota has now increased to more than 170,000, of whom about 2,000 still speak the Lakota language. However, by about 1750 the Saône had moved to the east bank of the Missouri River, followed 10 years later by the Oglála, the large and powerful Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa villages had long prevented the Lakota from crossing the Missouri. However, the smallpox epidemic of 1772–1780 destroyed three-quarters of these tribes. The Lakota crossed the river into the drier, short-grass prairies of the High Plains and these newcomers were the Saône, well-mounted and increasingly confident, who spread out quickly. In 1765, a Saône exploring and raiding party led by Chief Standing Bear discovered the Black Hills, ten years later, the Oglála and Brulé also crossed the river. In 1776, the Lakota defeated the Cheyenne, who had taken the region from the Kiowa. The Cheyenne then moved west to the Powder River country, initial United States contact with the Lakota during the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804–1806 was marked by a standoff. Lakota bands refused to allow the explorers to continue upstream, and the expedition prepared for battle, some bands of Lakotas became the first Indians to help the United States Army in an Indian war west of the Missiouri during the Arikara War in 1823. In 1843, the southern Lakotas attacked Pawnee Chief Blue Coats village near the Loup in Nebraska, killing many, next time the Lakotas inflicted a blow so severe on the Pawnee would be in 1873, during the Massacre Canyon battle near Republican River. The Cheyenne and Lakota had previously attacked emigrant parties in a competition for resources, the Fort Laramie Treaty acknowledged Lakota sovereignty over the Great Plains in exchange for free passage on the Oregon Trail for as long as the river flows and the eagle flies. The United States government did not enforce the treaty restriction against unauthorized settlement, Lakota and other bands attacked settlers and even emigrant trains, causing public pressure on the U. S. Army to punish the hostiles. On September 3,1855,700 soldiers under American General William S. Harney avenged the Grattan Massacre by attacking a Lakota village in Nebraska, killing about 100 men, women, and children
34.
Niobrara River
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The Niobrara River is a tributary of the Missouri River, approximately 568 miles long, running through the U. S. states of Wyoming and Nebraska. The river drains one of the most arid sections of the Great Plains, the Niobraras watershed includes a small south-central section of South Dakota as well as the northern tier of Nebraska and a tiny area of eastern Wyoming. The river rises in the High Plains of Wyoming, in southern Niobrara County, the Niobrara flows east as an intermittent stream past Lusk and southeast into northwestern Nebraska. It then flows southeast across the Pine Ridge country of Sioux County, then east through Agate Fossil Beds National Monument, past Marsland, the stream flows east across northern Nebraska, near the northern edge of the Sandhills and past Valentine. It is joined by the Snake River about 13 miles southwest of Valentine, in north-central Nebraska it is joined by the Keya Paha River approximately 6 miles west of Butte. The river joins the Missouri northwest of Niobrara in northern Knox County and its total drainage basin is about 11,580 square miles. Although the annual runoff is low relative to the size of its drainage basin, an estimated 70 percent of the rivers water results from seepage from the Ogallala Aquifer that underlies the area, with the remaining 30 percent from precipitation. The river is highest in the spring and early summer and lowest in early fall, low flows in late summer and fall are generally the result of large irrigation diversions. The Niobraras average discharge between 1958 and 2013, measured at the U. S. Geological Survey stream gage at Verdel, the highest flow recorded was 39,100 cubic feet per second on March 27,1960. The lowest daily mean was 102 cubic feet per second on November 13,1960, the lower Niobrara valley is the traditional home of the Ponca tribe of Native Americans. Between 1861 and 1882, the stretch of the Niobrara River from the mouth of the Keya Paha to its confluence with the Missouri marked the boundary between Nebraska and the Dakota Territory. A 76-mile stretch of the Niobrara River in central Nebraska, from the town of Valentine east to Nebraska State Highway 137, has designated as the Niobrara National Scenic River since 1991. It is managed by the Department of the Interior to protect the quality, geologic, paleontologic, fish & wildlife, scenic. Most of the lands within the boundary of the National Scenic River are, management is based upon working with private, county, state and federal landowners and stakeholders to coordinate protection of the river while ensuring a quality experience for river visitors. The Box Butte Dam, completed in 1946 by the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, is the major dam on the Niobrara River proper. Located in Dawes County in western Nebraska, the dam is part of the Mirage Flats Project, dunlap Diversion Dam,8 miles below Box Butte, diverts water through a 13-mile canal to the farmland. The Snake River tributary is impounded by the Merritt Dam and irrigates about 34,540 acres in the area of Valentine, the project is part of the Ainsworth Unit of the Pick-Sloan Missouri Basin Program, also operated by the USBR. About 50 miles from the mouth of the Niobrara lies Spencer Dam, the dam was built in 1927 and is operated by the Nebraska Public Power District
35.
