1.
History of Indonesia
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The history of Indonesia has been shaped by its geographic position, its natural resources, a series of human migrations and contacts, wars and conquests, as well as by trade, economics and politics. Indonesia is a country of 17,000 to 18000 islands stretching along the equator in South East Asia. The countrys strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history, the area of Indonesia is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and languages. The archipelagos landforms and climate significantly influenced agriculture and trade, the boundaries of the state of Indonesia represent the 20th century borders of the Dutch East Indies. Fossilised remains of Homo erectus and his tools, popularly known as the Java Man, austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, are thought to have originally been from Taiwan and arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE. From the 7th century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished bringing Hindu, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties subsequently thrived and declined in inland Java. The last significant non-Muslim kingdom, the Hindu Majapahit kingdom, flourished from the late 13th century, for the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences. Europeans such as the Portuguese arrived in Indonesia from the 16th century seeking to monopolise the sources of valuable nutmeg, cloves, in 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company and became the dominant European power by 1610. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, by the early 20th century, Dutch dominance extended to the current boundaries. The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation in 1942–45 during WWII ended Dutch rule, two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, nationalist leader, Sukarno, declared independence and became president. An attempted coup in 1965 led to a violent army-led anti-communist purge in which half a million people were killed. General Suharto politically outmanoeuvred President Sukarno, and became president in March 1968 and his New Order administration garnered the favour of the West whose investment in Indonesia was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. In the late 1990s, however, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian Financial Crisis which led to popular protests, political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, natural disasters, and terrorism have slowed progress. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent, in 2007 analysis of cut marks on two bovid bones found in Sangiran, showed them to have been made 1.5 to 1.6 million years ago by clamshell tools. This is the oldest evidence for the presence of man in Indonesia. In 1977 another H. erectus skull was discovered at Sambungmacan. In 2003, on the island of Flores, fossils of a new small hominid dated between 74,000 and 13,000 years old and named Flores Man were discovered much to the surprise of the scientific community. This 3 foot tall hominid is thought to be a descended from Homo erectus
2.
Prehistoric Indonesia
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Unlike the clear distinction between prehistoric and historical periods in Europe and the Middle East, the division is muddled in Indonesia. This is mostly because Indonesias geographical conditions as a vast archipelago caused some parts — especially the interiors of distant islands — to be isolated from the rest of the world. The Papuans on the Indonesian part of New Guinea island lived virtually in the stone age until their first contacts with modern world in early 20th century, even today living megalithic traditions still can be found on the island of Sumba and Nias. This tectonic collision created Sunda volcanic Arc that has produced chains of islands of Sumatra, Java, the active volcanic arc creating supervolcano that today become Lake Toba in Sumatra. Other notable volcanoes in Sunda Arc are Mount Tambora and Krakatau, the Indonesian archipelago nearly reached its present form in the Pleistocene period. For some periods, the Sundaland was still linked with Asian mainland, creating the landmass extension of Southeast Asia that enabled the migrations of some Asian animals and hominid species. Geologically the New Guinea island and the seas of Arafura is the northern part of Australia tectonic plate. Sundaland was submerged under shallow sea, creating Malacca Strait, South China Sea, Karimata Strait, during that period, Malay peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the islands around them were formed. On the east, New Guinea and Aru Islands were separated from the Australia mainland, the rise of sea surface created isolated areas that separated plants, animals and hominid species, causing further evolution and specification. In 1977 another Homo erectus skull was discovered at Sambungmacan, in 2003, on the island of Flores, fossils of a new small hominid dated between 74,000 and 13,000 years old and named Flores Man were discovered much to the surprise of the scientific community. This 3 foot tall hominid is thought to be a descended from Homo Erectus. The archipelago was formed during the thaw after the latest ice age, early humans travelled by sea and spread from mainland Asia eastward to New Guinea and Australia. Homo sapiens reached the region by around 45,000 years ago, around 2000 BCE there was an expansion of seafaring Austronesian people from Asia, who spread throughout Maritime Southeast Asia to Madagascar and Oceania. Austronesian people form the majority of the modern population, Homo erectus were known to utilise simple coarse paleolithic stone tools and also shell tools, discovered in Sangiran and Ngandong.6 and 1.5 million years ago. These cut marks document the use of the first tools in Sangiran, the polished stone tools of neolithic culture, such as polished stone axes and stone hoes, were developed by the Austronesian people in the Indonesian archipelago. Also during the period, large stone structures of the megalithic culture flourished in archipelago. The Indonesian archipelago is the host of Austronesian megalith cultures both past and present, several megalith sites and structures are also found across Indonesia. Menhirs, dolmens, stone tables, ancestral stone statues, and step pyramid structure called Punden Berundak were discovered in sites in Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi
3.
Java Man
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Java Man is the popular name given to early human fossils discovered on the island of Java in 1891 and 1892. Led by Eugène Dubois, the team uncovered a tooth, a skullcap. Arguing that the fossils represented the missing link between apes and humans, Dubois gave the species the scientific name Anthropopithecus erectus, then renamed it Pithecanthropus erectus. Less than ten years after 1891, almost eighty books or articles had been published on Duboiss finds, despite Dubois argument, few accepted that Java Man was a transitional form between apes and humans. Some dismissed the fossils as apes and others as modern humans, in the 1930s Dubois made the claim that Pithecanthropus was built like a giant gibbon, a much misinterpreted attempt by Dubois to prove that it was the missing link. Eventually, similarities between Pithecanthropus erectus and Sinanthropus pekinensis led Ernst Mayr to rename both Homo erectus in 1950, placing them directly in the evolutionary tree. To distinguish Java Man from other Homo erectus populations, some began to regard it as a subspecies, Homo erectus erectus. Other fossils found in the first half of the century in Java at Sangiran and Mojokerto. Estimated to be between 700,000 and 1,000,000 years old, at the time of their discovery the fossils of Java Man were the oldest hominin fossils ever found, the fossils of Java Man have been housed at the Naturalis in the Netherlands since 1900. Charles Darwin had argued that humanity evolved in Africa, because this is where great apes like gorillas, though Darwins claims have since been vindicated by the fossil record, they were proposed without any fossil evidence. Other scientific authorities disagreed with him, like Charles Lyell, a geologist, and Alfred Russel Wallace, Dutch anatomist Eugène Dubois favored the latter theory, and sought to confirm it. In October 1887, Dubois abandoned his career and left for the Dutch East Indies to look for the fossilized ancestor of modern man. Because of his duties, it was only in July 1888 that he began to excavate caves in Sumatra. After he failed to find the fossils he was looking for on Sumatra, again assisted by convict laborers and two army sergeants, Dubois began searching along the Solo River near Trinil in August 1891. His team soon excavated a molar and a skullcap and its characteristics were a long cranium with a sagittal keel and heavy browridge. Dubois first gave them the name Anthropopithecus, or man-ape, as the chimpanzee was known at the time, in August 1892, Duboiss team found a long femur shaped like a human one, suggesting that its owner had stood upright. Believing that the three belonged to a single individual, probably a very aged female, Dubois renamed the specimen Anthropopithecus erectus. Only in late 1892, when he determined that the cranium measured about 900 cubic centimetres and this specimen has also been known as Pithecanthropus 1
4.
Homo floresiensis
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Homo floresiensis is an extinct species in the genus Homo. The remains of an individual that would have stood about 3.5 feet in height were discovered in 2003 at Liang Bua on the island of Flores in Indonesia, partial skeletons of nine individuals have been recovered, including one complete skull, referred to as LB1. These remains have been the subject of research to determine whether they represent a species distinct from modern humans. This hominin had originally considered to be remarkable for its survival until relatively recent times. However, more extensive stratigraphic and chronological work has pushed the dating of the most recent evidence of their back to 50,000 years ago. Fossil teeth and a jaw from hominins assumed to be ancestral to H. floresiensis were discovered in 2014. These remains are from a site on Flores called Mata Menge and they date to about 700,000 years ago and are even smaller than the later fossils. The form of the fossils has been interpreted as suggesting that they are derived from a population of H. erectus that arrived on Flores about a million years ago and rapidly became dwarfed. Some scholars suggest that the historical H. floresiensis may be connected by folk memory to ebu gogo myths prevalent on the isle of Flores, based on previous date estimates, the discoverers also proposed that H. floresiensis lived contemporaneously with modern humans on Flores. Doubts that the remains constitute a new species were soon voiced by the Indonesian anthropologist Teuku Jacob, two studies by paleoneurologist Dean Falk and her colleagues rejected this possibility. Falk et al. has been rejected by Martin et al. and Jacob et al. but defended by Morwood and Argue, two orthopedic researches published in 2007 reported evidence to support species status for H. floresiensis. A study of three tokens of carpal bones concluded there were differences from the bones of modern humans. A study of the bones and joints of the arm, shoulder, in 2009, the publication of a cladistic analysis and a study of comparative body measurements provided further support for the hypothesis that H. floresiensis and Homo sapiens are separate species. Critics of the claim for species status continue to think that individuals are Homo sapiens with pathologies of anatomy. They were not expecting to find a new species, and were surprised at the recovery of a complete skeleton of a hominin they dubbed LB1 because it was unearthed inside the Liang Bua Cave. Subsequent excavations recovered seven additional skeletons, initially dated from 38,000 to 13,000 years ago, an arm bone provisionally assigned to H. floresiensis is about 74,000 years old. The specimens are not fossilized and have described as having the consistency of wet blotting paper, once exposed. Sophisticated stone implements of a size considered appropriate to the 3-foot-tall human are also present in the cave
5.
Toba catastrophe theory
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The Toba supereruption was a supervolcanic eruption that occurred about 75,000 years ago at the site of present-day Lake Toba. It is one of the Earths largest known eruptions, the Toba catastrophe theory holds that this event caused a global volcanic winter of 6–10 years and possibly a 1, 000-year-long cooling episode. In 1998, the theory was further developed by Stanley H. Ambrose of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Both the link and global winter theories are highly controversial, the Toba event is the most closely studied supereruption. The Toba eruption or Toba event occurred at the present location of Lake Toba, in Indonesia and this eruption was the last and largest of four eruptions of Toba during the Quaternary period, and is also recognized from its diagnostic horizon of ashfall, the youngest Toba tuff. It had a volcanic explosivity index of 8, it made a sizable contribution to the 100×30 km caldera complex. Tobas erupted mass deposited an ash layer about 15 centimetres thick over the whole of South Asia, a blanket of volcanic ash was also deposited over the Indian Ocean, and the Arabian Sea and South China Sea. The Toba eruption apparently coincided with the onset of the last glacial period, evidence from Greenland ice cores indicates a 1, 000-year period of low δ18O and increased dust deposition immediately following the eruption. The eruption may have caused this 1, 000-year period of cooler temperatures, according to Alan Robock, who has also published nuclear winter papers, the Toba eruption did not precipitate the last glacial period. Because the saturated adiabatic lapse rate is 4.9 °C/1,000 m for temperatures above freezing, the tree line and the snow line were around 3,000 m lower at this time. The climate recovered over a few decades, and Robock found no evidence that the 1, in contrast, Oppenheimer believes that estimates of a drop in surface temperature by 3–5 °C are probably too high, and he suggests that temperatures dropped only by 1 °C. Robock has criticized Oppenheimers analysis, arguing that it is based on simplistic T-forcing relationships and they concluded that the largest known volcanic eruption in the history of the human species did not significantly alter the climate of East Africa, attracting criticism from Richard Roberts. Lane explained, We examined smear slides at a 2-mm interval, corresponding to subdecadal resolution and we observed no obvious change in sediment composition or Fe/Ti ratio, suggesting that no thermally driven overturn of the water column occurred following the Toba supereruption. In 2015, a new study of climate of East Africa supported Lanes conclusion, according to the genetic bottleneck theory, between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago, human populations sharply decreased to 3, 000–10,000 surviving individuals. It is supported by genetic evidence suggesting that humans are descended from a very small population of between 1,000 and 10,000 breeding pairs that existed about 70,000 years ago. For example, a 10-year volcanic winter triggered by the eruption could have destroyed the food sources of humans. Τhese environmental changes may have generated population bottlenecks in many species, including hominids, therefore, the genetic differences among modern humans may reflect changes within the last 70,000 years, rather than gradual differentiation over hundreds of thousands of years. Other research has cast doubt on a link between Toba and a genetic bottleneck and this has been challenged by evidence for the presence of Neanderthals in Europe and Homo floresiensis in Southeastern Asia who survived the eruption by 50,000 and 60,000 years, respectively
6.
