1.
ISO 4217
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The ISO4217 code list is used in banking and business globally. ISO4217 codes are used on tickets and international train tickets to remove any ambiguity about the price. The first two letters of the code are the two letters of the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes and the third is usually the initial of the currency itself, so Japans currency code is JPY—JP for Japan and Y for yen. This eliminates the problem caused by the dollar, franc, peso and pound being used in dozens of different countries. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency codes last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. Other changes can be seen, however, the Russian ruble, for example, changed from RUR to RUB and these currency units are denominated as one troy ounce of the specified metal as opposed to USD1 or EUR1. The code XTS is reserved for use in testing, the code XXX is used to denote a transaction involving no currency. There are also codes specifying certain monetary instruments used in international finance, the codes for most supranational currencies, such as the East Caribbean dollar, the CFP franc, the CFA franc BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO. The predecessor to the euro, the European Currency Unit, had the code XEU, the use of an initial letter X for these purposes is facilitated by the ISO3166 rule that no official country code beginning with X will ever be assigned. Because of this rule ISO4217 can use X codes without risk of clashing with a country code. ISO3166 country codes beginning with X are used for private custom use, consequently, ISO4217 can use X codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes. The inclusion of EU in the ISO 3166-1 reserved codes list, the ISO4217 standard includes a crude mechanism for expressing the relationship between a major currency unit and its corresponding minor currency unit. This mechanism is called the exponent and assumes a base of 10. For example, USD is equal to 100 of its currency unit the cent. So the USD has exponent 2, the code JPY is given the exponent 0, because its minor unit, the sen, although nominally valued at 1/100 of a yen, is of such negligible value that it is no longer used. Usually, as with the USD, the currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but in some cases 1/1000 is used. Mauritania does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 ouguiya equal to 5 khoums, some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all and these are given an exponent of 0, as with currencies whose minor units are unused due to negligible value. There is also a code number assigned to each currency
2.
Cent (currency)
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In many national currencies, the cent, commonly represented by the cent sign is a monetary unit that equals 1⁄100 of the basic monetary unit. Etymologically, the word cent derives from the Latin word centum meaning hundred, cent also refers to a coin worth one cent. In the United States and Canada, the 1¢ coin is known by the nickname penny, alluding to the British coin. In Ireland the 1c coin is sometimes known as a penny in reference to the Irish penny. A cent is commonly represented by the cent sign, a letter c crossed by a diagonal stroke or a vertical line, ¢, or a simple c. Cent amounts from 1 cent to 99 cents can be represented as one or two digits followed by the abbreviation, or as a subdivision of the base unit. The cent sign has not survived the changeover from typewriters to computer keyboards, for the US International keyboard, <Right Alt> <Shift> c. On Macintosh systems, hold ⌥ Option and press 4 on the number row, on Unix/Linux systems with a compose key, Compose+|+C is a typical sequence. The cent sign has Unicode code point, U+00A2 ¢ cent sign, usage of the cent symbol varies from one currency to another. In the United States, Canada and Mexico, the usage ¢ is more common, while in Australia, New Zealand and the eurozone, in South Africa and Ireland, only the c is used. When written in English, the cent sign follows the amount, in contrast with a currency symbol. For example, 2¢ and $0.02, or 2c, greek coins have ΛΕΠΤΟ on the obverse of the one-cent coin and ΛΕΠΤΑ on the obverse of the others. Actual usage varies depending on language, South Korean Won no fractional denomination in circulation, formerly divided into 100 jeon
3.
Currency symbol
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A currency symbol is a graphic symbol used as a shorthand for a currencys name, especially in reference to amounts of money. The European Commission considers the global recognition of the euro sign € part of its success, in 2009, India launched a public competition to replace the ₨ ligature it shared with neighbouring countries. It finalised its new symbol, ₹ on 15 July 2010. It is a blend of the Latin letter R with the Devanagari letter र, when writing currency amounts the location of the symbol varies by currency. Many currencies in the English-speaking world and Latin America, place it before the amount, the Cape Verdean escudo places its symbol in the decimal separator position. The usage of many European countries, such as France, Germany, the decimal separator also follows local countries standards. For instance, the United Kingdom often uses an interpunct as the point on price stickers. Commas or decimal points are common separators used in other countries, see decimal separator for information on international standards. Older currency symbols have evolved slowly, often from previous currencies, the dollar and peso symbols originated from the mark employed to denote the Spanish real de a ocho, whereas the pound and lira symbols evolved from an L standing for libra, a Roman pound of silver. Newly invented currencies and currencies adopting new symbols have symbolism closer to their adopter, the added center bar in the real sign is meant to symbolize stability. The new Indian rupee symbol, ₹, is a combination of Latin. There are also considerations, such as the perception of the business community. For a new symbol to be used, software to render it needs to be promulgated, the EU was criticized for not considering how the euro symbol would need to be customized to work in different fonts. The original design was exceptionally wide. These two factors have led to most typefaces employing customized, font-specific versions, usually with reduced width, List of currencies List of circulating currencies Currency Symbols
4.