Prairie dog
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Prairie dogs are herbivorous burrowing rodents native to the grasslands of North America. The five species are, black-tailed, white-tailed, Gunnisons, Utah and they are a type of ground squirrel, found in the United States, Canada and Mexico. In the United States, they range primarily to the west of the Mississippi River, despite the name, they are not canines. Prairie dogs are named for their habitat and warning call, which similar to a dogs bark. The name was in use at least as early as 1774, the 1804 journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition note that in September 1804, they discovered a Village of an animal the French Call the Prairie Dog. Its genus, Cynomys, derives from the Greek for dog mouse, the black-tailed prairie dog was first described by Lewis and Clark in 1804. Lewis described it in detail in 1806, calling it the barking squirrel.5 and 1.5 kilograms. Sexual dimorphism in body mass in the prairie dog varies 105 to 136% between the sexes, among the species, black-tailed prairie dogs tend to be the least sexually dimorphic, and white-tailed prairie dogs tend to be the most sexually dimorphic. Prairie dogs are herbivorous, though they eat some insects. They feed primarily on grasses and small seeds, in the fall, they eat broadleaf forbs. In the winter, lactating and pregnant females supplement their diets with snow for extra water and they also will eat roots, seeds, fruit, and buds. Grasses of various species are eaten, white-tailed prairie dogs have been observed to kill ground squirrels, a competing herbivore. Prairie dogs live mainly at altitudes ranging from 2,000 to 10,000 ft above sea level, the areas where they live can get as warm as 38 °C in the summer and as cold as −37 °C in the winter. As prairie dogs live in areas prone to environmental threats, including hailstorms, blizzards, burrows help prairie dogs control their body temperature as they are 5–10 °C during the winter and 15–25 °C in the summer. Prairie dog burrows are 5–10 m long and 2–3 m below the ground, the entrance holes are generally 10–30 cm in diameter. Prairie dog burrows can have up to six entrances, sometimes the entrances are simply flat holes in the ground, while at other times they are surrounded by mounds of soil either left as piles or hard packed. Some mounds, known as dome craters, can be as high as 0. 2–0.3 m high, other mounds, known as rim craters, can be as high as 1 m. Dome craters and rim craters serve as observation posts used by the animals to watch for predators and they also protect the burrows from flooding
36.
Grand River (South Dakota)
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The Grand River is a tributary of the Missouri River in North Dakota and South Dakota in the United States. The length of the branch is 110 mi. With its longest fork, its length is approximately 200 mi and it is formed by the confluence of the North Fork and the longer South Fork in northwestern South Dakota near Shadehill in Perkins County, near several parcels of the Grand River National Grassland. Shadehill Reservoir is located at this confluence and it flows east, through the Standing Rock Indian Reservation and joins the Missouri in Lake Oahe, approximately 2 mi northwest of Mobridge. The lower 15 mi of the form an arm of the Lake Oahe reservoir. It is the northernmost of South Dakotas major West River streams, the Grand, Moreau, Cheyenne, Bad, draining about 5,200 square miles of the northern plateaus of the state, the Grand receives most of its water from snowmelt. Water quality is high in sodium, and is less appropriate for irrigation. Sitting Bull, a Hunkpapa Lakota holy man who led his people as a chief, was born on the Grand River in or nearby Dakota Territory. Decades later, he was killed by Indian agency police on the Standing Rock Indian Agency at his camp near the Grand River, the forks of the Grand was the site of a noted 1823 attack by a grizzly bear on frontiersman Hugh Glass. List of rivers of North Dakota List of rivers of South Dakota Grand River and certain tributaries uses at SD Legislative Research Council
37.