Kutai
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Kutai, is a historic region in East Kalimantan in Indonesia on Borneo and also name of the native people on the region with a language of the correlating name and their history. Today the name is preserved in the names of three regencies in East Kalimantan, the Kutai Kartanegara Regency, the West Kutai Regency and the East Kutai Regency, the major river of the region was and is the Mahakam River. The history is divided into two periods, that of the early Kutai Martadipura phase some time around 350–400 and the later Kutai Kartanegara phase beginning around 1300. The first period produced the earliest known inscriptions in Indonesia, Kutai Martadipura is a 4th-century Indianized kingdom located in the Kutai area, East Kalimantan. It is one of the earliest ancient kingdom in Indonesian history, seven stone pillars, or yūpa, have been found in Kutai, Kaman Estuary, near the Mahakam River. The plinths bear an inscription in the Pallava script of India reading A gift to the Brahmin priests, the style of the script has been dated to the last half the 4th century. It is believed these religions were brought to Indonesia around the 2nd and 4th centuries, respectively, the names of three rulers are known from the inscriptions. It was Mūlawarman who let these inscriptions be made, while nothing of the military actions of his two predecessors is known, Raja Mūlawarman is stated to have conquered his neighbours in battle. He is also said to have increased the land of Kutai by a ritual called asvaredjwa. This ritual required a horse released to his land, the footsteps of the freely roaming horse were taken as evidence that this land belonged to Kutai. Mulawarman was also known for his tribute of gold to his God, the name of his kingdom is not mentioned on the inscriptions nor do any other documents in other countries relate to a kingdom at this time in this region. It is not known what became of the kingdom after these pillars had been erected and it may be possible that the name Kutai, as in Tuñjung Kute of the 1365 Javanese Majapahit poem Nāgarakṛtāgama is as ancient and reflects the original name used a thousand years earlier. Around the end of the 13th century the kingdom of Kutai Kartanegara was established in the region of Tepian Batu or Kutai Lama, the first known ruler is Aji Batara Agung Dewa Sakti, who is thought to have ruled from 1300 to 1325. Aji Pangeran Sinum Panji Mendapa, who ruled 1635–1650, was able to conquer the kingdom of Kutai Martadipura, attacked Makassar on the island of Sulawesi leading to the downfall of the Bugis Kingdom of Gowa. This settlement eventually developed into the town of Samarinda. Islam took hold in the region since the 17th century and Aji Muhammad Idris, after a civil war Aji Imbut, after finally becoming the ruler as Aji Muhammad Muslihuddin in 1780, moved the capital in 1782 from Pemarangan to Tepian Pandan. The name of the city eventually developed from Tangga Arung to its present form of Tenggarong. In 1844 the Dutch defeated the Sultan Aji Muhammad Salehudin, forcing him into exile, the Japanese invaded the region in 1942 and acknowledged a Kooti Kingdom, that was a subject of the Tenno
7.
Tarumanagara
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Tarumanagara or Taruma Kingdom or just Taruma is an early Sundanese Indianised kingdom, whose 5th-century ruler, Purnawarman, produced the earliest known inscriptions on Java island. In his inscriptions, Purnavarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project, Tarumanagara is believed was existed between 358–669 CE in Western Java region, in and around modern day Bogor, Bekasi and Jakarta, roughly corresponds to modern Greater Jakarta area. The earliest known records of Tarumanagara existence were inscribed in stone inscriptions. Inscribed stone is called prasasti in Indonesian, numbers of stone inscriptions dated from Tarumanagara period was discovered in Western Java region. In 1863, Dutch East Indies, a boulder of inscribed stone was spotted near Ciampea not far from Buitenzorg. The stone inscription was discovered on the bed of Ciaruteun river. It is today known as Ciaruteun inscription, dated from the 5th century, written in Vengi letters and this is the earliest inscription that clearly mentioned the kingdoms name Tarumanagara. The inscription reports the most famous king of Tarumanagara, located nearby is the Prasasti Kebon Kopi I, also called Telapak Gadjah stone, with an inscription and the engraving of two large elephant footprints. The inscription read, These elephant foot soles, akin to those of the strong Airwata, belongs to Tarumanagara King who is successful, not only stones testify of the existence of King Purnawarman and his Tarumanagara kingdom. There are also Chinese historical sources, since Tarumanagara maintained extended trade and he reported that the Law of Buddha was not much known, but that the Brahmans flourished, and heretics too. Between the period 528 to 669, Tarumanagara sent their embassy to Chinese court, the kingdom was mentioned in the annals of the Sui dynasty, the king of To-lo-mo has sent diplomatic mission, which arrived in China in 528 and 535. It was mentioned that the kingdom is located far south of China, the annals of Tang dynasty also mentioned in the year 666 and 669 the envoys of To-lo-ma has visited the court of Tang. The name Tarumanagara was found in inscriptions in the Western Java region dated from circa 4th century. The Chinese chronicle also recorded the name To-lo-ma or To-lo-mo which suggest the Chinese pronunciation of Taruma, Tarumanagara means the kingdom of Taruma. The name Taruma itself is connected to the Citarum River of West Java, in Sundanese language, ci means water or river while tarum means indigo plant. Tarum is local name of indigo plant that used to create the indigo dyeing pigment, according to the book Nusantara, Maharshi Rajadirajaguru Jayasingawarman founded the Tarumanagara kingdom in 358. Jayasingawarman originated from Salankayana, India that collapsed after the invasion of Samudragupta from Gupta Empire, after re-settling in Western Java, he married a Sundanese princess daughter of King Dewawarman VIII of Salakanagara. He died in 382 and was buried at the bank of Kali Gomati river and his son, Dharmayawarman ruled from 382 to 395
8.
Kalingga Kingdom
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Kalingga was the 6th century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia. It was the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java, and together with Kutai, the archaeological findings and historical records from this period are scarce, and the exact location of kingdoms capital is unknown. It is thought to be somewhere between present-day Pekalongan or Jepara, Kalingga existed between the 6th and 7th centuries, and it was one of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms established in Java. The historical record of this kingdom is scarce and vague, and comes mostly from Chinese sources, the Chinese sources come from China and date back to the Tang Dynasty. According to the Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing, in 664 a Chinese Buddhist monk named Huining had arrived in Heling, during his stay, and with the assistance of Jnanabhadra, a Heling monk, he translated numerous Buddhist Hinayana scriptures. In 674 the kingdom was ruled by Queen Shima, notorious for her fierce law against thievery, according to tradition, one day a foreign king placed a bag filled with gold on the intersection in Kalingga to test the famed truthful and honesty of Kalingga people. Nobody dared to touch the bag that did not belong to them, the queen issued a death sentence to her own son, but was over-ruled by a minister that appealed the queen to spare the princes life. Since it was the foot that touched the bag of gold. According to Carita Parahyangan, a composed in later period, Shimas great-grandson is Sanjaya, who is the king of Sunda Kingdom and Galuh Kingdom. Between 742 and 755, the kingdom had moved further east from the Dieng Plateau, the Tukmas inscription was estimated to be originated from Kalingga period. The inscription also bears Hindu signs and imageries, such as trisula, kamandalu, parashu, kalacengkha, chakra and padma, another inscription dated from around the same period is Sojomerto inscription, discovered in Sojomerto village, Kecamatan Reban, Batang Regency, Central Java. It is written in Kavi script in Old Malay language, estimated dated from 7th century, the inscription tell about a ruler named Dapunta Selendra, son of Santanu and Bhadrawati, and husband of Sampula. Indonesian historian Prof. Drs. Boechari suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the ancestor of Sailendras that later rule in Mataram Kingdom, both inscriptions suggest that c. 7th century on the northern coast of Central Java, once flourish a Hindu Shivaist kingdom, today identified as Kalingga kingdom. Historian suggested that there was a link between this old kingdom with later kingdom flourish in Southern Central Java Kedu Plain, the Sailendra of Medang i Bhumi Mataram
9.
Melayu Kingdom
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The Melayu Kingdom was a classical Southeast Asian kingdom. The exact location of the kingdom is the subject of studies among historians, one theory is that the kingdom was established around present-day Jambi on Sumatra, Indonesia, approximately 300 km north of Palembang. According to this theory, it was founded by groups in the Batanghari river area. The theory is disputed as the location of Jambi contradicts the descriptions by Yijing. The origins of the word Melayu are disputed, one theory suggests that it is derived from the Javanese terms melayu or mlayu, to describe the strong current of a river in Sumatra that today bore the name Sungai Melayu. The name was possibly adopted by the Melayu Kingdom, as it is common for people in the region to be known by the name of the river on which they settled. Another theory hold that it originates from the Tamil words Malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, an early literary appearance was in Vayu Purana where the word Malaya Dvipa was mentioned, referring to the mountainous terrain of Malay Peninsula. In 7th century, the first use of the term for a nation or a kingdom was recorded by Yijing, among the terms used was Bok-la-yu, Mok-la-yu, Ma-li-yu-er, Oo-lai-yu - traced from the written source of monk Xuanzang), and Wu-lai-yu. In response to the Sukhothais move, a Chinese envoy arrived at the Ram Khamhaengs court in 1295 bearing an imperial order, Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er. This nation of Ma-li-yu-er that appeared in the Chinese record possibly a similar nation that was mentioned by the famous Venetian traveller Marco Polo who lived during the same period, in Travels of Marco Polo, he made a reference to a kingdom named Malauir in the Malay peninsula. The Khmer recorded the nation of Melayu, however, its progeny Srivijaya, was also called Melayu, on the Amoghapasa inscription, dated 1347 CE, the word Malayapura was proclaimed by Adityawarman, again referring to Dharmasraya. The word Melayu is also mentioned in the Malay annals referring to a river in Sumatra. Here now is the story of a city called Palembang in the land of Andelas. It was ruled by Demang Lebar Daun, a descendant of Raja Shulan, in the upper reaches of the Muara Tatang was a river called Melayu, and on that river was a hill called Si-Guntang Mahameru. On his route via Maritime Southeast Asia, Yijing visited Srivijaya twice where he stayed from 688 to 695, Srivijaya appears to have been flourishing around the time of Yijings visit, which he initially called Bogha during his first visit. At its greatest extent, the kingdom extended to Malayu, which seems to have been annexed or to have come spontaneously under the realm of Bogha prince, the whole country as well as the capital received the name Sribogha or Srivijaya. The following extract from Yijings work, A Record of Buddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea, further describes his route via Bogha and Malayu, Wu Hing came to Bogha after a months sail. The king received him very favourably and respected him as a guest from the land of the son of heaven of the Great Tang and he went on board the kings ship to the country of Malayu and arrived there after fifteen days sail. Thence he went to Ka Cha, again after fifteen days, at the end of winter he changed ship and sailed to the west
10.
Srivijaya
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Srivijaya was a dominant thalassocratic city-state based on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 8th to the 12th century, Srivijaya was the first unified kingdom to dominate much of Malay archipelago. In Sanskrit, śrī means fortunate, prosperous, or happy, the earliest reference to it dates from the 7th century. A Tang Chinese monk, Yijing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 CE for six months, the earliest known inscription in which the name Srivijaya appears also dates from the 7th century in the Kedukan Bukit inscription found near Palembang, Sumatra, dated 16 June 682 CE. Between the late 7th and early 11th century, Srivijaya rose to become a hegemon in Southeast Asia and it was involved in close interactions, often rivalries, with the neighbouring Java, Kambuja and Champa. Srivijayas main foreign interest was nurturing lucrative trade agreements with China which lasted from the Tang to the Song dynasty, Srivijaya had religious, cultural and trade links with the Buddhist Pala of Bengal, as well as with the Islamic Caliphate in the Middle East. The kingdom ceased to exist in the 13th century by various factors, including the expansion of the rival Javanese Singhasari, after Srivijaya fell, it was largely forgotten. It was not until 1918 that French historian George Cœdès, of École française dExtrême-Orient, little physical evidence of Srivijaya remains. There had been no continuous knowledge of the history of Srivijaya even in Indonesia, Cœdès noted that the Chinese references to Sanfoqi, previously read as Sribhoja, and the inscriptions in Old Malay refer to the same empire. The Buddhist pilgrim Yijings account is important on describing Srivijaya. The 7th-century siddhayatra inscriptions discovered in Palembang and Bangka island are also vital primary historical sources, also, regional accounts that some might be almost tales and legends, such as the Legend of the Maharaja of Javaka and the Khmer King also provides a glimpse of the kingdom. Besides, some Indian and Arabic accounts also describes vaguely about the riches, Srivijaya had become a symbol of early Sumatran importance as a great empire to balance Javas Majapahit in the east. Srivijaya, and by extension Sumatra, had been known by different names to different peoples, the Chinese called it Sanfoqi or Che-li-fo-che, and there was an even older kingdom of Kantoli, which could be considered the predecessor of Srivijaya. Sanskrit and Pali texts referred to it as Yavades and Javadeh, the Arabs called it Zabag or Sribuza and the Khmers called it Melayu. While the Javanese called them Suvarnabhumi, Suvarnadvipa or Malayu and this is another reason why the discovery of Srivijaya was so difficult. While some of names are strongly reminiscent of the name of Java. According to the Kedukan Bukit inscription, dated 605 Saka, Srivijaya was first established in the vicinity of todays Palembang and it mentions that Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa came from Minanga Tamwan. The exact location of Minanga Tamwan is still a subject of discussion, the Palembang theory as the place where Srivijaya was first established was presented by Cœdes and supported by Pierre-Yves Manguin
11.