Dollar sign
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The dollar sign is a symbol primarily used to indicate the various units of currency around the world. The symbol can interchangeably have one or two vertical strokes, note that the two-stroked version is not the same symbol as the cifrão. In common usage, the sign appears to the left of the amount specified, the best documented explanation holds that the sign evolved out of the Spanish and Spanish American scribal abbreviation pˢ for pesos. A study of late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century manuscripts shows that the s gradually came to be written over the p, a variation, though less plausible, of this hypothesis derives the sign from a combination of the Greek character psi and S. There are a number of hypotheses about the origin of the symbol, some with a measure of academic acceptance. Kingdom of Sicily Denaro minted in the Kingdom in Sicily at least by 1258–1266 had what could be construed as a dollar symbol. These coins were widely circulated due to the Crusades – and specifically the Crusade that targeted Tunis, several alternative hypotheses relate specifically to the dollar sign drawn with two vertical lines. A common hypothesis holds that the sign derives from the Spanish coat of arms, in 1492, Ferdinand II of Aragon adopted the symbol of the Pillars of Hercules and added the Latin warning Non plus ultra meaning nothing further beyond, indicating this is the end of the world. But when Christopher Columbus came to America, the legend was changed to Plus ultra, the Pillars of Hercules wrapped in a banner thus became a symbol of the New World. In this example the right-hand pillar clearly resembles the dollar sign, the symbol was adopted by Charles V and was part of his coat of arms representing Spains American possessions. The symbol was later stamped on coins minted in gold and silver, the coin, also known as Spanish dollar, was the first global currency used in the entire world since the Spanish Empire was the first global Empire. These coins, depicting the pillars over two hemispheres and a small S-shaped ribbon around each, were spread throughout America, Europe and Asia. According to this, traders wrote signs that, instead of saying Spanish dollar, had this made by hand. When the US got independence from the UK, they created the American dollar, a dollar sign with two vertical lines could have started off as a monogram of USA, used on money bags issued by the United States Mint. The letters U and S superimposed resemble the historical double-stroke dollar sign, robert Morris was such a zealous patriot – known as the Financier of the Revolution in the West – that conjecture does not overstep its bounds in purporting this hypothesis as viable. A similar idea claims that the letters U and S would stand for unit of silver, referencing pieces of eight again, another hypothesis is that it derives from the symbol used on a German Thaler. This refers to the Bible, Numbers, Chapter 21, a similar symbol, constructed by superposition of S and I or J, was used to denote German Joachimsthaler. It was known in the English-speaking world by the 17th century, robert Morris was the first to use that symbol in official documents and in official communications with Oliver Pollock
5.
Liberia
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Liberia /laɪˈbɪəriə/, officially the Republic of Liberia, is a country on the West African coast. It is bordered by Sierra Leone to its west, Guinea to its north and it covers an area of 111,369 square kilometres and has a population of 4,503,000 people. English is the language and over 20 indigenous languages are spoken. The countrys capital and largest city is Monrovia, forests on the coastline are composed mostly of salt-tolerant mangrove trees, while the more sparsely populated inland has forests opening onto a plateau of drier grasslands. The climate is equatorial, with significant rainfall during the May–October rainy season, Liberia possesses about forty percent of the remaining Upper Guinean rainforest. It was an important producer of rubber in the early 20th century, the Republic of Liberia began as a settlement of the American Colonization Society, who believed African Americans would face better chances for freedom in Africa than in the United States. The country declared its independence on July 26,1847, the U. S. did not recognize Liberias independence until during the American Civil War on February 5,1862. The African American settlers carried their culture with them to Liberia, Liberia maintained and kept its independence during the European colonial era. In addition, President William Tubman encouraged economic changes, internationally, Liberia was a founding member of the League of Nations, United Nations and the Organisation of African Unity. Five years of rule by the Peoples Redemption Council and five years of civilian rule by the National Democratic Party of Liberia were followed by the First. These resulted in the deaths and displacement of more than half a million people, a peace agreement in 2003 led to democratic elections in 2005. Recovery proceeds but about 85% of the population live below the poverty line. The Pepper Coast, also known as the Grain Coast, has been inhabited by peoples of Africa at least as far back as the 12th century. Mende-speaking people expanded westward from the Sudan, forcing many smaller ethnic groups southward toward the Atlantic Ocean, the Dei, Bassa, Kru, Gola and Kissi were some of the earliest documented peoples in the area. This influx was compounded by the decline of the Western Sudanic Mali Empire in 1375, additionally, as inland regions underwent desertification, inhabitants moved to the wetter coast. These new inhabitants brought skills such as spinning, cloth weaving, iron smelting, rice and sorghum cultivation. Shortly after the Mane conquered the region, the Vai people of the former Mali Empire immigrated into the Grand Cape Mount County region, the ethnic Kru opposed the influx of Vai, forming an alliance with the Mane to stop further influx of Vai. People along the coast built canoes and traded with other West Africans from Cap-Vert to the Gold Coast, arab traders entered the region from the north, and a long-established slave trade took captives to north and east Africa
6.