Arikara
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Arikara, also known as Sahnish, Arikaree or Ree, are a tribe of Native Americans in North Dakota. Today they are enrolled with the Mandan and the Hidatsa as the federally recognized tribe known as the Mandan, Hidatsa, the Arikaras name is believed to mean horns, in reference to the ancient custom of wearing two upright bones in their hair. The name also could mean elk people or corn eaters, the Arikara language is a member of the Caddoan language family. Arikara is close to the Pawnee language, but they are not mutually intelligible, as of 2007, the total number of remaining native speakers was reported as ten, one of whom, Maude Starr, died on 20 January 2010. She was a language teacher who participated in Arikara language education programs. Linguistic divergence between Arikara and Pawnee suggests a separation from the Skidi Pawnee in about the 15th century, an Arikara village, near where present-day Pierre, South Dakota developed, was visited in 1743 by two sons of the French trader and explorer La Vérendrye. The Arikara lived as a people on the Great Plains. During the sedentary seasons, the Arikara lived primarily in villages of earth lodges, while traveling or during the seasonal bison hunts, they erected portable tipis as temporary shelter. They were primarily a society, whose women cultivated varieties of corn. The crop was such an important staple of their society that it was referred to as Mother Corn, an early European, a botanist, praised the Arikara women as excellent cultivators. He had not seen finer crops anywhere in America, the surplus corn and other crops, along with tobacco, were traded to the Lakota, the Cheyenne and more southern plains tribes during short-lived truces. The amount of trading items passing through the Arikara villages made them a center on the Upper Missouri. Before smallpox epidemics hit the three tribes, they were the most influential and affluent peoples in the Northern Plains. Traditionally an Arikara family owned 30–40 dogs, the people used them for hunting and as sentries, but most importantly for transportation in the centuries before the Plains tribes adopted the use of horses in the 1600s. Many of the Plains tribes had used the travois, a transportation device pulled by dogs. Women also used dogs to pull travois to haul firewood or infants, the travois were used to carry meat harvested during the seasonal hunts, a single dog could pull a quarter of a bison. In the late 18th century, the tribe suffered a high rate of fatalities from smallpox epidemics, other estimates range from less than 10,000 people as a peak population to almost 25,000. The smallpox epidemic of 1780-1782 reduced the Arikara villages along the Missouri to just two from thirty-two, the effects of the epidemic may have been so terrible that it could not be comprehended but in allegorical form
38.
Mandan
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The Mandan are a Native American tribe residing in North Dakota. They are enrolled in the Three Affiliated Tribes of the Fort Berthold Reservation, about half of the Mandan still reside in the area of the reservation, the rest reside around the United States and in Canada. The Mandan historically lived along the banks of the Missouri River, speakers of Mandan, a Siouan language, developed a settled, agrarian culture. They established permanent villages featuring large, round, earth lodges, some 40 feet in diameter, while the bison was key to the daily life of the Mandan, they also farmed and actively traded goods with other Great Plains tribes. The Mandan population was 3,600 in the early 18th century, in 1836, there were over 1,600 fullblood Mandans, but this number was estimated to have dropped to 125 by 1838. In the 1990s,6,000 people were enrolled in the Three Affiliated Tribes, in the 2010 Census,1,171 people reported Mandan ancestry. 365 of them were full-bloods, and 806 had partial ancestry, the English name Mandan is derived from the French-Canadian explorer Pierre Gaultier, Sieur de la Verendrye, who heard it as Mantannes from his Assiniboine guides in 1738. He had previously heard the earth lodge peoples referred to by the Cree as Ouachipouennes, nearby Siouan speakers had exonyms similar to Mantannes in their languages, for instance, Teton Miwátąni, Yanktonai Miwátani, Yankton Mawátani or Mąwátanį, Dakota Mawátąna or Mawátadą, etc. Later, this fell to disuse and instead two divisions names were used, Nuweta or Ruptare. Later, the term Rų́ʔeta was extended to refer to a tribal entity. The name Mi-ah´ta-nēs recorded by Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden in 1862, reportedly means people on the river bank, gloria Jahoda in Trail of Tears states that they also call themselves the Pheasant people. George Catlin states The Mandans The Mandan language belongs to the Siouan language family and it was initially thought to be closely related to the languages of the Hidatsa and the Crow. However, since the Mandan language has been in contact with Hidatsa and Crow for many years, for this reason, linguists classify Mandan most often as a separate branch of the Siouan family. Mandan has two dialects, Nuptare and Nuetare. Only the Nuptare variety survived into the 20th century, and all speakers were bilingual in Hidatsa, linguist Mauricio Mixco of the University of Utah has been involved in fieldwork with remaining speakers since 1993. As of 1999, there were only six fluent speakers of Mandan still alive, as of 2010, programs in local schools encourage students learning the language. The Mandan and their language received much attention from European Americans, in the 1830s, Prince Maximilian of Wied spent more time recording Mandan over all other Siouan languages and additionally prepared a comparison list of Mandan and Welsh words. The theory of the Mandan/Welsh connection, now discounted, was supported by George Catlin
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Hidatsa
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The Hidatsa are a Siouan people. Hidatsa are enrolled in the federally recognized Three Affiliated Tribes of the Fort Berthold Reservation in North Dakota and their language is related to that of the Crow, and they are sometimes considered a parent tribe to the modern Crow in Montana. According to the tradition, the word hiraacá derives from the word willow, however, the etymology is not transparent. The present name Hidatsa was formerly borne by one of the three tribal villages, when the villages consolidated, the name was adopted for the tribe as a whole. For hundreds of years the Knife River area in present North Dakota was the home of the Hidatsa, the first villages dates back to the 13th century. Accounts of recorded history in the early 18th century identify three closely related village groups to which the term Hidatsa is applied, the Awaxawi or Amahami have a creation tradition similar to that of the Mandan, which describes their emergence long ago from the Earth, at Devils Lake. Later they moved westward to the Painted Woods and settled near a village of Mandan, the Awatixa originated not from the earth, but from the sky, led by Charred Body. According to their tradition, their first people lived near Painted Woods, after that they always lived between the Heart River and Knife River along the Middle Missouri River. The Hidatsa proper or Hiraacá / Hiratsa, largest of the three, were a confederation of numerous nomadic Hidatsa bands from the north, who separated from the Amahami in what is now western Minnesota, first they settled to the north, then later moved south to Devils Lake. In their travels they met the Mandans Indians and then moved westward and settled with these distant relatives north of the Knife River, later they moved to the mouth of Knife River. Their territory ranged upstream along the Missouri River, its tributary regions to the west, and they were initially part of those who would become the River Crow. The Hidatsa originally lived in Miri xopash / Miniwakan, the Devils Lake region of North Dakota, as they migrated west, the Hidatsa came across the Mandan at the mouth of the Heart River. The two groups formed an alliance, and settled into a division of territory along the areas rivers. Prior to the epidemic of 1782, they had few enemies, the Hidatsa hunted upstream from the earthlodge villages at and below the Knife River. Here, between the Knife and Yellowstone Rivers, they were enough to withstand attacks of the Assiniboine. A remarkable siege of the village Big Hidatsa by the Sioux around 1790 ended with a victory for the inhabitants. They killed 100 or more retreating Sioux in a counter attack, white traders from the north, like North West Company man David Thompson, began to visit the Hidatsa and Mandan villages during the 1790s. In 1800, a group of Hidatsa abducted Sacagawea and several girls in a battle that resulted in death among the Shoshone of four men, four women
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Fort Mandan