Shailendra dynasty
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The Shailendra dynasty was the name of a notable Indonesian dynasty that emerged in 8th century Java whose reign marked a cultural renaissance in the region. The dynasty appeared to be the family of both the Medang Kingdom of Central Java for some period and Srivijaya in Sumatra. The inscriptions created by Shailendras uses three languages, Old Malay, Old Javanese and Sanskrit, written either in the Kawi alphabet or pre-Nāgarī script, the use of Sanskrit usually signifies the official nature and religious significance of the event written on the inscription. The Sojomerto inscription discovered in Batang Regency, Central Java, mentioned the name Dapunta Selendra, the name Selendra was another spelling of Shailendra, suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the progenitor of Shailendra family in Central Java. The inscription is Shaivist in nature, which suggests that the family was probably initially Hindu Shaivist before converting to Mahayana Buddhism, the name also appears in several other inscriptions like the Kelurak inscription and the Karangtengah inscription. Outside Indonesia, the name Shailendra is to be found in the Ligor inscription on the Malay peninsula and it is possible that it was Paṇaṃkaraṇa that create the Chaiya, or Ligor inscription, and took control over Srivijayan realm in the Southern Thailand Malay Peninsula. Although the rise of the Shailendras occurred in Kedu Plain in the Javanese heartland, apart from Java itself, an earlier homeland in Sumatra, India or Cambodia has been suggested. The latest studies apparently favour a native origin of the dynasty, despite their connections with Srivijaya in Sumatra and Thai-Malay Peninsula, the Shailendras were more likely of Javanese origin. According to Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, an Indian scholar, the Shailendra dynasty that established itself in the Indonesian archipleago originated from Kalinga in Eastern India and this opinion is also shared by Nilakanta Sastri and J. L. Moens. Moens further describes that the Shailendras originated in India and established themselves in Palembang before the arrival of Srivijayas Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, in 683, the Shailendras moved to Java because of the pressure exerted by Dapunta Hyang and his troops. In 1934, the French scholar Coedes proposed a relation with the Funan kingdom in Cambodia, Coedes believed that the Funanese rulers used similar-sounding mountainlord titles, but several Cambodia specialists have discounted this. They hold there is no evidence for such titles in the Funan period. Other scholars hold that the expansion of Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya was involved in the rise of the dynasty in Java, supporters of this connection emphasize the shared Mahayana patronage, the intermarriages and the Ligor inscription. Also the fact some of Shailendras inscriptions were written in old Malay. The name Selendra was first mentioned in Sojomerto inscription as Dapunta Selendra, Dapunta Selendra is suggested as the ancestor of Shailendras. The association of Shailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Panaraban or Panangkaran to Buddhism, unfortunately, the Raja Sankhara inscription is now missing. The Shailendra rulers maintained cordial relations, including marriage alliances with Srivijaya in Sumatra, for instance, Samaragrawira married Dewi Tara, a daughter of Srivijayan Maharaja Dharmasetu. The mutual alliance between the two kingdoms ensured that Srivijaya had no need to fear the emergence of a Javanese rival, Karangtengah inscription dated 824 mentioned about king Samaratungga
12.
Galuh Kingdom
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Galuh Kingdom was an ancient Hindu kingdom in the eastern Tatar Pasundan, Indonesia. It was established following the collapse of the Tarumanagara kingdom around the 7th century and its capital was located in Kawali, near today Ciamis city. The etymology of galuh is Old Sundanese and Old Javanese word for diamond or gemstone, most of the knowledge about this kingdom was collected from local Sundanese myth and folktales, transmitted through Pantun Sunda oral tradition. The Sundanese epic folktale of Ciung Wanara took place in this kingdom, scarce historical records include Carita Parahyangan and Wangsakerta manuscripts composed in later period. The only stone inscription was 14th century Astana Gede inscription discovered in Kawali, from all these sources, it was concluded that Galuh was a Hindu kingdom, the predecessor of later Sunda Pajajaran kingdom. It was about the period as Javanese Medang kingdom. According to the Wangsakerta manuscript, Galuh was a vassal of Tarumanagara, after the fall of Tarumanagara, its dynastic patriarch, Wretikandayun of Galuh, separated his realm from Sunda kingdom in the west. Finding himself in a position and unwilling to risk a civil war. In 670, Tarumanagara was divided into two kingdoms, the Sunda Kingdom in the west, and the Galuh Kingdom in the east, Galuh continued to exist as individual kingdom as the counterpart of Sunda until it was absorbed and incorporated within Sunda kingdom around the 10th century. Galuh and the Sunda kingdom, another Sundanese kingdom, established the United Kingdom of Sunda and its centre in Kawali become the court capital until the 15th century when Sri Baduga Maharaja shifted the capital to Pakuan Pajajaran. In later period, during the expansion of Mataram Sultanate, the menak of Eastern Priangan region, claimed to hold the legacy, cangkuang temple located in Leles, Garut Regency is estimated to have been built during Galuh kingdom era. It is the only reconstructed Hindu temple in West Java, United Kingdom of Sunda and Galuh List of monarchs of Java
13.
Sunda Kingdom
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The Kingdom of Sunda was a Hindu kingdom located in western Java from 669 to around 1579, covering the area of present-day Banten, Jakarta, West Java, and the western part of Central Java. According to primary historical records, the Bujangga Manik manuscript, the border of the Sunda Kingdom was the Pamali River. Most accounts of the Sunda Kingdom come from historical records from the 16th century. Several stone inscriptions also mention the kingdom, such as Jayabupati, Kawali, the earliest reference to the name Sunda being used to identify a kingdom is the Kebon Kopi II inscription dated 854 Saka. The inscription was in old Javanese script, but the language used was old Malay, another reference to the kingdom is the Jayabupati inscription which consists of 40 lines written on four pieces of stone found on the Cicatih river bank in Cibadak, Sukabumi. The inscription is written in old Javanese script, the four inscriptions are now stored at the National Museum in Jakarta, under the codes D73, D96, D97 and D98. The contents of the inscriptions, The date of the Jayabupati inscription may be 11 October 1030, According to Pustaka Nusantara, Parwa III sarga 1, Sri Jayabupati reigned for 12 years, from 952 to 964 saka. The inscription has an East Javanese style in lettering, language, and style, copperplate letters dating to the 15th century, including royal instructions, also imply the existence of the Sunda Kingdom. Prasasti Kebantenan III copperplate announces the king of Sundas sanctions of holy construction in Sunda Sembawa, the primary source that contains informations about the daily life of late 15th to early 16th century Sunda Kingdom was found in Bujangga Manik manuscript. The names of places, culture and customs, was described in great detail, it is one of the important specimen of Old Sundanese literature. The main character is Prince Jaya Pakuan alias Bujangga Manik, a Sundanese Hindu hermit, as a hermit he made two journeys from Pakuan Pajajaran to central and eastern Java and back, the second one including a visit to Bali. After his return he practised asceticism on a mountain in western Java, the manuscript dated from pre-Islamic Sunda. The language represents a stage of Sundanese. It displays a marked influence from Javanese but does not contain one word which is tracable to Arabic, in the content of the story, too, Islam is completely absent. According to F. Hirt and W. W. Rockhill, at the time of the Southern Sung Dynasty, the inspector of trade with foreign countries, Chau Ju-kua, collected reports from sailors and merchants who had visited foreign countries. His report on far countries, Chu-fan-chi, written from 1178 to 1225 AD, Chu-fan-chi reported that, According to this source, the kingdom of Sunda produced high quality black pepper. The kingdom located in the parts of Java near Sunda Strait, corresponds to today Banten, Jakarta. According to this source, the port of Sunda was under Srivijaya mandala domination, port of Sunda was highly possible refer to port of Banten instead of Kalapa
14.
Medang Kingdom
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The Medang or Mataram Kingdom was a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom that flourished between the 8th and 10th centuries. It was based in Central Java, and later in East Java, established by King Sanjaya, the kingdom was ruled by the Sailendra dynasty. During most of its history, the kingdom seems to rely heavily on agricultural pursuit, especially extensive rice farming, according to foreign sources and archaeological findings, the kingdom seems to be well populated and quite prosperous. The kingdom had developed a society, they had a well developed culture and had achieved a degree of sophistication. The most notable temples constructed in Medang Mataram are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur, by 850, the kingdom had become the dominant power in Java and later of its history, was a serious rival to the hegemonic Srivijaya Empire. This has spurred the archaeological studies to uncover the history of this ancient civilisation, the history of Mataram area as the capital of the Central Javanese Medang kingdom is also part of the historical Yawadvipa or Bhumijava, and the classical Javanese civilisation. The native Javanese most often refer to their lands and country simply as Jawi, the only foreign source mentioning Medang was found from the Philippines inscription, dated 822 saka. There are no written records that have survived in Java except numbers of prasasti written on stones or copper plates. These inscriptions most often recorded the political and religious deeds of the rulers, nevertheless, some local legends and historical records, written on lontar — most often dated from later period — might also provides data and source to reconstruct the historical event. The kingdom is mentioned in the myth of Dewi Sri and also Aji Saka and this is probably the remnant of native Javanese vague collective memory of the existence of an ancient kingdom called Medang. Stone inscriptions, most common are mentioning about the foundation and funding of temples, which report on the political and religious deeds of the kings, or stating their lineage. The most notable are the Canggal, Kalasan, Shivagrha and Balitung charter, bas reliefs in a series of temple walls with depictions of life in the palace, village, temple, ship, marketplace and also the everyday lives of the population. The most notable are the bas reliefs found on Borobudur and Prambanan temple, native manuscripts, mentioning about the story of kings, their deeds and exploits, that somehow corrugated with accounts mentioned in stone inscriptions. The notable example is the Carita Parahyangan, reports and chronicles of foreign diplomats, traders and travellers, mainly from Chinese, Indian, and Arab sources. Initially, the kingdom was identified only through its location Yawadvipa as mentioned in Canggal inscription, the inscription mentioned Rakai Mataram Sang Ratu Sanjaya. This is based on the locations where numbers of candi were discovered in. The etymology of the name Mataram derived from a Sanskrit term for mother, the name Medang appear later in East Javanese inscriptions such as Anjukladang inscription and Minto Stone, Paradah inscription and some inscriptions discovered in Surabaya. As the result, historians tends to identify the Eastern Java period of this kingdom as Medang to differ it with its earlier Central Java period of Mataram
15.
Bali Kingdom
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The Kingdom of Bali was a series of Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms that once ruled some parts of the volcanic island of Bali, in Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia. 9th century to Majapahit empire in 13th to 15th centuries, the culture, language, arts and architecture of the island was influenced by Java. Javanese influences and presences grew even stronger prompted with the fall of Majapahit empire in the late 15th century. After the empire fell to its Muslim vassal of Demak Sultanate, as a result Bali became what historian Ramesh Chandra Majumdar describes as the last stronghold of Indo-Javanese culture and civilisation. The Balinese Kingdom in subsequent centuries expanded their influence to neighbouring islands, since the mid-19th century, the colonial state of Dutch East Indies began its involvements in Bali, as they launched their campaign against Balinese minor kingdoms one by one. Bali has been inhabited by humans since Paleolithic times, testified by the finding of ancient tools such as hand axes in Sembiran and Trunyan villages in Bali, bronze Age period follows, from around 600 BCE to 800 CE. The historical period in Bali started c. 8th century, marked by the discovery of inscribed Buddhist votive clay tablets. These Buddhist votive tablets, found in small clay figurines called stupikas, are the first known written inscriptions in Bali. Such stupikas have been found in the regency of Gianyar, in the villages of Pejeng, Tatiapi, in the early 10th century, Sri Kesari Warmadewa created the Belanjong pillar inscription found near the southern strip of Sanur beach. It was the oldest written inscription created by a ruler found in Bali, the pillar dated according to the Indian Saka calendar, in 836 saka. According to the inscription, Sri Kesari was a Buddhist king of the Sailendra Dynasty that led a military expedition, two other inscription by Kesari are known in the interior Bali, which suggest conflicts in the mountainous interior of the island. Sri Kesari is considered as the founder as the Warmadewa dynasty, the earliest known ruler of Bali, the stone cave temple and bathing place of Goa Gajah, near Ubud in Gianyar, was made around the same period. It shows a combination of Buddhist and Hindu Shivaite iconography, several carvings of stupas, stupikas, and image of Boddhisattvas suggested that Warmadewa dynasty was the patron of Mahayana Buddhism. Nevertheless, Hinduism is also practised in Bali during this period, in second half of the 10th century, Bali was ruled by king Udayana Warmadewa and his queen, Mahendradatta, a princess of Isyana dynasty form East Java. Mahendradatta was the daughter of king Sri Makutawangsawarddhana, and sister of king Dharmawangsa of Medang Kingdom, the royal Balinese couple was the parents of the famous king of Java, Airlangga. Airlanggas younger brothers Marakata and later Anak Wungçu would rose to Balinese throne, the rock-cut candi shrines of Gunung Kawi in Tampaksiring was made around the same period. It demonstrate similar temple style of Java during the late Medang period, the Warmadewa dynasty would continued to rule Bali well until the 12th century with the reign of Jayasakti and Jayapangus. Contacts with imperial China were also important during this period, Chinese coins, called kepeng were widely in use in Balinese economy
16.