Central bank
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A central bank, reserve bank, or monetary authority is an institution that manages a states currency, money supply, and interest rates. Central banks also usually oversee the commercial banking system of their respective countries, Central banks in most developed nations are institutionally designed to be independent from political interference. Still, limited control by the executive and legislative bodies usually exists, prior to the 17th century most money was commodity money, typically gold or silver. However, promises to pay were widely circulated and accepted as value at least five hundred years earlier in both Europe and Asia. The Song dynasty was the first to issue generally circulating paper currency, in 1455, in an effort to control inflation, the succeeding Ming Dynasty ended the use of paper money and closed much of Chinese trade. The Bank of Amsterdam, established in the Dutch Republic in 1609, is considered to be the forerunner to modern central banks. The Wisselbanks innovations helped lay the foundations for the birth and development of the banking system that now plays a vital role in the worlds economy. Along with a number of local banks, it performed many functions of a central banking system. Lucien Gillard calls it the European guilder, and Adam Smith devotes many pages to explaining how the bank guilder works, the model of the Wisselbank as a state bank was adapted throughout Europe, including the Bank of Sweden and the Bank of England. Established by Dutch-Latvian Johan Palmstruch in 1668, Sveriges Riksbank is often considered by many as the worlds oldest central bank, the lenders would give the government cash and also issue notes against the government bonds, which could be lent again. A Royal Charter was granted on 27 July through the passage of the Tonnage Act 1694, the bank was given exclusive possession of the governments balances, and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue banknotes. The £1. 2M was raised in 12 days, half of this was used to rebuild the Navy and these modern central banking functions evolved slowly through the 18th and 19th centuries. The currency crisis of 1797, caused by panicked depositors withdrawing from the Bank led to the government suspending convertibility of notes into specie payment. The bank was accused by the bullionists of causing the exchange rate to fall from over issuing banknotes. Nevertheless, it was clear that the Bank was being treated as an organ of the state, henry Thornton, a merchant banker and monetary theorist has been described as the father of the modern central bank. An opponent of the real bills doctrine, he was a defender of the bullionist position, thorntons process of monetary expansion anticipated the theories of Knut Wicksell regarding the cumulative process which restates the Quantity Theory in a theoretically coherent form. Until the mid-nineteenth century, commercial banks were able to issue their own banknotes, many consider the origins of the central bank to lie with the passage of the Bank Charter Act of 1844. Under this law, authorisation to issue new banknotes was restricted to the Bank of England, at the same time, the Bank of England was restricted to issue new banknotes only if they were 100% backed by gold or up to £14 million in government debt
7.
Central Bank of Liberia
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The Central Bank of Liberia is Liberias central bank. Its current executive governor is Mr. Milton Alvin Weeks, the offices of the bank are located in Monrovia, the capital of Liberia. The bank is engaged in developing policies to promote inclusion and is a member of the Alliance for Financial Inclusion. Before the year 2000, Liberias central bank was the National Bank of Liberia, the first executive governor of the CBL was Mr Elie E Saleeby. Economy of Liberia Liberian dollar List of banks in Liberia Africa, Central banks and currencies of Africa Central Bank of Liberia official site
8.