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Fort Mandan was the name of the encampment which the Lewis and Clark Expedition built for wintering over in 1804-1805. The encampment was located on the Missouri River approximately twelve miles from the site of present-day Washburn, North Dakota, the precise location is not known for certain and is believed now to be under the water of the river. A replica of the fort has been constructed near the original site, the fort was built of cottonwood lumber cut from the riverbanks. It was triangular in shape, with walls on all sides. Storage rooms provided a place to keep supplies. Lewis and Clark shared a room, the men of the Corps of Discovery started the fort on November 2,1804. They wintered there until April 7,1805, according to the journals, they built the fort slightly downriver from the five villages of the Mandan and Hidatsa nations. The winter was cold, with temperatures sometimes dipping to minus 45 degrees Fahrenheit. Several of the men of the expedition suffered frostbite due to the cold conditions. As the expedition established the first official contact between the United States and these nations, President Thomas Jefferson had directed the captains to pursue diplomatic goals. They were to try to establish relationships with as many tribes as possible. They were also to claim United States territorial sovereignty over the land, the historic tribes had differing conceptions of property use than did the European Americans. The Teton people had shown resistance to the expedition. Lewis and Clark gradually adjusted their goals, working to form alliances with the Arikara, Hidatsa, the Mandan were cautiously favorable toward such an alliance. When the Expedition returned to the area in 1806 while traveling east, but the Mandan did not commit to trading with the United States at the expense of their previous partnership with Great Britain through Canadian traders. The Hidatsa strongly resisted the American diplomatic efforts, often avoiding meeting with Lewis, the Corps spent much time during the winter to prepare for their travel in the spring, repairing equipment, making clothing, processing dried meats, etc. In addition, on the way to their site, they had used maps made by previous explorers. From that point on in their journey, they would enter territory unfamiliar to Europeans according to known documentation
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North West Company
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The North West Company was a fur trading business headquartered in Montreal from 1779 to 1821. It competed with increasing success against the Hudsons Bay Company in what is present-day Western Canada, with great wealth at stake, tensions between the companies increased to the point where several minor armed skirmishes broke out, and the two companies were forced to merge. In 1987, the trading posts of the Hudsons Bay Company were sold to an employee consortium that revived the name The North West Company in 1990. After the French landed in Quebec in 1608, coureurs des bois spread out, the French competed with the Dutch and English in New York and the English in Hudson Bay. Unlike the French who travelled into the interior, the English were based at trading posts on Hudson Bay. After 1731, La Vérendrye pushed trade west beyond Lake Winnipeg, after the British conquest in 1763, management of the fur trading posts was taken over by English-speakers. These so-called pedlars began to merge because competition cost them money, in the winter of 1783-84, the North West Company was officially created on a long-term basis, with its corporate offices on Vaudreuil Street in Montreal. The wintering partners and the Montreal agents met each July at the Companys depot at Grand Portage on Lake Superior, later moved to Fort William, also under the auspices of the Company, Alexander Mackenzie conducted two important expeditions of exploration. These men pushed into the territories of the Rocky Mountains. The death of Benjamin Frobisher opened the door to a takeover of the North West Company by Simon McTavish, the firm of McTavish, Frobisher and Company, founded in November 1787, effectively controlled eleven of the company’s twenty outstanding shares. At the time the company consisted of 23 partners, but its staff of Agents, factors, clerks, guides, interpreters, in addition to Alexander Mackenzie, this group included Americans Peter Pond and Alexander Henry the elder. Further reorganizations of the partnership occurred in 1795 and 1802, the shares being subdivided each time to provide for more and more wintering partners. Vertical integration of the business was completed in 1792, when Simon McTavish and John Fraser formed a London house to supply goods and market the furs, McTavish, Fraser. While the organization and capitalization of the North West Company came from Anglo-Quebecers, in the northwest, the