Kahuripan
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Kahuripan was an 11th-century Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdom with its capital located around the estuarine of Brantas River valley in East Java. Airlangga later in 1045 abdicated in favour of his two sons and divided the kingdom into Janggala and Panjalu, the kingdoms name derived from Old Javanese term hurip with circumfix ka- -an which means life or livelihood. Later in 14th to 15th century, the kingdom was recognised as one of Majapahits 12 provinces. Airlangga was the son of queen Mahendradatta and Udayana Warmadewa, Airlangga was born and grew up in Bali, he spend his youth in Watugaluh Palace, Medang, under the patronage of his uncle, king Dharmawangsa. Airlangga was bethroted to his cousin, one of Dharmawangsas daughter, at that time, Medang had become a powerful kingdom, allied or probably subjugated Bali, and had established a colony in West Kalimantan. Dharmawangsa aspired to ascend Medang as regional power by challenging Srivijaya Empire domination and he launched naval invasion against Srivijaya and unsuccessfully tried to capture Palembang. Srivijaya resiliently succeed on repelling Javanese Medang invaders, the Calcutta Stone inscription, describes a terrible calamity which befell the East Javanese kingdom of Isyana dynasty in the early years of the 11th century. In 1006, a rebellion incited by a vassal king Wurawari from Lwaram resulted in the destruction of the capital of Watugaluh, the reigning king, Dharmawangsa, successor to Sri Makutawangsawardhana, was murdered along with his entire family and many of his subjects. Only the young Airlangga, who was aged about 16 at the time, according to tradition the calamity, dubbed as Pralaya of Medang, took place during Airlanggas wedding ceremony in Dharmawangsa palace. Today historians strongly suggested that the invasion was actually a Srivijayan retaliation against Medang for the attacks upon the empire, Wurawari was probably an ally of Srivijaya in Java that managed to sack and burn Watugaluh Palace. Airlangga, accompanied by his guard Narottama, escaped into the jungle and he consolidated his authority, established a new kingdom and made peace with Srivijaya. The new kingdom was called the Kingdom of Kahuripan, and stretched from Pasuruan in the east to Madiun in the west, in 1025, Airlangga increased the power and influence of Kahuripan as the Srivijaya Empire began to decline. Airlangga was known for his religious tolerance, and was a patron of both the Hindu and Buddhist religions, in 1035 Airlangga constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijayasrama dedicated for his queen consort Dharmaprasadottungadevi. The monastery bearing the name of Srivijaya suggests that his consort was probably a Srivijayan princess. The decline of Srivijaya due to the Chola invasion gave Airlangga opportunity to consolidate his kingdom without foreign interference, later, he extended his kingdom to Central Java and Bali. The north coast of Java, particularly the port of Hujung Galuh and Kambang Putih, although there are few surviving archaeological remains dating from his time, Airlangga is known to have been a keen patron of the arts, notably literature. In 1035, the court poet Mpu Kanwa composed the Arjuna Wiwaha text and this text told the story of Arjuna, an incarnation of Indra, but was also an allegory for Airlanggas own life. The tale of Airlanggas life was illustrated in the Belahan Temple on the flanks of Mount Penanggungan, according to Kelagen inscription Airlangga also took a keen interest on agriculture development
17.
Kediri Kingdom
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Kediri or Kadiri was a Hindu Javanese Kingdom based in East Java from 1042 to around 1222. Despite the lack of remains, the age of Kediri saw much development in classical literature. Mpu Sedahs Kakawin Bharatayuddha, Mpu Panuluhs Gatotkacasraya, and Mpu Dharmajas Smaradhana blossomed in this era, the kingdoms capital is believed to had been established in the western part of the Brantas River valley, somewhere near modern Kediri city and surrounding Kediri Regency. The name Kediri or Kadiri derived from Sanskrit word Khadri which means Indian Mulberry, the bark of morinda produces a brownish-purplish dye for batik-making, while its fruit have medicinal values. Similar named city also known, Kadiri in Andhra Pradesh, India, the kingdom was also known as Panjalu as the twin kingdom with Jenggala. During the reign of Jayakatwang that revived the short-lived second dynasty of Kadiri, other than Kadiri, the kingdom was also often referred to as Daha or Dahana, after its capital. The name Daha was used in later Majapahit period, as the seat of court of Trowulan. The Kingdom of Kediri is the successor of Airlanggas Kahuripan kingdom, in 1045, Airlangga divided his kingdom of Kahuripan into two, Janggala and Panjalu, and abdicated in favour of his sons to live as an ascetic. The first king of Kediri to leave historical records was Çri Jayawarşa Digjaya Çāstaprabhu, in his inscription dated 1104, like Airlangga, he claimed himself to be the incarnation or Avatar of Vishnu. His formal stylised name was Çri Maharaja Rake Sirikan çri Kameçvara Sakalabhuwanatustikarana Sarwaniwaryyawiryya Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa, the Lanchana of his reign was a skull with a crescent moon called chandrakapala, the symbol of Shiva. During his reign, Mpu Dharmaja wrote Smaradhana, in which the king was adored as the incarnation of Kamajaya, the god of love, kameçvaras wife, Çri Kirana, was celebrated as the incarnation of Kamaratih, goddess of love and passion. The tales of this story, known as Panji cycle, spread throughout Southeast Asia as far as Siam and his formal stylised name was Çri Maharaja çri Dharmmeçwara Madhusudanawataranindita Suhrtsingha Parakrama Digjayottunggadewa. The Lanchana of his reign was Narasingha, the name Jayabhaya was immortalised in Sedahs Kakawin Bharatayuddha, a Javanese version of the Mahabharata, written in 1157. This Kakawin was perfected by his brother, Mpu Panuluh, Mpu Panuluh wrote Hariwangsa and Gatotkacasraya. Jayabhayas reign was considered the age of Old Javanese literature. The Prelambang Joyoboyo, a prophetic book ascribed to Jayabhaya, is known among Javanese. It predicted that the archipelago would be ruled by a race for a long time, then a yellow race for a short time. The Jayabhaya prophecies mention Ratu Adil, the Just Prince, a popular figure in Javanese folklore
18.
Singhasari
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Singhasari was a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom located in east Java between 1222 and 1292. The kingdom succeeded the Kingdom of Kediri as the dominant kingdom in eastern Java, the kingdoms name cognate to Singosari district of Malang Regency, located several kilometres north of Malang city. Singhasari was mentioned in several Javanese manuscripts, including Pararaton and it derived from sanskrit word singha which means lion and sari or saree which in Old Javanese could means either essence or to sleep. Thus Singhasari could means the essence of lion or sleeping lion, although lion is not an endemic animal of Java, the depiction of lion as symbolism can be found in Javanese culture, especially attributed to the influence of Hindu-Buddhist symbolism. Singhasari was founded by Ken Arok, whose story is a folktale in Central. Most of Ken Aroks life story and also the history of Singhasari was taken from the Pararaton account. Ken Arok was an orphan born of a mother named Ken Endok, Ken Arok rose from being a servant of Tungul Ametung, a regional ruler in Tumapel to becoming ruler of Java from Kediri. He is considered the founder of the Rajasa dynasty of both the Singhasari and later the Majapahit line of monarchs and he was assassinated by Anusapati, in revenge for killing his father, Tunggul Ametung. Ken Aroks son Panji Tohjaya assassinated Anusapati, but he in turn reigned only a few months in 1248 before his nephews revolted and these two, Ranga Wuni and Mahisha Champaka, ruled together under the names Vishnuvardhana and Narasimhamurti. The strongest of these Malaya kingdoms was Jambi, which captured the Srivijaya capital in 1088, then the Dharmasraya kingdom, and the Temasek kingdom of Singapore and these Malayan kingdoms then pledged allegiance to the king. King Kertanegara had long wished to surpass Srivijaya as a maritime empire. The Pamalayu expedition from 1275 to 1292, from the time of Singhasari to Majapahit, is chronicled in the Javanese scroll Nagarakrtagama, Singhasari’s territory thus became Majapahit territory. In the year 1284, king Kertanegara made a hostile Pabali expedition to Bali, the king also sent troops, expeditions and envoys to other nearby kingdoms such as the Sunda-Galuh kingdom, Pahang kingdom, Balakana kingdom, and Gurun kingdom. He also established an alliance with the king of Champa, King Kertanegara totally erased any Srivijayan influence from Java and Bali in 1290. However, the expansive campaigns exhausted most of the Kingdom’s military forces, indonesia is one of the few areas that thwarted invasion by the Mongol horde by repelling a Mongol force in 1293. Moreover, Singhasari had formed an alliance with Champa, another state in the region. Both Java and Champa were worried about Mongol expansion and raids against neighbouring states, Kublai Khan then sent emissaries demanding submission and tribute from Java. In 1280, Kublai Khan sent the first emissary to King Kertanegara, demanding Singhasari’s submission, the next year in 1281, the Khan sent another envoy, demanding the same, which was refused again
19.
Majapahit
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The Majapahit Empire was a vast thalassocracy based on the island of Java from 1293 to around 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk and his achievement is also credited to his prime minister, Gajah Mada. Its influence extended beyond the territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies. The name Majapahit derives from local Javanese, meaning bitter maja, german orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that maja came from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree. The name originally referred to the area in and around Trowulan, the cradle of Majapahit and it was said that the workers clearing the Tarik timberland encountered some bael trees and consumed its bitter-tasting fruit that subsequently become the villages name. In ancient Java it is common to refer the kingdom with its capitals name, Majapahit is also known by other names, Wilwatikta, although sometimes the natives refer to their kingdom as Bhumi Jawa or Mandala Jawa instead. Little physical evidence of Majapahit remains, and some details of the history are rather abstract, nevertheless, local Javanese people did not forget Majapahit completely, as Mojopait is mentioned vaguely in Babad Tanah Jawi, a Javanese chronicle composed in the 18th century. Majapahit did produce physical evidence, the ruins dating from the Majapahit period are clustered in the Trowulan area. The Trowulan archaeological site was discovered in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles and he reported the existence of ruins of temples. Scattered about the country for miles, and referred to Trowulan as this pride of Java. By the early 20th century, Dutch colonial historians began to study old Javanese and Balinese literature to explore the past of their colony, two primary sources were available to them, the Pararaton manuscript was written in the Kawi language c. 1600, and Nagarakretagama was composed in Old Javanese in 1365, Pararaton focuses on Ken Arok, the founder of Singhasari, but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. The Nagarakretagama is an old Javanese epic poem written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk, the Dutch acquired the manuscript in 1894 during their military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok. There are also inscriptions in Old Javanese and Chinese. The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements, and scholars such as C. C, berg, an Indonesia-born Dutch naturalist, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be determined. Most scholars do not accept this view, as the record corresponds with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The list of rulers and details of the structure show no sign of being invented. The Chinese historical sources on Majapahit, mainly owed to Zheng Hes account — a Ming Dynasty admiral reports during his visit to Majapahit, Zheng Hes translator Ma Huan wrote a detailed description of Majapahit and where the king of Java lived
20.
Spread of Islam in Indonesia
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The history of arrival and spread of Islam in Indonesia is unclear. Before the arrival of Islam, the predominant religions in Indonesia were Buddhism and Hinduism, initially, the spread of Islam was slow and gradual. The eastern islands of Indonesia remained largely animist until the 17th and 18th centuries when Christianity became predominant in those areas, the spread of Islam was initially driven by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago. Traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were usually the first to convert to Islam, dominant kingdoms included Mataram in Central Java, and the sultanates of Ternate and Tidore in the Maluku Islands to the east. This evidence cannot explain more complicated matters such as how lifestyles were affected by the new religion or how deeply it affected societies, nevertheless, a clear turning point occurred when the Hindu empire Majapahit in Java fell to the Islamised Demak Sultanate. In 1527, the Muslim ruler renamed newly conquered Sunda Kelapa as Jayakarta which was contracted to Jakarta. Assimilation increased rapidly in the wake of this conquest, funds, both public and private, are spent on the construction of new mosques, rather than the exploration of old ones. Before Islam was established in Indonesian communities, Muslim traders had been present for several centuries, Islam is thought to have been present in Southeast Asia from early in the Islamic era. From the time of the caliph of Islam, Uthman, Muslim emissaries. It would have been through this contact that Arabic emissaries between 904 and the century are thought to have become involved in the Sumatran trading state of Srivijaya. The earliest accounts of the Indonesian archipelago date from the Abbasid Caliphate, the presence of foreign Muslims in Indonesia does not, however, demonstrate a significant level of local conversion or the establishment of local Islamic states. The most reliable evidence of the spread of Islam in Indonesia comes from inscriptions on tombstones. The earliest legibly inscribed tombstone is dated AH475, although as it belongs to a non-Indonesian Muslim, the presence of the Shafii school of thought, which was to later dominate Indonesia, was reported by Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan traveller, in 1346. In his travel log, Ibn Battuta wrote that the ruler of Samudera Pasai was a Muslim who performs his religious duties with utmost zeal, the madhhab he used was Al-Shafi‘i with similar customs to those he had seen in India. Zheng He is credited to have settled Chinese Muslim communities in Palembang and along the shores of Java, the Malay Peninsula, and these Muslims allegedly followed the Hanafi school in the Chinese language. This Chinese Muslim community was led by Hajji Yan Ying Yu, Zheng He, originally named Ma He, was a Hui court eunuch, mariner, explorer, diplomat, and fleet admiral during Chinas early Ming dynasty. Zheng commanded expeditionary voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Western Asia and his larger ships stretched 400 feet in length. These carried hundreds of sailors on four tiers of decks, as a favorite of the Yongle Emperor, whose usurpation he assisted, he rose to the top of the imperial hierarchy and served as commander of the southern capital Nanjing
21.