Currency code
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The ISO4217 code list is used in banking and business globally. ISO4217 codes are used on tickets and international train tickets to remove any ambiguity about the price. The first two letters of the code are the two letters of the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country codes and the third is usually the initial of the currency itself, so Japans currency code is JPY—JP for Japan and Y for yen. This eliminates the problem caused by the dollar, franc, peso and pound being used in dozens of different countries. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency codes last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. Other changes can be seen, however, the Russian ruble, for example, changed from RUR to RUB and these currency units are denominated as one troy ounce of the specified metal as opposed to USD1 or EUR1. The code XTS is reserved for use in testing, the code XXX is used to denote a transaction involving no currency. There are also codes specifying certain monetary instruments used in international finance, the codes for most supranational currencies, such as the East Caribbean dollar, the CFP franc, the CFA franc BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO. The predecessor to the euro, the European Currency Unit, had the code XEU, the use of an initial letter X for these purposes is facilitated by the ISO3166 rule that no official country code beginning with X will ever be assigned. Because of this rule ISO4217 can use X codes without risk of clashing with a country code. ISO3166 country codes beginning with X are used for private custom use, consequently, ISO4217 can use X codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes. The inclusion of EU in the ISO 3166-1 reserved codes list, the ISO4217 standard includes a crude mechanism for expressing the relationship between a major currency unit and its corresponding minor currency unit. This mechanism is called the exponent and assumes a base of 10. For example, USD is equal to 100 of its currency unit the cent. So the USD has exponent 2, the code JPY is given the exponent 0, because its minor unit, the sen, although nominally valued at 1/100 of a yen, is of such negligible value that it is no longer used. Usually, as with the USD, the currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but in some cases 1/1000 is used. Mauritania does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 ouguiya equal to 5 khoums, some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all and these are given an exponent of 0, as with currencies whose minor units are unused due to negligible value. There is also a code number assigned to each currency
9.
Currency
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A currency in the most specific use of the word refers to money in any form when in actual use or circulation as a medium of exchange, especially circulating banknotes and coins. A more general definition is that a currency is a system of money in common use, under this definition, US dollars, British pounds, Australian dollars, and European euros are examples of currency. These various currencies are recognized stores of value and are traded between nations in exchange markets, which determine the relative values of the different currencies. Currencies in this sense are defined by governments, and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance, other definitions of the term currency are discussed in their respective synonymous articles banknote, coin, and money. The latter definition, pertaining to the systems of nations, is the topic of this article. Currencies can be classified into two systems, fiat money and commodity money, depending on what guarantees the value. Some currencies are legal tender in certain jurisdictions, which means they cannot be refused as payment for debt. Others are simply traded for their economic value, digital currency has arisen with the popularity of computers and the Internet. Currency evolved from two basic innovations, both of which had occurred by 2000 BC, originally money was a form of receipt, representing grain stored in temple granaries in Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia, then Ancient Egypt. In this first stage of currency, metals were used as symbols to represent value stored in the form of commodities and this formed the basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years. Trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military and it is not known what was used as a currency for these exchanges, but it is thought that ox-hide shaped ingots of copper, produced in Cyprus, may have functioned as a currency. It is thought that the increase in piracy and raiding associated with the Bronze Age collapse, possibly produced by the Peoples of the Sea, brought the trading system of oxhide ingots to an end. In Africa, many forms of value store have been used, including beads, ingots, ivory, various forms of weapons, livestock, the manilla currency, the manilla rings of West Africa were one of the currencies used from the 15th century onwards to sell slaves. African currency is still notable for its variety, and in many various forms of barter still apply. These factors led to the metal itself being the store of value, first silver, now we have copper coins and other non-precious metals as coins. Metals were mined, weighed, and stamped into coins and this was to assure the individual taking the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal. Coins could be counterfeited, but they created a new unit of account. Most major economies using coinage had several tiers of coins, using a mix of copper, silver, gold coins were used for large purchases, payment of the military and backing of state activities, they were more often used as measures of account than physical coins
10.