Company expanded its operations as far north as Great Bear Lake, and westwards beyond the Rocky Mountains. For several years, they tried to sell directly to China, using American ships to avoid the British East India Companys monopoly. The company also expanded into the United States Northwest Territory, in 1796, to better position themselves in the increasingly global market, where politics played a major role, the North West Company briefly established an agency in New York City. The company tried to persuade the British Parliament to change arrangements and it is said that Simon McTavish made a personal petition to Prime Minister William Pitt, but all requests were refused. A few years later, with no relief to the Hudsons Bay Companys stranglehold, McTavish and they organized an overland expedition from Montreal to James Bay and a second expedition by sea
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French Canadians
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French Canadians are an ethnic group who trace their ancestry to French colonists who settled in Canada from the 17th century onward. Today, French Canadians constitute the main French-speaking population in Canada, today, French Canadians live across North America. The province of Quebec has the largest population of French-Canadian descent, though smaller communities exist throughout Canada, between 1840 and 1930, roughly 900,000 French Canadians emigrated to the United States, mostly to the New England region. Other terms for French Canadians who continue to reside in the province of Quebec, are Quebecers or Québécois, the other major group of French Canadians are the Acadians who reside in the Maritime Provinces. In total, those who identify as French Canadian, French, Québécois, the French Canadians get their name from Canada, the most developed and densely populated region of New France during the period of French colonization in the 17th and 18th century. The original use of the term Canada referred to the area along the St. From 1535 to the 1690s, the French word Canadien had referred to the First Nations the French had encountered in the St. Lawrence River valley at Stadacona, at the end of the 17th century, Canadien became an ethnonym distinguishing the inhabitants of Canada from those of France. French Canadians living in Canada express their identity using a number of terms. The Ethnic Diversity Survey of the 2006 Canadian census found that French-speaking Canadians identified their ethnicity most often as French, French Canadians, Québécois, the latter three were grouped together by Jantzen as French New World ancestries because they originate in Canada. Canadien was used to refer to the French-speaking residents of New France beginning in the last half of the 17th century, the English-speaking residents who arrived later from Great Britain were called Anglais. This usage continued until Canadian Confederation in 1867 and those reporting French New World ancestries overwhelmingly had ancestors that went back at least four generations in Canada. Fourth generation Canadiens and Québécois showed considerable attachment to their group, with 70% and 61%, respectively. The generational profile and strength of identity of French New World ancestries contrast with those of British or Canadian ancestries, which represent the largest ethnic identities in Canada. As a result, their identification with their ethnicity is weaker, for example, only 50% of third generation Canadians strongly identify as such, bringing down the overall average. The survey report notes that 80% of Canadians whose families had been in Canada for three or more generations reported Canadian and provincial or regional ethnic identities and these identities include French New World ancestries such as Québécois, Acadian. Since the 1960s, French Canadians in Quebec have generally used Québécois or Québécoise to express their cultural and national identity, rather than Canadien français, francophones who self-identify as Québécois and do not have French-Canadian ancestry may not identify as French Canadian. Those who do have French or French-Canadian ancestry, but who support Quebec sovereignty and this is a reflection of the strong social, cultural, and political ties that most Quebeckers of French-Canadian origin, who constitute a majority of francophone Quebecers, maintain within Quebec. French Canadians outside Quebec are more likely to self-identify as French Canadian, identification with provincial groupings varies from province to province, with Franco-Ontarians, for example, using their provincial label far more frequently than Franco-Columbians do
43.