Sultanate of Ternate
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The Sultanate of Ternate is one of the oldest Muslim kingdoms in Indonesia, established by Baab Mashur Malamo in 1257. It reached its Golden Age during the reign of Sultan Baabullah and encompassed most of the part of Indonesia. Ternate was a producer of cloves and a regional power from the 15th to 17th centuries. The dynasty founded by Baab Mashur Malamo continues to the present, as does the Sultanate itself, the sultanate was originally named the Kingdom of Gapi, but later change the name base of its capital, Ternate. Ternate and neighbouring Tidore were the single major producer of cloves. Much of their wealth, however, was wasted fighting each other, up until the Dutch completed the colonisation of Maluku in the 19th century, the Sultans of Ternate ruled empires that claimed at least nominal influence as far as Ambon, Sulawesi and Papua. In part as a result of its trade-dependent culture, Ternate was one of the earliest places in the region to which Islam spread, initially, the faith was restricted to Ternates small ruling family, and spread only slowly to the rest of the population. It frequently engaged in competition for control of its periphery with the nearby Sultanate of Tidore. According to historian Leonard Andaya, Ternates dualistic rivalry with Tidore is a dominant theme in the history of the Maluku Islands. The first Europeans to stay on Ternate were part of the Portuguese expedition of Francisco Serrão out of Malacca, Sultan Bayanullah of Ternate heard of their stranding and, seeing a chance to ally himself with a powerful foreign nation, he brought them to Ternate in 1512. In 1535 Sultan Tabariji was deposed and sent to Goa by the Portuguese and he converted to Christianity and changed his name to Dom Manuel. After being declared innocent of the charges against him he was sent back to re-assume his throne, however and he had though bequeathed the island of Ambon to his Portuguese godfather, Jordão de Freitas. Following the murder of Sultan Hairun at the hands of the Portuguese, Ambon became the new centre for Portuguese activities in Maluku. European power in the region was weak and Ternate became an expanding, fiercely Islamic and anti-Portuguese state under the rule of Sultan Baab Ullah, Spanish forces captured the former Portuguese fort from the Ternatese in 1606, deporting the Ternate Sultan and his entourage to Manila. In 1607 the Dutch came back to Ternate, where with the help of Ternateans they built a fort in Malayo, the island was divided between the two powers, the Spaniards were allied with Tidore and the Dutch with their Ternaten allies. For the Ternaten rulers, the Dutch were a useful, if not particularly welcome, presence that gave them advantages against Tidore. Particularly under Sultan Hamzah, Ternate expanded its territory and strengthened its control over the periphery, the Spaniards abandoned Maluku in 1663. By this treaty, Ternate had lost its position with the Dutch
22.
Samudera Pasai Sultanate
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The kingdom was believed to have been founded by Merah Silu, who later converted to Islam and adopted the name Malik ul Salih, in the year 1267 CE. Little evidence has been left to allow for study of the kingdom. Based on the local literature Hikayat Raja-raja Pasai, Samudera can be inferred to have come from the word Semudera, the name was given by Merah Silu when he discovered an ant as large as a cat while hunting at a high ground. Eventually, the place was cleared for the establishment of a new state, Samudera is also theorised to have been derived from Samudra meaning ocean in Sanskrit and Tamil. The literature also indicates the origin of the name Pasai which came from Si-Pasai, the dog of Sultan Malik al Salleh. The legend narrates that Sultan Malik al Salleh, while hunting with the dog, encountered a deer which was not afraid of the dogs barking but instead barked back. He was bewildered by this and thought that this might be a sign for the place to be established as a new state for his son Sultan Malik Al Tahir. The dog died after the state was established, Sultan Malik al Salleh buried the dog there and he eventually named the place after it. Pasai exported its culture, and most importantly its language — an early form of Malay written in the Jawi alphabet — to a number of islands, later, this language became the lingua franca among traders in what is now Indonesia and Malaysia. Arab and Indian Muslims had traded in Indonesia and China for many centuries, a Muslim tombstone in eastern Java bears a date corresponding to 1082. But substantial evidence of Islam in Indonesia begins only in northern Sumatra at the end of the 13th century, two small Muslim trading kingdoms existed by that time at Pasai and Peureulak or Perlak. A1297 royal tomb at Samudra is inscribed entirely in Arabic, by the 15th century several harbour kingdoms developed, all ruled by local Muslim princes, from the north coast of Java and elsewhere to as far east as Ternate and Tidore in Maluku. Marco Polo spent five months here, he had Ferlec, Basma, another famous traveller Ibn Battuta on his way to China stayed 15 days at Samudera. The establishment of the first Muslim centres in Indonesia was probably a result of commercial circumstances, northern Sumatra had a hinterland rich in gold and forest produce, and pepper was being cultivated at the beginning of the 15th century. It was accessible to all the merchants of the archipelago who wanted to meet ships from the Indian Ocean, the madhhab he observed was Imam Al-Shafi‘i. At that time Samudera Pasai was the end of Dar al-Islam for no territory east of this was ruled by a Muslim ruler and he praised the kindness and hospitality demonstrated by the sultan of Samudera Pasai. Here he stayed for two weeks in the wooden walled town as a guest of the sultan, and then the sultan provided him with supplies. Majapahit attacked and looted the place in the middle of the 14th century, pasais economic and political power depended almost entirely on foreigners
23.
Pagaruyung Kingdom
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Pagaruyung was the seat of the Minangkabau kings of Western Sumatra, though little is known about it. Modern Pagaruyung is a village in Tanjung Emas subdistrict, Tanah Datar regency, located near the town of Batusangkar, Adityawarman is believed to have founded the kingdom and presided over the central Sumatra region between 1347 and 1375, most likely to control the local gold trade. The few artefacts recovered from Adityawarman’s reign include a number of stones containing inscriptions, some of these items were found at Bukit Gombak, a hill near modern Pagarruyung, and it is believed a royal palace was located there. By the 16th century, the time of the report after the reign of Adityawarman. They were the King of the World, the King of Adat, collectively they were called the Kings of the Three Seats. The first European to enter the region was Thomas Dias, a Portuguese employed by the Dutch governor of Malacca. He travelled from the east coast to reach the region in 1684 and reported, probably from hearsay, that there was a palace at Pagaruyung, the primary local occupations at the time were gold panning and agriculture, he reported. A civil war started in 1803 with the Padri fundamentalist Islamic group in conflict with the traditional groups, elite families. The original Pagaruyung Palace on Batu Patah Hill was burned down during a riot in Padri War back in 1804, during the conflict most of the Minangkabau royal family were killed in 1815, on the orders of Tuanku Lintau. The British controlled the west coast of Sumatra between 1795 and 1819, stamford Raffles visited Pagarruyung in 1818, reaching it from the west coast, and by then it had been burned to the ground three times. It was rebuilt after the first two fires, but abandoned after the third, and Raffles found little more than waringin trees, the Dutch returned to Padang in May 1819. As a result of a treaty with a number of penghulu and representatives of the murdered Minangkabau royal family, Dutch forces made their first attack on a Padri village in April 1821
24.
Bruneian Empire
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The Bruneian Empire or Empire of Brunei /bruːˈnaɪ/, also known as Sultanate of Brunei, was a Malay sultanate, centred in Brunei on the northern coast of Borneo island in Southeast Asia. The kingdom was founded in the early 7th century, started as a small seafaring trading kingdom ruled by a pagan or Hindu king known by the Chinese as Po-Li or Po-Ni. Understanding the history of the Bruneian Empire is quite difficult since it is mentioned in contemporary sources of its time. No local or indigenous sources exist to provide evidence for any of this, as a result, Chinese texts have been relied on to construct the history of early Brunei. Boni in Chinese sources most likely refers to Borneo as a whole, while Poli 婆利, the earliest diplomatic relations between Boni and China are recorded in the Taiping Huanyu Ji. In 1225, a Chinese official, Zhao Rugua, reported that Boni had 100 warships to protect its trade, in the 14th century, Brunei seems to be subjected to Java. The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Prapanca in 1365, mentioned Barune as the state of Majapahit. In 1369, the Sulus attacked Po-ni, looting it of treasure, a fleet from Majapahit succeeded in driving away the Sulus, but Po-ni was left weaker after the attack. A Chinese report from 1371 described Po-ni as poor and totally controlled by Majapahit, after the death of its emperor, Hayam Wuruk, Majapahit entered the state of decline and was unable to control its overseas possessions. This opened the opportunity for Bruneian kings to expand their influence, Chinese Ming emperor Yongle, after ascending to throne in 1403, immediately dispatched envoys to various countries inviting them to pay tribute to Chinese court. Brunei immediately got involved in the tributary system with China. It controlled most of northern Borneo, and it became an important hub for the East, the Bruneian kings seems to cultivated alliance with regional seafaring peoples of Orang Laut and Bajau that formed their naval armada. The Dayaks, native tribes of interior Borneo however, were not under their control, the earliest recorded documentation by the West about Brunei was by an Italian known as Ludovico di Varthema. Ludovico was at the time on a route to the Maluku Islands when he landed in Borneo, the record of his documentation dates back to 1550. We arrived at the island of Bornei, which is distant from the Maluch about two hundred miles, and we found that it was larger than the aforesaid and much lower. The people are pagans and are men of goodwill and their colour is whiter than that of the other sort. in this island justice is well administered. During the rule of Bolkiah, the fifth Sultan, the empire controlled over coastal areas of northwest Borneo and reached Seludong, Ma-i, in the 16th century, the Brunei empires influence also extended as far as Kapuas River delta in West Kalimantan. The Malay Sultanate of Sambas in West Kalimantan and Sultanate of Sulu in Southern Philippines in particular has developed relations with the royal house of Brunei
25.
Malacca Sultanate
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The Malacca Sultanate was a Malay sultanate centred in the modern-day state of Malacca, Malaysia. Conventional historical thesis marks c.1400 as the year of the sultanate by a renegade Malay Raja of Singapura, Parameswara who was also known as Iskandar Shah. As a bustling trading port, Malacca emerged as a centre for Islamic learning and dissemination. The legacy of the political and cultural legacy remains to this day. For centuries, Malacca has been held up as an exemplar of Malay-Muslim civilisation, the series of raids launched by the Chola Empire in the 11th century had weakened the once glorious empire of Srivijaya. By the end of the 13th century, the already fragmented Srivijaya caught the attention of the expansionist Javanese King, in 1275, he decreed the Pamalayu expedition to overrun Sumatra. By 1288, Singhasari naval expeditionary forces successfully sacked Jambi and Palembang, the complete destruction of Srivijaya caused the diaspora of the Srivijayan princes and nobles. Rebellions against the Javanese rule ensued and attempts were made by the fleeing Malay princes to revive the empire, the Orang Laut, famous for their loyal services to Srivijaya, eventually made him king of a new kingdom called Singapura. In the 14th century, Singapura developed concurrently with the Pax Mongolica era and its wealth and success however, alarmed two regional powers at that time, Ayuthaya from the north and Majapahit from the south. As a result, the fortified capital was attacked by at least two major foreign invasions before it was finally sacked by Majapahit in 1398. The fifth and last king, Parameswara fled to the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, Parameswara fled north to Muar, Ujong Tanah and Biawak Busuk before reaching a fishing village at the mouth of Bertam river. Legend has it that the king saw a mouse deer outwit his hunting dog into the water when he was resting under the Malacca tree. He thought this boded well, remarking, this place is excellent, even the mouse deer is formidable, tradition holds that he named the settlement after the tree he was leaning against while witnessing the portentous event. Today, the deer is part of modern Malaccas coat of arms. The name Malacca itself was derived from the fruit-bearing Melaka tree scientifically termed as Phyllanthus emblica, following establishment of his new city in Malacca, Parameswara initiated the development of the place and laid the foundation of a trade port. The indigenous inhabitants of the straits, the Orang Laut, were employed to patrol the adjacent sea areas, to repel other petty pirates, within years, news about Malacca becoming a centre of trade and commerce began to spread all over the eastern part of the world. In 1405, Yongle Emperor of Ming Dynasty sent his envoy headed by Yin Qing to Malacca in 1403, Yin Qings visit opened the way for the establishment of friendly relations between Malacca and China. Two years later, the legendary Admiral Zheng He made his first of six visits to Malacca, Chinese merchants began calling at the port and pioneering foreign trading bases in Malacca
26.