Dollar
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Dollar is the name of more than twenty currencies, including those of the United States, Canada, Australia, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, New Zealand, Liberia, Jamaica and Namibia. Generally, one dollar is divided into one hundred cents, on 15 January 1520, the Czech Kingdom of Bohemia began minting coins from silver mined locally in Joachimsthal and marked on reverse with the Czech lion. The coins were called joachimsthaler, which became shortened in common usage to thaler or taler, the German name Joachimsthal literally means Joachims valley or Joachims dale. A later Dutch coin also depicting a lion was called the leeuwendaler or leeuwendaalder, the Dutch Republic produced these coins to accommodate its booming international trade. The leeuwendaler circulated throughout the Middle East and was imitated in several German and Italian cities and this coin was also popular in the Dutch East Indies and in the Dutch New Netherland Colony. It was in throughout the Thirteen Colonies during the 17th. The currencies of Romania and Bulgaria are, to this day, the modern American-English pronunciation of dollar is still remarkably close to the 17th century Dutch pronunciation of daler. Some well-worn examples circulating in the Colonies were known as dog dollars, Spanish pesos – having the same weight and shape – came to be known as Spanish dollars. By the time of the American Revolution, Spanish dollars gained significance because they backed paper money authorized by the individual colonies, common in the Thirteen Colonies, Spanish dollars were even legal tender in one colony, Virginia. On April 2,1792, U. S. Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton reported to Congress the precise amount of found in Spanish dollar coins in common use in the states. As a result, the United States dollar was defined as a unit of silver weighing 371 4/16th grains. It was specified that the money of account of the United States should be expressed in those same dollars or parts thereof, in an act passed in January 1837, the dollars alloy was set at 15%. Subsequent coins would contain the amount of pure silver as previously. On February 21,1853, the quantity of silver in the coins was reduced. However, the dollars constitutional meaning has remained unchanged through the years, silver was mostly removed from U. S. coinage by 1965 and the dollar became a free-floating fiat currency without a commodity backing defined in terms of real gold or silver. The US Mint continues to make silver $1-denomination coins, but these are not intended for general circulation, there are many quotes in the plays of William Shakespeare referring to dollars as money. This might be supported by a reference to the sum of ten dollars in Macbeth. In 1804, a British five-shilling piece, or crown, was sometimes called dollar and it was an overstruck Spanish eight real coin, the original of which was known as a Spanish dollar
11.
Fixed exchange-rate system
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There are benefits and risks to using a fixed exchange rate. In doing so, the rate between the currency and its peg does not change based on market conditions, the way floating currencies do. A fixed exchange-rate system can also be used as a means to control the behavior of a currency, however, in doing so, the pegged currency is then controlled by its reference value. In other words, a currency is dependent on its reference value to dictate how its current worth is defined at any given time. The central bank provides the assets and/or the foreign currency or currencies which are needed in order to any payments imbalances. In the 21st century, the associated with large economies typically do not fix or peg exchange rates to other currencies. The last large economy to use a fixed exchange system was the Peoples Republic of China which, in July 2005. The European Exchange Rate Mechanism is also used on a basis to establish a final conversion rate against the Euro from the local currencies of countries joining the Eurozone. The gold standard or gold standard of fixed exchange rates prevailed from about 1870 to 1914. The period between the two wars was transitory, with the Bretton Woods system emerging as the new fixed exchange rate regime in the aftermath of World War II. It was formed with an intent to rebuild war-ravaged nations after World War II through a series of currency stabilization programs, the early 1970s saw the breakdown of the system and its replacement by a mixture of fluctuating and fixed exchange rates. Timeline of the exchange rate system, The earliest establishment of a gold standard was in the United Kingdom in 1821 followed by Australia in 1852. Under this system, the value of all currencies was denominated in terms of gold with central banks ready to buy. Each central bank maintained gold reserves as their official reserve asset, for example, during the “classical” gold standard period, the U. S. dollar was defined as 0.048 troy oz. of pure gold. Following the Second World War, the Bretton Woods system replaced gold with the U. S. dollar as the reserve asset. The regime intended to combine binding legal obligations with multilateral decision-making through the International Monetary Fund, the rules of this system were set forth in the articles of agreement of the IMF and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. S. Dollar and to exchange rates within 1% of parity by intervening in their foreign exchange markets. In December 1971, the Smithsonian Agreement paved the way for the increase in the value of the price of gold from US$35.50 to US$38 an ounce
12.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
13.