Trapping
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Animal trapping, or simply trapping, is the use of a device to remotely catch an animal. Animals may be trapped for a variety of purposes, including food, the fur trade, hunting, pest control, neolithic hunters, including the members of the Cucuteni-Trypillian culture of Romania and Ukraine, used traps to capture their prey. A passage from the book by Taoist philosopher Zhuangzi describes Chinese methods used for trapping animals during the 4th century BC. The Zhuangzi reads, The sleek-furred fox and the spotted leopard. cant seem to escape the disaster of nets. The first mention comes from Leonard Mascalls book on animal trapping and it reads, a griping trappe made all of yrne, the lowest barre, and the ring or hoope with two clickets. The mousetrap, with a spring device spring mounted on a wooden base, was first patented by William C. Hooker of Abingdon, Illinois. Native Americans trapped fur bearing animals with pits, dead falls, trapping was widespread in the early days of North American settlements, and companies such as the Canadian fur brigade were established. In the 18th century blacksmiths manually built leghold traps, and by the mid-19th century trap companies manufacturing traps and fur stretchers, the monarchs and trading companies of Europe invested heavily in voyages of exploration. The race was on to establish trading posts with the natives of North America, as trading posts could also function as forts, the Hudsons Bay Company was one such business. They traded commodities such as rifles, pistols, knives, food, frying pans, pots, Trappers and mountain men were the first European men to cross the Great Plains to the Rocky Mountains in search of fur. They traded with Native Americans from whom they learned hunting and trapping skills, beaver was one of the main animals of interest to the trappers as the fur wore well in coats and hats. Beaver hats became popular in the early 19th century but later the fashion changed, towards the end of the century beaver became scarce in many areas and locally extinct in others. The decline in key species of fur-bearers, due to over-harvesting, many trappers turned to buffalo hunting, serving as scouts for the army or leading wagon trains to the American west. The trails that trappers used to get through the mountains were used by settlers heading west. Trapping is carried out for a variety of reasons, originally it was for food, fur and other animal products. Trapping has since expanded to encompass pest control, wildlife management, the pet trade. Many locations where trading took place were referred to as trading posts, much trading occurred along the Hudson River area in the early 1600s. In some locations in the US and in parts of southern and western Europe
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Shoshone
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The Shoshone were sometimes called the Snake Indians by neighboring tribes and early American explorers. Their peoples have become members of recognized tribes throughout their traditional areas of settlement, often colocated with the Paiute. The name Shoshone comes from Sosoni, a Shoshone word for high-growing grasses, some neighboring tribes call the Shoshone Grass House People, based on their traditional homes made from soshoni. Shoshones call themselves Newe, meaning People, meriwether Lewis recorded the tribe as the Sosonees or snake Indians in 1805. The Shoshoni language is spoken by approximately 1,000 people today and it belongs to the Central Numic branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Speakers are scattered from central Nevada to central Wyoming, the largest numbers of Shoshoni speakers live on the federally recognized Duck Valley Indian Reservation, located on the border of Nevada and Idaho, and Goshute Reservation in Utah. Idaho State University also offers Shoshoni-language classes, the Shoshone are a Native American tribe, who originated in the western Great Basin and spread north and east into present-day Idaho and Wyoming. By 1500, some Eastern Shoshone had crossed the Rocky Mountains into the Great Plains, after 1750, warfare and pressure from the Blackfoot, Crow, Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho pushed Eastern Shoshone south and westward. Some of them moved as far south as Texas, emerging as the Comanche by 1700, as more European-American settlers migrated west, tensions rose with the indigenous people over competition for territory and resources. Wars occurred throughout the half of the 19th century. The Northern Shoshone, led by Chief Pocatello, fought during the 1860s with settlers in Idaho, as more settlers encroached on Shoshone hunting territory, the natives raided farms and ranches for food, and attacked immigrants. The warfare resulted in the Bear River Massacre, when US forces attacked and killed an estimated 410 Northwestern Shoshone, a large number of the dead were civilians, including women and children, deliberately killed by the soldiers. This was the highest number of deaths which the Shoshone suffered at the hands of United States forces, allied with the Bannock, to whom they were related, the Shoshone fought against the United States in the Snake War from 1864 to 1868. They fought US forces together in 1878 in the Bannock War, in 1876, by contrast, the Shoshone fought alongside the U. S. Army in the Battle of the Rosebud against their traditional enemies, the Lakota and Cheyenne. In 1879 a band of approximately 300 Eastern Shoshone became involved in the Sheepeater Indian War and it was the last Indian war fought in the Pacific Northwest region of the present-day United States. In 1911 a small group of Bannock under a leader named Mike Daggett, also known as Shoshone Mike, killed four ranchers in Washoe County, the settlers formed a posse and went out after the Native Americans. They caught up with the Bannock band on February 26,1911 and they lost one man of the posse, Ed Hogle. The posse captured three children and a woman, a rancher donated the partial remains of three adult males, two adult females, two adolescent males, and three children to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC for study
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