Sultanate of Sulu
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The Sultanate of Sulu was a Muslim state that ruled the islands in the Sulu Archipelago, parts of Mindanao, certain portions of Palawan and north-eastern Borneo. The sultanate was founded on 17 November 1405, by a Johore-born explorer and religious scholar Sharif ul-Hashim. Paduka Mahasari Maulana al Sultan Sharif ul-Hashim became his full regnal name, after the marriage of Abu Bakr and a local dayang-dayang Paramisuli, he founded the sultanate. The Sultanate gained its independence from the Bruneian Empire in 1578, at its peak, it stretched over the islands that bordered the western peninsula of Mindanao in the east to Palawan in the north. It also covers the area in northeastern side of Borneo, stretching from Marudu Bay, while another source stated the area stretching from Kimanis Bay which also overlaps with the boundaries of the Bruneian Sultanate. In 1962, Philippine Government under the leadership of President Diosdado Macapagal officially recognised the existence of the Sultanate of Sulu. On 24 May 1974, Sultan Mohammad Mahakuttah Kiram, was the last officially recognized Sulu Sultan in the Philippines, the present area of the Sultanate of Sulu was once under the influence of the Bruneian Empire before it gained its own independence in 1578. Later, the earliest known settlement in this soon to be occupied by the sultanate who was in Maimbung. During these times, Sulu was called Lupah Sug, the Principality of Maimbung, populated by Buranun people, was first ruled by a certain rajah who assumed the title Rajah Sipad the Older. According to Majul, the origins of the title rajah sipad originated from the Hindu sri pada, the Principality was instituted and governed using the system of rajahs. Sipad the Older was succeeded by Sipad the Younger, during the reign of Sipad the Younger, a mystic named Tuan Mashā′ikha arrived in Jolo in 1280 AD. Other reports, however, insisted that Tuan Mashā′ikha together with his parents, Jamiyun Kulisa, however, Saleeby dismisses this claim by concluding that Jamiyun Kulisa and Indra Suga were mythical names. According to tarsila, during the coming of Tuan Mashā′ikha, the people of Maimbung worshipped tombs, after he preached Islam in the area, he married Sipad the Youngers daughter, Idda Indira Suga and bore three children, Tuan Hakim, Tuan Pam and Aisha. Tuan Hakim, in turn, begot five children, from the genealogy of Tuan Mashā′ikha, another titular system of aristocracy called tuanship started in Sulu. Apart from the Idda Indira Suga, Tuan Mashā′ikha also married into another unidentified woman, Tuan Mashā′ikha died in 710 A. H. and was buried in Bud Dato near Jolo, with an inscription of Tuan Maqbālū. A descendant of Tuan Mashā′ikha named Tuan May also begot a son named Datu Tka, the descendants of Tuan May did not assume the title tuan, instead, they started to use datu. It is the first time datu was used as a political institution, during the coming of Tuan Mashā′ikha, the Tagimaha people coming from Basilan and several places in Mindanao, also arrived and settled in Buansa. After the Tagimaha came the Baklaya people, believed to be originated from Sulawesi, after these came the Bajau people from Johor
27.
Sultanate of Cirebon
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The Sultanate of Cirebon was an Islamic sultanate in West Java founded in the 15th century. Sunan Gunungjati also established the Sultanate of Banten and it was one of the earliest Islamic states established in Java, around the same period with the Sultanate of Demak. The sultanate court lies near the modern day city of Cirebon on West Javas north coast, throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, the sultanate thrived and became the regions centre of trade and commerce, as well as served as an Islamic learning and dissemination centre. The sultanate split into four houses, starting in 1677. Most of the history of Cirebon Sultanate was found in a local Javanese chronicle known as Babad, some notable chronicles that focused on the history of Cirebon are Carita Purwaka Caruban Nagari and Babad Cerbon. Foreign sources also mentioned Cirebon, such as Tomé Pires Suma Oriental, the later period of the sultanate documented from the colonial Dutch East Indies sources. There are several suggestions about the origin of the name Cirebon, another popular opinion suggested that the towns name derived from rebon the Sundanese word for small shrimp. Initially most of the peoples livelihood was fishing and collecting rebon along the coast as well as making shrimp paste, petis paste, rebon is the main ingredients on making shrimp paste. From the term of water used for shrimp paste manufacture that is called cai rebon which later became Cirebon, in addition, the Islamic Sultanate of Cirebon grew into the centre of Islam in West Java. The border of the Sunda kingdom in the west is Sunda Strait and in the east is Cipamali river, at this time Muara Jati was located around 14 kilometres north from modern Cirebon, and later known as Singapura. The transformation from small Hindu coastal fishing village into thriving Muslim port began with the rule of Ki Gedeng Tapa, Ki Gedeng Tapa was a wealthy merchant living in the village of Muara Jati. He was appointed as the master of Muara Jati fishing village by Sunda king reside in Kawali, Galuh. The Muara Jati was later called Singapura, located several kilometres north of modern Cirebon, the thriving port town attract Muslim traders. Ki Gedeng Tapa and his daughter, Nyai Subang Larang are said to be converted to Islam, Nyai Subang Larang studied at Quro pesantren in Karawang area. At that time the West Java region including Muara Jati were belongs to Sunda kingdom with its capital in Pakuan Pajajaran, although Prince Walangsungsang was the first-born son of Sunda King, the prince did not earned the right as a crown prince of Pakuan Pajajaran. This was because his mother, Nyai Subang Larang was not the prameswari, another reason was probably because of his conversion to Islam, probably influenced by his mother, Subang Larang whom was a Muslim woman. At that time in 16th century West Java, the religion was the Sunda Wiwitan. It was his brother, King Siliwangis son from his third wife Nyai Cantring Manikmayang, was chosen as crown prince
28.
Demak Sultanate
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The Demak Sultanate was a Javanese Muslim state located on Javas north coast in Indonesia, at the site of the present day city of Demak. The sultanate was the first Muslim state in Java, and once dominated most of the northern coast of Java, despite its short period, the sultanate played an important role in the establishment of Islam in Indonesia, especially on Java and neighboring area. Demak’s origins are uncertain although it was founded in the last quarter of the 15th century by a Muslim. There is evidence that he had Chinese ancestry and perhaps was named Cek Ko-po, Raden Patah’s son, or possibly his brother, led Demak’s brief domination in Java. He was known as Trenggana, and later Javanese traditions say he himself the title Sultan. It appears that Trenggana had two reigns—c 1505–1518 and c 1521–1546—between which his brother in law, Yunus of Jepara occupied the throne, before emergence of Demak, northern coast of Java was seat of many Muslim communities, both foreign merchants and Javanese. The Islamisation process gained momentum from decline of Majapahit authority, following fall of Majapahit capital to usurper from Kediri, Raden Patah declared Demak independence from Majapahit overlordship so did nearly all northern Javanese ports. Demak was a harbor with trade connection to Malacca and the Spices islands. It was located at the end of a channel that separated Java, from the 15th century until the 18th century, the channel was wide enough and important waterway for ships traveling along northern Javanese coast to the Spices islands. In the channel also located Serang river, which enabled access to rice producing interior of Java and this strategic location enabled Demak to rise as a leading trading center in Java. According to Tome Pires, Demak had more inhabitants than any port in Sunda or Java, Demak was the main exporter of rice to Malacca. And with the rise of Malacca, so did Demak rise into prominence and its supremacy also enhanced with claim of direct descent of Raden Patah to Majapahit royalty and his marriages ties with neighboring city-states. The foundation of Demak is traditionally attributed to Raden Patah, a Javanese noble related to Majapahit royalty, at least one account stated that he was the son of Kertabhumi, who reigned as king Brawijaya V of Majapahit. Demak managed consolidate its power to defeat Daha in 1527 because it is accepted as legitimate successor of Majapahit. The reason for acceptance is because Raden Patah was a direct descendant of Kertabhumi who survived the Girindrawardana invasion of Trowulan in 1478. A Chinese chronicle in a temple in Semarang states that Raden Patah founded the town of Demak in an area to the north of Semarang. After the collapse of Majapahit, its various dependencies and vassals broke free, the new state derived its income by trade, importing spices and exporting rice to Malacca and the Maluku Islands. It managed to gain hegemony over other Javanese trading ports on the northern coast of Java such as Semarang, Jepara, Tuban, and Gresik
29.
Aceh Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Aceh, officially the Kingdom of Aceh Darussalam, was a Sultanate centred in the modern-day Indonesian province of Aceh. It was a regional power in the 16th and 17th centuries. Its capital was Kutaraja, the present-day Banda Aceh, in addition to its considerable military strength, the court of Aceh became a noted centre of Islamic scholarship and trade. Acehs early history is unclear, but in one version it was founded by the Cham people, the Acehnese language is one of the 10 languages of the Aceh-Chamic language group. The ruler of Aceh converted to Islam in the mid-15th century, the Sultanate was founded by Ali Mughayat Syah, who began campaigns to extend his control over northern Sumatra in 1520. His conquests included Deli, Pedir, and Pasai, and he attacked Aru, the Ottoman Empire sent a relief force of 15 Xebecs commanded by Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis. On 21 June 1599 a Dutch captain, Cornelius Houtman arrived at Acheen aboard the Lioness as the first of three planned voyages to the East Indies, the crew stayed for three months acquiring pepper and other spices. British crew member John Davis claims the party was attacked by the local warlord with the loss of 68 dead. After they arrived, they were permitted by the Sultan to purchase pepper The same year and he returned in 1602 bearing a letter from English Queen Elizabeth I. The Sultan from 1589 to 1604 was Alauddin Riayat Shah ibn Firman Shah, internal dissension in the Sultanate prevented another powerful Sultan from appearing until 1607, when Iskandar Muda came to the position. He extended the Sultanates control over most of Sumatra and he also conquered Pahang, a tin-producing region of the Malayan Peninsula, and was able to force the Sultans of Johor to recognise his overlordship, if temporarily. During his reign he created a code of laws known as Adat Meukuta Alam, Acehs forces were not destroyed, however, as Aceh was able to conquer Kedah within the same year and taking many of its citizens to Aceh. The Sultans son in law, Iskandar Thani, former prince of Pahang later became his successor, during his reign Aceh focused on internal consolidation and religious unity. After the reign of Sultan Iskandar Thani, Aceh was ruled by a series of female Sultana, Acehs previous policy of taking hostage from conquered kingdoms population made them eager to seek independence, the results were Acehs control weakened while regional rulers gained effective power. The Sultan ultimately became a symbolic title. Aceh saw itself as heir to Pasai, the first Islamic state in Southeast Asia and it was called the porch of Mecca, and became a centre of Islamic scholarship, where the Quran and other Islamic texts were translated into Malay. Its notable scholars included Hamzah Pansuri, Syamsuddin of Pasai, Abdurrauf of Singkil, Aceh gained wealth from its export of pepper, nutmeg, cloves, betel nuts, and, once it conquered Pahang in 1617, tin. Low interest rates and the use of gold currency strengthened its economy and it was always somewhat fragile economically, however, because of the difficulty in providing enough surplus food to support the military and commercial adventures of the state
30.
Banten Sultanate
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The Banten Sultanate was founded in the 16th century and centred in Banten, a port city on the northwest coast of Java, the contemporary English spelling of both was Bantam. It is said to have founded by Sunan Gunungjati, who had previously founded Cirebon. Once a great trading centre in Southeast Asia, especially of pepper, its importance was overshadowed by Batavia and its core territory now forms the Indonesian province of Banten. Today, in Old Banten, the Grand Mosque of Banten is an important destination for tourists and for pilgrims from across Indonesia and it was known as Banten Girang, meaning Banten-up-the-river owing to its location. Sunan Gunungjati was an ulama, a class of Muslim legal scholars. He was educated in Middle East, and can trace his ancestry to the Kingdom of Sunda, Sharif Hidayatullah become the Sultan of Cirebon in 1479. In 1482 Sharif Hidayatullah sent a letter to King of Sunda, previously Cirebon settlement was founded in 1445 by his uncle Prince Cakrabuana. In the early 16th century, Gunungjati arrived in the town with the intention of spreading the word of Islam in this still-Hindu area. Although at first well received by Sunda authorities, after news of the Portuguese-Sunda alliance in 1522 became known, Gunungjati nevertheless asked Demak sultanate to send troops to Banten. It was likely his son, Hasanudin, who commanded this military operation in 1527, just as the Portuguese fleet was arriving of the coast at Sunda Kelapa, to capture these towns. Sunan Gunungjati had Hasanudin named king of Banten by the Sultan of Demak who, in turn, thus, a new dynasty was born at the same time as a new kingdom was created. Banten was the capital of kingdom, held as a province under Sultanate of Cirebon. From the beginning it was obviously Hasanuddin’s intention to revive the fortunes of the ancient kingdom of Sunda for his own benefit. One of his earliest decision was to travel to southern Sumatra, which had belonged to the kingdom of Sunda. Having established control over the ports and the trade, Hasanuddin decided to build a new capital. On the advice of his father, Sunan Gunungjati, he choose to construct it on the coast at the mouth of the Cibanten River. That a settlement already existed at this place is evidence by its harbour activities, the royal city was founded on the delta, formed by the two arms of the river. Two main streets running north-south and east-west divided the city into quarters, the royal palace surrounded by residences of the principal minister of state, was built on the south side of the royal square and the great mosque on the west side
31.
Mataram Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Mataram /məˈtɑːrəm/ was the last major independent Javanese kingdom on Java before the island was colonised by the Dutch. It was the dominant political force radiating from the interior Central Java from the late 16th century until the beginning of the 18th century, Mataram reached its peak of power during the reign of Sultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo, and began to decline after his death in 1645. By the mid-18th century, Mataram lost both power and territory to the Dutch East India Company and it had become a vassal state of the company by 1749. The name Mataram itself was never the name of any polity. Mataram refers to the areas of plains south of Mount Merapi around present-day Muntilan, Sleman, Yogyakarta. More precisely, it refer to Kota Gede area, the capital of the Sultanate in the outskirt of southern Yogyakarta, there is a common practice in Java to refer their kingdom by the location of its capital, thus Mataram is their capital. Historically, there were two kingdoms that have existed in region and both are called Mataram. The later kingdom however, is called as Mataram Islam or Mataram Sultanate to distinguish it from the Hindu-Buddhist 9th-century Kingdom of Mataram. The key sources to uncover the history of Mataram Sultanate are local Javanese historical accounts called Babad, the problem with traditional Javanese Babad, are often undated, obscure and incorporates non-historic, mythological and fantastic elements. Most of this Javanese historical account are used as the tool to legitimise the authority of the ruler, the dates for events before the Siege of Batavia in the reign of Sultan Agung, third king of Mataram, are difficult to determine. There are several annals used by H. J, the Javanese sources are very selective in putting dates to events. Events such as the rise and fall of kratons, the death of important princes, great wars, again these candrasengkalas do not always match the annals. Therefore, it is suggested to follow the rule of thumb. However, by the more reliable records begin in the mid-17th century the kingdom was so large. According to Javanese records, the kings of Mataram were descended from one Ki Ageng Sela, Pajang was located near the current site of Surakarta, and Mataram was originally a vassal of Pajang. Pamanahan was often referred to as Kyai Gedhe Mataram, pamanahans son, Sutawijaya or Panembahan Senapati Ingalaga, replaced his father around 1584, and he began to released Mataram from Pajangs control. Under Sutawijaya, Mataram grew substantially through military campaigns against Matarams overlord of Pajang and Pajangs former overlord, the new Pajang Sultan, Arya Pangiri, was an unpopular ruler, and Benowo quickly rallied support to regain his throne and recruited Sutawijayas support against Pajang. Subsequently Pajang was attacked from two directions, by Prince Benowo from Jipang and by Sutawijaya from Mataram, and finally was defeated
32.