British West African pound
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The British West African Pound was once the currency of British West Africa, a group of British colonies, protectorates and mandate territories. It was equal to the pound sterling and was subdivided into 20 shillings. In the 19th century, the pound sterling became the currency of the British West African territories, the West African territories in question were Nigeria, the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone and The Gambia. In 1912, the authorities in London set up the West African Currency Board, the circumstance prompting this move was a tendency for existing UK coins used in the West African territories to leave the region and return to the UK, hence causing a local dearth of coinage. A unique British West African variety of the coinage would not be accepted in the shops of Britain. Australian authorities issued local coinage as a step towards full nationhood, the British West African pound was also adopted by Liberia in 1907, replacing the Liberian dollar, although it was not served by the West African Currency Board. Liberia changed to the U. S. dollar in 1943, togo and Cameroon adopted the West African currency in 1914 and 1916 respectively, when British and French troops took over those colonies from Germany as part of World War I. Beginning in 1958, the British West African pound was replaced by local currencies in the individual territories, the replacements were, In 1907, aluminium 1⁄10 penny and cupro-nickel 1 penny coins were introduced. In 1908, cupro-nickel replaced aluminium in the penny and, in 1911, holed. In 1913, silver 3 and 6 pence,1 and 2 shillings were introduced, in 1920, brass replaced silver in these denominations. In 1938, larger, cupro-nickel 3 pence coins were introduced, in 1952, bronze replaced cupro-nickel in the 1⁄10, ½ and 1 penny coins. The last coins of British West Africa were struck in 1958, in 1916, the West African Currency Board introduced notes for 2,10 and 20 shillings, followed by 1 shilling notes in 1918. Only the 10 and 20 shillings notes were issued after 1918, the last notes were produced in 1962. Gambian pound Ghanaian pound Gold Coast ackey Nigerian pound West African Monetary Zone Economic Community of West African States References Sources
14.
Pound sterling
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It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
15.
J. J. Roberts
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Joseph Jenkins Roberts was the first and seventh President of Liberia. Born free in Norfolk, Virginia, US, Roberts emigrated to Liberia in 1829 as a young man and he opened a trading store in Monrovia, and later engaged in politics. When Liberia became independent in July 26,1847, Roberts was elected the first Black American president for the Republic of Liberia, in 1872 he was elected again to serve as Liberias seventh president. Roberts was born free in Norfolk, Virginia, the second-oldest of seven children and his father was said to be a planter of Welsh origin. Josephs mother Amelia, described as a mulatto who was quite fair, was the planters slave mistress or concubine and he freed Amelia and her children when she was still young. Amelia gave all of her children but one the name of Jenkins. Once free, Amelia married James Roberts, a free black, Roberts gave her children his surname and raised them as his own. Roberts owned a business on the James River. By the time of his death, he had acquired wealth for an African-American of those times. Joseph Roberts and his siblings by the planter, were estimated to be seven-eighths European ancestry, as the Liberian historian Abayomi Karnga noted in 1926, He was not really black, he was an octoroon and could have easily passed for a white man. As a boy, Joseph began to work in his stepfathers business, the family moved to Petersburg, which was an industrial city. Shortly after relocating, his stepfather James Roberts died, Joseph continued to work in his familys business, but also served as an apprentice in a barber shop. The owner of the shop, William Colson, was also a minister. He gave Roberts access to his library, which provided much of the youths early education. In 1828 Roberts married an 18-year-old woman named Sarah and they had an infant child whom they took with them when they emigrated to Liberia, under the auspices of the American Colonization Society. Both Sarah and the child died in the first year of living in the colony, some time after his wifes death, Roberts married again, to Jane Rose Waring. She was a daughter of Colston Waring and Harriet Graves, Virginians who had migrated to the colony. After hearing of the plans of the American Colonization Society to colonize the African coast at Cape Mesurado near modern-day Monrovia, the restrictions in Virginia on free Negroes played an important part in his decision
16.