Johor Sultanate
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The Sultanate of Johor was founded by Malaccan Sultan Mahmud Shahs son, Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II in 1528. Johor was part of the Malaccan Sultanate before the Portuguese conquered Malaccas capital in 1511, during the colonial era, the mainland part was administered by the British, and the insular part by the Dutch, thus breaking up the sultanate into Johor and Riau. In 1946, the British section became part of the Malayan Union, two years later, it joined the Federation of Malaya and subsequently, the Federation of Malaysia in 1963. In 1949, the Dutch section became part of Indonesia, in 1511, Malacca fell to the Portuguese and Sultan Mahmud Shah was forced to flee Malacca. The sultan made several attempts to retake the capital but his efforts were fruitless, the Portuguese retaliated and forced the sultan to flee to Pahang. Later, the sailed to Bintan and established a new capital there. With a base established, the sultan rallied the disarrayed Malay forces and organised several attacks and blockades against the Portuguese position. Based at Pekan Tua, Sungai Telur, Johor, the Johor Sultanate was founded by Raja Ali Ibni Sultan Mahmud Melaka, known as Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah, with his Queen Tun Fatimah in 1528. Frequent raids on Malacca caused the Portuguese severe hardship and it helped to convince the Portuguese to destroy the exiled sultans forces, a number of attempts were made to suppress the Malay but it was not until 1526 that the Portuguese finally razed Bintan to the ground. The sultan then retreated to Kampar in Sumatra and died two years later and he left behind two sons named Muzaffar Shah and Alauddin Riayat Shah II. Muzaffar Shah continued on to establish Perak while Alauddin Riayat Shah became the first sultan of Johor, the new sultan established a new capital by the Johor River and, from there, continued to harass the Portuguese in the north. He consistently worked together with his brother in Perak and the Sultan of Pahang to retake Malacca, on the northern part of Sumatra around the same period, Aceh Sultanate was beginning to gain substantial influence over the Straits of Malacca. With the fall of Malacca to Christian hands, Muslim traders often skipped Malacca in favour of Aceh or also of Johors capital Batu Sawar, therefore, Malacca and Aceh became direct competitors. With the Portuguese and Johor frequently locking horns, Aceh launched multiple raids against both sides to tighten its grip over the straits, the rise and expansion of Aceh encouraged the Portuguese and Johor to sign a truce and divert their attention to Aceh. The truce, however, was short-lived and with Aceh severely weakened, Johor, during the rule of Sultan Iskandar Muda, Aceh attacked Johor in 1613 and again in 1615. In the early 17th century, the Dutch reached Southeast Asia, at that time the Dutch were at war with the Portuguese and allied themselves to Johor. Two treaties were signed by Admiral Cornelis Matelief de Jonge on behalf of the Dutch Estates General and Raja Bongsu of Johor in May, finally in 1641, the Dutch and Johor forces headed by Bendahara Skudai, defeated the Portuguese. As per the agreement with Johor struck in May 1606, the Dutch took control of Malacca, finally in January 1641, the Dutch and Johor forces, defeated the Portuguese at Malacca
33.
Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura
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The Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura, often called Sultanate of Siak, was a kingdom that was located in the Siak Regency, Riau from 1723 to 1946 CE. It was founded by Raja Kecik from the Johor Kingdom, after he failed to seize the throne of the Sultanate of Johor, after Indonesias Independence was proclaimed on 17 August 1945, the last sultan of Siak declared his kingdom to have joined the Republic of Indonesia. The history of Riau before Indonesian independence time has been rooted in the history of Siak Sri Indrapura, the Siak-centred sultanate was founded by Sultan Abdul Jalil Rahmad Shah in 1725. The first Sultan died in 1746 and later given the title of Marhum Buantan. The reign was continued to Sultan Abdul Jalil Muzaffar Shah who ruled for about 19 years and this second Sultan succeeded in making the Kingdom of Siak Sri Indrapura strong and triumphant. The third Sultan was Abdul Jalil Jalaluddin Shah had only ruled for a year and his real name was Tengku Ismail. His reign was under attacks of the Dutch East India Company which took advantage of Tengku Alam as a shield, Sultan Abdul Jalil later dubbed Marhum Mangkat di Balai. Tengku Alam ascended to the throne after the death of Abdul Jalil Jalaluddin, with the title of Sultan Abdul Jalil Alamuddin Syah, uthman was then appointed as a military commander and religious advisor in the Sultanate. Six of their descendants from this marriage became Sultans, which was started since the seventh Sultan of Siak Sri Indrapura and this has also been verified by the institution for that purpose, al-Rabithah al-Alawiyah. Nevertheless, many descendants of Sayyid Usman bin Abdurrahman in Malaysia still use the Shahab title, the fifth in throne was Sultan Muhammad Ali Abdul Jalil Muazzam Shah. During his reign the Sultanate of Siak relocated to Senapelan and he is also the founder of the city of Pekanbaru, so since his death in 1782 he was titled with title Marhum Pekan. Sultan Yahya Abdul Jalil Muzaffar Shah later took the position as the sultan during 1782–1784. Like the previous sultan, Sultan Yahya also only had 2 years to rule and he died in 1784 and was posthumously granted the title Marhum Mangkat di Dungun. The seventh Sultan, Ali Abdul Jalil Syaifuddin Baalawi, was the first sultan of Arab descent, during his reign the Kingdom of Siak reached its peak. He died in 1810 and was granted the title Marhum Kota Tinggi. Ibrahim Abdul Jalil Khaliluddin was the eight sultan in the kingdom in 1810–1815 and he died in 1815 and then was named the Marhum Mempura Kecil. He was then followed by Sultan Syarif Ismail Abdul Jalil Jalaluddin Ismail who took the reign during 1815–1854 which was given title Marhum Indrapura and he was then followed by the next sultan, Qasim Abdul Jalil Syaifuddin I. He died in 1889 and was granted the title Marhum Mahkota
34.
Surakarta Sunanate
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Surakarta Sunanate is a Javanese monarchy centred in the city of Surakarta, in the province of Central Java, Indonesia. The Surakarta Kraton was established in 1745 by Pakubuwono II, Surakarta Sunanate and Yogyakarta Sultanate are together the successors of Mataram Sultanate. Unlike their counterparts in Yogyakarta, who use the title of sultan, the Dutch name was used during Dutch colonial rule until the 1940s. The title is sometimes anglicized as the Prince of Solo, from the location of their palace, after Sultan Agung I, the power and prestige of Sultanate of Mataram was declining due to a power struggle and conflict of succession within the royal family. The VOC exploited the power struggle to increase its control on Java, the Mataram seat in Plered near Kotagede collapsed after the Trunojoyo revolt in 1677. Sunan Amral relocated the palace to Kartasura, during the reign of Sunan Pakubuwono II, in 1742 Raden Mas Garendi led Chinese mercenaries and launched a revolt against the crown and also VOC. Raden Mas Garendi was the son of Prince Teposono and also the grandson of Amangkurat II, the rebels managed to take control of the Kartasura capital and ousted Pakubuwono II who fled and sought refuge in Ponorogo. With the help of Adipati Cakraningrat IV the ruler of western Madura, Pakubuwono II regained the capital, however the palace of Kartasura was destroyed and considered inauspicious since the bloodbath took place there. Pakubuwono II decided to build a new palace and capital city in Sala village, the transfer of the capital to Sala village is commemorated in chandrasengkala Kombuling Pudya Kepyarsihing Nata which corresponds to Wednesday 12 Sura 1670 Javanese year. The date is considered the day that the Surakarta Sunanate was established, Pakubuwono II faced numerous rebellions, among other from Raden Mas Said, and later from his own younger brother, Prince Mangkubumi who joined Mas Saids rebellion in 1746. Pakubuwono II died from illness in 1749, but before he died, he entrusted the royal affairs of Surakarta to his protector, Baron von Hohendorff. On behalf of the successor of Pakubuwono II, Pakubuwono III, the Giyanti Treaty named Pangeran Mangkubumi as Sultan of Yogyakarta. During the era of Dutch rule, there were recognised two main principalities of Vorstenlanden Mataram, the Surakarta Sunanate and The Yogyakarta Sultanate, then a few years later Surakarta was divided further with the establishment of the Mangkunegaran Princedom after the Treaty of Salatiga. The Mangkunegaran Princedom was led by notorious rebel Raden Mas Said who was stylised as Mangkunegara I, the territory of Surakarta Sunanate were reduced much further after the Java War led by Prince Diponegoro. Susuhunan Pakubuwono VI was alleged to have secretly supported Diponegoros rebellion, the kingdom faced an era of strife and uncertainty during World War II and the Japanese occupation of Indonesia. As the reward the Republic awarded the status of Daerah Istimewa within the Republic of Indonesia, in contrast, the Yogyakarta Sultanate has successfully maintained special status. Yogyakartas historical support and close ties with the fathers of the Indonesian Republic during the war of independence. The Surakarta Sunanate holds no political power
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Yogyakarta Sultanate
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Yogyakarta Sultanate is a Javanese monarchy in Yogyakarta Special Region, Indonesia. The current head of the Sultanate is Hamengkubuwono X, after Sultan Agung, the Sultanate of Mataram was declining due to power struggle within the sultanate. To make things worse, VOC exploited the power struggle to increase its control, at the peak of the conflict, the Mataram Sultanate was split in two based on the Treaty of Giyanti of 13 February 1755, Yogyakarta Sultanate and Surakarta Sunanate. During the era of Dutch occupation there were two principalities, the Yogyakarta Sultanate and the smaller Pakualaman Duchy / Principality, the Dutch Colonial Government arranged for the carrying out autonomous self-government, arranged under a political contract. When the Indonesian independence was proclaimed, the rulers, the Sultan of Yogyakarta, the Special Region of Yogyakarta was created after the independence war ended and legalised on 3 August 1950. In carrying out the government administration it considers three principles, decentralisation, deconcentration and assistance. The provincial government carries out the responsibilities and authorities of the central government, the Regional Government consists of the Head of the Region and the Legislative Assembly of the Region. Such construction guarantees good co-operation between the Head of Region and the Legislative Assembly of Region to achieve a sound regional government administration, the Head of the Special Region of Yogyakarta has got responsibility as the Head of the Territory and titled as a Governor. The first Governor was the late Hamengkubuwono IX, Sultan of Yogyakarta, paku Alam VIII as acting governor until Hamengkubuwono X ascended in 1998. However, in carrying out their duties, they have the same authority, the principal residence of the sultan is the kraton, sometimes called the Yogyakarta Kraton but otherwise known in formal terms Kraton Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat. List of Sunni Muslim dynasties Hamengkubuwono, including list of sultans List of monarchs of Java Kraton Yogyakarta Brotodiningrat, the Royal Palace of Yogyakarta, Its Architecture and Its Meaning, Yogyakarta, Karaton Museum Yogyakarta, OCLC12847099. Dwiyanto, Djoko, Kraton Yogyakarta, Sejarah, Nasionalisme & Teladan Perjuangan, Yogyakarta, Paradigma Indonesia, ISBN 978-979-17834-0-8
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Sultanate of Deli
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Sultanate of Deli is a 1,820 km² state in east Sumatra founded in 1630. A tributary kingdom from 1630 it was controlled by various Sultanates until 1814, the ruler of Aceh converted to Islam in the mid-15th century. The Sultanate of Aceh was founded by Ali Mughayat Syah, who began campaigns to extend his control over northern Sumatra in 1520, the sultan Iskandar Muda expanded Aceh by conquest. In 1612 Deli was militarily defeated and annexed, Dutch intervention in 1861, which resulted in a contract with the Netherlands East Indies the following year, helped to recognise Delis independence from Aceh and Siak. Now part of Indonesia, the remains as a symbol of the history of Medan. The history of the Sultanate of Deli and also the Sultanate of Serdang are closely related to the heyday of the Sultanate of Aceh Darussalam during the administration of Sultan Iskandar Muda, Aceh Darussalam started its expansion in 1612 by invading the cities along the East Coast of Sumatra. Deli harbour was conquered in six weeks, while the Kingdom of Aru surrendered in early 1613 AD, Aceh Darussalams conquest was led by Muhammad Dalik who assumed a title as Sri Paduka Tuanku Gocah Pahlawan. This Aceh Darussalam commander was a descendant of Amir Muhammad Badar ud-din Khan, Sultan Iskandar Muda granted Aru territory to Sri Paduka Tuanku Gocah Pahlawan. In 1632, Sri Paduka Tuanku Gocah Pahlawan was appointed the vice of Sultan Iskandar Muda to rule the territory of Aru. In the coronation, an oath to obey was pronounced by the Orang-orang Besar, at the same time, Lembaga Datuk Berempat was also established that served as an advisory council for the government of Sri Paduka Tuanku Gocah Pahlawan. The four Batak Karo kings became members of this institution, one of the four Batak Karo kings is King Undo Sunggal who is also father-in-law of Sri Paduka Tuanku Gocah Pahlawan. In 1632, Sri Paduka Tuanku Gocah Pahlawan married King Undo Sunggals daughter, Sri Paduka Tuanku Gocah Pahlawan died in 1641, and the control over Deli was bequeathed to his son, Tuanku Panglima Perunggit titled Panglima Deli. Meanwhile, Sultan Iskandar Muda had died in 1636 AD in Aceh, the leadership of Sultanate of Aceh Darussalam was passed to Sultan Iskandar Muda son-in-law, Sultan Iskandar Thani, who was on the throne until 1641. Aceh Darussalam weakened after Sultan Iskandar Thani died and his successor was also his wife and the daughter of Sultan Iskandar Muda, Sultanah Safi al-Din Taj al-Alam. The unstable Aceh Darussalam was an opportunity for Tuanku Panglima Perunggit, in 1669, Tuanku Panglima Perunggit proclaimed independence from the Sultanate of Aceh Darussalam and established a connection with the Dutch in Malacca. Thus, officially the Sultanate of Deli established a government with the capital in Labuhan, located approximately 20 kilometres from Medan. The name of Deli had been listed in the archives of the VOC in Malacca. Year 1641 was the time when the Dutch seized Malacca from the Portuguese, in that record, it was stated that according to the report of the admiral of Johor, Aceh army had gathered in Kuala Deli
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Riau-Lingga Sultanate
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The sultanate came into existence as a result of the partition of the Johor-Riau Sultanate that separated Peninsular Johor, together with the island of Singapore, from the Riau archipelago. This partition followed the dispute following the death of Mahmud III of Johor. The maritime kingdom was recognised by both the British and the Dutch following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, the Riau Archipelago became a part of the Malaccan Empire after the expansion by Tun Perak in the 15th century, following the decline of the Srivijaya Empire. After the fall of Malacca at the hands of Portuguese conquistadors, during the golden age of Johor, the kingdom stretched across half of the Malay Peninsular, eastern Sumatra, Singapore, Bangka, Jambi and the Riau Islands. The settlement in Sungai Carang was later known as Riau Lama, initially a fortress to protect the Johor Empire, Riau Lama then prospered and became an increasingly prominent entrepôt for regional trade in the Strait of Malacca. Riau Lama then became the capital of the empire for 65 years, the importance of Lingga began during the reign of Mahmud Shah III. In 1788, he relocated the capital from Riau Lama, Ulu Riau, Bintan to Daik, the Sultan did this as he believed that he was being reduced to a mere figurehead under the Dutch. He then requested aid from his distant relative, Raja Ismail, when the Dutch arrived in Riau, there were only a few Chinese planters left, who persuaded the Dutch not to chase the Orang-orang Melayu. The Sultan then developed Lingga and welcomed new settlers to the island, dato Kaya Megat was appointed as the new Bendahara of Lingga. New dwellings were constructed, roads were built and buildings were improved and he found unprecedented new wealth when tin mines were organised in Singkep. Both the British and Dutch then restored his claim on the Riau island and he discreetly began to revive maritime trade discreetly with the British as a major source of commodities, especially valuable tin, gambier and spices. In 1812, the Johor-Riau Sultanate experienced a succession crisis, the death of the Mahmud Shah III in Lingga left no heir apparent. Royal custom required that the succeeding sultan must be present at his predecessors deathbed, however at the time Mahmud Shah III died, the eldest prince, Tengku Hussein, was in Pahang to celebrate his marriage to the daughter of the Bendahara. The other candidate was Tengku Husseins half-brother, Tengku Abdul Rahman, to complicate matters, neither of the candidates was of full royal blood. The mother of Tengku Hussein, Cik Mariam, owed her origin to a Balinese slave lady, Tengku Abdul Rahman had a similarly lowborn mother, Cik Halimah. The only unquestionably royal wife and consort of Mahmud Shah was Engku Puteri Hamidah, in the following chaos, Engku Puteri was expected to install Tengku Hussein as the next sultan, because he had been preferred by the late Mahmud Shah. The regalia was fundamental to the installation of the sultan, it was a symbol of power, legitimacy, nonetheless, Yang Dipertuan Muda Jaafar supported the reluctant Tengku Abdul Rahman, adhering to the rules of royal protocol, as he had been present at the late Sultans deathbed. Unwilling and furious, the outspoken Queen is then reported to have said, was it my brother Raja Jaafar or by what law of succession has it happened
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Portuguese colonialism in Indonesia
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The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach the islands of Indonesia. Initial Portuguese attempts to establish a coalition and peace treaty in 1522 with the West Javan Sunda Kingdom, through both military conquest and alliance with local rulers, they established trading posts, forts, and missions in eastern Indonesia including the islands of Ternate, Ambon, and Solor. In addition, the first European people that arrived in Northern Sulawesi was the Portuguese, francisco Xavier supported and visited the Portuguese mission at Tolo on Halmahera. This was the first Catholic mission in the Moluccas, the mission began in 1534 when some chiefs from Morotai came to Ternate asking to be baptised. Simão Vaz, the vicar of Ternate, went to Tolo to found the mission, the mission was the source of conflict between the Spanish, the Portuguese and Ternate. Simão Vaz was later murdered at Sao, indonesia–Portugal relations Portuguese loanwords in Indonesian Mardijker people History of East Timor History of Indonesia Timeline of Indonesian history
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Dutch East Indies
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The Dutch East Indies was a Dutch colony. It was formed from the colonies of the Dutch East India Company. During the 19th century, Dutch possessions and hegemony were expanded and this colony was one of the most valuable European colonies under the Dutch Empires rule, and contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the 19th to early 20th century. The colonial social order was based on racial and social structures with a Dutch elite living separate from. The term Indonesia came into use for the location after 1880. In the early 20th century, local intellectuals began developing the concept of Indonesia as a nation state, Japans World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and economy. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalists declared independence which they fought to secure during the subsequent Indonesian National Revolution, the word Indies comes from Latin, Indus. The original name Dutch Indies was translated by the English as the Dutch East Indies, the name Dutch Indies is recorded in the Dutch East India Companys documents of the early 1620s. Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies, the Netherlands Indies, centuries before Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states, including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states. The first Europeans to arrive were the Portuguese in the late 15th century, following disruption of Dutch access to spices in Europe, the first Dutch expedition set sail for the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. When it made a 400% profit on its return, other Dutch expeditions soon followed, recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India Company. The VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, a capital was established in Batavia, which became the centre of the VOCs Asian trading network. Smuggling, the expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was dissolved in 1800 and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago were nationalised under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century, finally in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia. In 1811, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports including Java, Dutch control was restored in 1816. Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the Dutch secured British settlements such as Bengkulu in Sumatra, in exchange for ceding control of their possessions in the Malay Peninsula, the resulting borders between British and Dutch possessions remain between Malaysia and Indonesia
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Indonesian National Awakening
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In the pursuit of profits and administrative control, the Dutch imposed an authority of the Dutch East Indies on an array of peoples who had not previously shared a unified political identity. By the start of the 20th century, the Dutch had formed the boundaries of a colonial state that became the precursor to modern Indonesia. In the first half of the 20th century, new organisations, under its Ethical Policy, the Netherlands helped create an educated Indonesian elite. These profound changes amongst the indigenous Indonesian population are referred to as the Indonesian National Revival. They were accompanied by increased political activism and culminated in Indonesian nationalists proclaiming independence on 17 August 1945, several factors gave rise to a nationalist consciousness, the indigenous print media, urbanisation, communism, Islam, education, mass entertainment, and suffering under Dutch apartheid. Nationalists helped incubate a national consciousness, leading intellectuals such as Kartini, Tirto, and Semaun gave voice and sentiment to the idea of a unified archipelago. These leaders, along many others, sought to embrace modernity and nation, freedom. Indigenous voices were suppressed by the Dutch, who disallowed freedom of speech and freedom of assembly, indeed, only a small number raised their voices against colonialism, with most people avoided the Dutch as best they could and with the aristocracy content to collaborate. The modern movement against colonial rule was maintained by the passion, Kartini was one such individual who provided the impetus and ideology which inspired patriotic nationalists to pursue their ideals despite the adversity. Kartinis intellect was awakened by quality Dutch classical education and her traditional Islamic beliefs, Kartini was supported by an enlightened and intellectually endowed family and friends in Europe and Indonesia. In 1925, the focus shifted to the provision of a widespread three-year elementary vocational education. In 1940, over 2 million students were attending such schools which is thought to have improved the 6.3 per cent literacy rate recorded in the 1930 census, Dutch medium education opened new horizons and opportunities, and was in strong demand by Indonesians. In 1940,65,000 to 80,000 Indonesian students were in Dutch and Dutch-supported primary schools, around the same time, there were 7,000 Indonesian students in Dutch medium secondary schools. The vast majority of students attended intermediate MULO schools, the Ethical Periods emphasis on education did not deliver widespread educational opportunities, however, it did provide a Dutch education for the children of the indigenous Indonesian elite. Largely intended to provide labour for the growing colonial bureaucracy. During the 1920s and 30s, this small elite began to articulate a rising anti-colonialism, during this period the first Indonesian political parties began to emerge, the youth group, Budi Utomo was established in 1908, and the Indische Partij in 1912. The same year, Sarekat Islam was founded, inspired more by Islamic and Javanese mysticism than notions of independence and self-rule. It brought Indonesians together, using the banner of Islam in opposition to Dutch rule, however, it had not nationalist agenda, in contrast, the Communist Party of Indonesia, formed in 1920, was a fully-fledged independence party inspired by European politics
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Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies
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The Japanese Empire occupied the Dutch East Indies, now Indonesia, during World War II from March 1942 until after the end of the War in 1945. The period was one of the most critical in Indonesian history, initially, most Indonesians joyfully welcomed the Japanese, as liberators from their Dutch colonial masters. The sentiment changed, as Indonesians were expected to more hardship for the war effort. In 1944–1945, Allied troops largely bypassed Indonesia and did not fight their way into the most populous parts such as Java, as such, most of Indonesia was still under Japanese occupation at the time of their surrender, in August 1945. Unlike the Dutch, the Japanese facilitated the politicisation of Indonesians down to the village level, particularly in Java and, to a lesser extent, Sumatra, the Japanese educated, trained and armed many young Indonesians and gave their nationalist leaders a political voice. Until 1942, Indonesia was colonised by the Netherlands and was known as the Dutch East Indies, the Japanese spread the word that they were the Light of Asia. The Japanese had gradually spread their influence through Asia in the first half of the 20th century and these ranged from small town barbers, photographic studios and salesmen, to large department stores and firms such as Suzuki and Mitsubishi becoming involved in the sugar trade. The Japanese population peaked in 1931, with 6,949 residents before starting a gradual decrease, a number of Japanese had been sent by their government to establish links with Indonesian nationalists, particularly with Muslim parties, while Indonesian nationalists were sponsored to visit Japan. Such encouragement of Indonesian nationalism was part of a broader Japanese plan for an Asia for the Asians, also concerned were members of the Indonesian communist underground who followed the Soviet Unions popular united front against fascism. Japanese aggression in Manchuria and China in the late 1930s caused anxiety amongst the Chinese in Indonesia who set up funds to support the anti-Japanese effort, Dutch intelligence services also monitored Japanese living in Indonesia. The memorandum was refused because the Government did not consider the Madjlis Rakyat Indonesia to be representative of the people, within only four months, the Japanese had occupied the archipelago. On 8 December 1941, the Netherlands declared war on Japan, in January the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command was formed to co-ordinate Allied forces in South East Asia, under the command of General Archibald Wavell. In the weeks leading up to the invasion, senior Dutch government officials went into exile taking political prisoners, family, before the arrival of Japanese troops, there were conflicts between rival Indonesian groups where people were killed, vanished or went into hiding. Chinese- and Dutch-owned properties were ransacked and destroyed, the invasion in early 1942 was swift and complete. By January 1942, parts of Sulawesi and Kalimantan were under Japanese control, by February, the Japanese had landed on Sumatra where they had encouraged the Acehnese to rebel against the Dutch. On 27 February, the Allied navys last effort to contain Japan was swept aside by their defeat in the Battle of the Java Sea, from 28 February to 1 March 1942, Japanese troops landed on four places along the northern coast of Java almost undisturbed. The fiercest fighting had been in invasion points in Ambon, Timor, Kalimantan, in places where there were no Dutch troops, such as Bali, there was no fighting. On 9 March, the Dutch commander surrendered along with Governor General Jonkheer A. W. L, as the Japanese advanced, rebellious Indonesians in virtually every part of the archipelago killed groups of Europeans and informed the Japanese reliably on the whereabouts of larger groups