Charles Taylor (Liberian politician)
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Charles McArthur Ghankay Taylor is a former Liberian politician who was the 22nd President of Liberia, serving from 2 August 1997 until his resignation on 11 August 2003. Born in Arthington, Montserrado County, Liberia, Taylor earned a degree at Bentley College in the United States before returning to Liberia to work in the government of Samuel Doe. After being removed for embezzlement, he arrived in Libya. He returned to Liberia in 1989 as the head of a Libyan-backed rebel group, following Does execution, Taylor gained control of a large portion of the country and became one of the most prominent warlords in Africa. Following a peace deal ended the war, Taylor was elected president in the 1997 general election. During his term of office, Taylor was accused of war crimes and crimes against humanity as a result of his involvement in the Sierra Leone Civil War, domestically, opposition to his regime grew, culminating in the outbreak of the Second Liberian Civil War. By 2003, Taylor had lost control of much of the countryside and was indicted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone. That year, he resigned, as a result of growing international pressure, in 2006, the newly elected President, Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, formally requested his extradition. He was detained by UN authorities in Sierra Leone and then at the Penitentiary Institution Haaglanden in The Hague and he was found guilty in April 2012 of all eleven charges levied by the Special Court, including terror, murder and rape. In May 2012, Taylor was sentenced to 50 years in prison, Taylor was born in Arthington, a town near the capital of Monrovia, Liberia, on 28 January 1948, to Nelson and Bernice Taylor. He took the name Ghankay later on, possibly to please and his mother was a member of the Gola ethnic group, part of the 95% of the people who are indigenous to Liberia. According to most reports, his father was an Americo-Liberian who worked as a teacher, sharecropper, lawyer, in 1977, Taylor earned a degree at Bentley College in Waltham, Massachusetts, United States. Taylor supported the 12 April 1980 coup led by Samuel Doe, Taylor was appointed to the position of Director General of the General Services Agency, a position that left him in charge of purchasing for the Liberian government. He was sacked in May 1983 for embezzling an estimated $1,000,000, citing a fear of assassination by Liberian agents, Taylor fought extradition from the safety of jail with the help of a legal team led by former US Attorney General Ramsey Clark. In response, Assistant United States Attorney Richard G. Stearns arguments were reinforced by Liberian Justice Minister Jenkins Scott, while awaiting the conclusion of the extradition hearing, Taylor was detained in the Plymouth County Correctional Facility. On 15 September 1985, Taylor and four inmates escaped from the jail. Shortly thereafter, Taylor and two escapees were met at nearby Jordan Hospital by Taylors wife, Enid, and Taylors sister-in-law. They drove a car to Staten Island in New York
17.
Red
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Red is the color at the longer-wavelengths end of the spectrum of visible light next to orange, at the opposite end from violet. Red color has a predominant light wavelength of roughly 620–740 nanometers, light with a longer wavelength than red but shorter than terahertz radiation and microwave is called infrared. Red is one of the secondary colors, resulting from the combination of yellow. Traditionally, it was viewed as a primary colour, along with yellow and blue, in the RYB color space and traditional color wheel formerly used by painters. Reds can vary in shade from light pink to very dark maroon or burgundy. Red is the color of cyan. In nature, the red color of blood comes from hemoglobin, the red color of the Grand Canyon and other geological features is caused by hematite or red ochre, both forms of iron oxide. It also causes the red color of the planet Mars, the color of autumn leaves is caused by pigments called anthocyanins, which are produced towards the end of summer, when the green chlorophyll is no longer produced. One to two percent of the population has red hair, the color is produced by high levels of the reddish pigment pheomelanin. Since red is the color of blood, it has historically been associated with sacrifice, danger, modern surveys in the United States and Europe show red is also the color most commonly associated with heat, activity, passion, sexuality, anger, love and joy. In China, India and many other Asian countries it is the color of symbolizing happiness, since the 19th century, red has also been associated with socialism and communism. The word red is derived from the Old English rēad, the word can be further traced to the Proto-Germanic rauthaz and the Proto-Indo European root rewdʰ-. In Sanskrit, the word means red or blood. In the Akkadian language of Ancient Mesopotamia and in the modern Inuit language of Inuit, the words for colored in Latin and Spanish both also mean red. In Portuguese the word for red is vermelho, which comes from Latin vermiculus, in the Russian language, the word for red, Кра́сный, comes from the same old Slavic root as the words for beautiful—красивый and excellent—прекрасный. Thus Red Square in Moscow, named long before the Russian Revolution, in heraldry, the word gules is used for red. Red can vary in hue from orange-red to violet-red, and for each hue there is a variety of shades and tints. Red hematite powder was found scattered around the remains at a grave site in a Zhoukoudian cave complex near Beijing
18.
Edward James Roye
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Edward James Roye served as the fifth President of Liberia from 1870 to his overthrow in 1871 and subsequent violent death. He had previously served as the 4th Chief Justice of Liberia from 1865 until 1868 and he was the first member of Liberias True Whig Party to serve as President. Born into a prosperous African American family in Newark, Ohio and his father, John Roye, managed a ferry across the Wabash River at Terre Haute, Indiana and acquired considerable land in Terre Haute as well as Vandalia in the neighboring state of Illinois. As a result of the financial standing, young Edward was able to attend Ohio University in neighboring Athens. In 1846, attracted by the American Colonization Society, Roye immigrated to Liberia, within three years of his arrival, he became active in Liberian politics. Before being elected president he served as Speaker of the Liberian House of Representatives, Roye was inaugurated as President of Liberia on January 3,1870. The decades after 1868, escalating economic difficulties weakened the dominance over the coastal indigenous population. Conditions worsened, the cost of imports was far greater than the income generated by exports of coffee, rice, palm oil, sugarcane, Liberia tried desperately to modernize its largely agricultural economy. As Roye took office, the country was in the midst of political instability exacerbated by a fiscal crisis, Roye began a program of reconstruction with the intention to build new roads and schools. In order to raise the funds for projects, Roye sailed to England where he began negotiations with London banks. The terms of the loans were severe, among other things, Roye hastily agreed to the loans without consulting the legislature. Liberia actually received approximately $90,000, while bonds were issued for $400,000, recession forced Liberia into a series of ever larger loans. The decline of Liberias exports and its inability to pay its debts resulted in a measure of foreign interference. In 1871, Roye tasked the Speaker of the House of Representatives, William Spencer Anderson, Anderson secured $500,000 under strict terms from the British consul-general, David Chinery, but was heavily criticised, and was eventually arrested. Anderson was apparently tried the following year for his part in securing the loan and he was found not guilty, but was shot to death while leaving the courthouse. No specific historical record is available detailing the date and circumstances of his death, another account suggests that he drowned while trying to reach a British ship in Monrovia harbor, on Feb.12,1872. A portrait of President Roye in the gallery of the Presidential Mansion in Monrovia gives the date of his death as February 11. History of Liberia see History of Liberia, further reading Brief biographical sketch of Edward James Roye along with a see also History of Liberia
19.
Rice
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Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima. As a cereal grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for a part of the worlds human population. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize, wild rice, from which the crop was developed, may have its native range in Australia. Chinese legends attribute the domestication of rice to Shennong, the emperor of China. Genetic evidence has shown that rice originates from a single domestication 8, previously, archaeological evidence had suggested that rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River valley region in China. From East Asia, rice was spread to Southeast and South Asia, Rice was introduced to Europe through Western Asia, and to the Americas through European colonization. There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferences tend to vary regionally, in some areas such as the Far East or Spain, there is a preference for softer and stickier varieties. Rice, a monocot, is grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial. The rice plant can grow to 1–1.8 m tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and it has long, slender leaves 50–100 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30–50 cm long, the edible seed is a grain 5–12 mm long and 2–3 mm thick. Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate. However, rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a hill or mountain area with the use of water-controlling terrace systems. Although its parent species are native to Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade, the traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the young seedlings. The name wild rice is used for species of the genera Zizania and Porteresia. The Greek word is the source of all European words, the origin of the Greek word is unclear. It is sometimes held to be from the Tamil word அரிசி, however, Krishnamurti disagrees with the notion that Old Tamil arici is the source of the Greek term, and proposes that it was borrowed from descendants of Proto-Dravidian *wariñci instead. The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-, medium-, the grains of long-grain rice tend to remain intact after cooking, medium-grain rice becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for dishes, for risotto in Italy
20.
Coat of arms of Liberia
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The coat of arms of Liberia consists of a shield containing a picture of 19th century ship arriving in Liberia. The ship symbolizes the ships brought the freed slaves from the United States to Liberia. The plow and the shovel represent the dignity of labor and hard work through which the nation will prosper, the rising sun in the background represents the birth of a nation. The palm tree, the nations most versatile source of food, the white dove with a scroll represents the breath of peace
21.
Blue
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Blue is the colour between violet and green on the optical spectrum of visible light. Human eyes perceive blue when observing light with a wavelength between 450 and 495 nanometres, which is between 4500 and 4950 ångströms. Blues with a frequency and thus a shorter wavelength gradually look more violet, while those with a lower frequency. Pure blue, in the middle, has a wavelength of 470 nanometers, in painting and traditional colour theory, blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments, along with red and yellow, which can be mixed to form a wide gamut of colours. Red and blue mixed together form violet, blue and yellow together form green, Blue is also a primary colour in the RGB colour model, used to create all the colours on the screen of a television or computer monitor. The clear sky and the sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. When sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the wavelengths are scattered more widely by the oxygen and nitrogen molecules. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering, similar to Rayleigh scattering, explains blue eyes, distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called atmospheric perspective. Blue has been used for art and decoration since ancient times and it is the most important color in Judaism. In the Middle Ages, cobalt blue was used to colour the stained glass windows of cathedrals, beginning in the 9th century, Chinese artists used cobalt to make fine blue and white porcelain. Blue dyes for clothing were made from woad in Europe and indigo in Asia, in 1828 a synthetic ultramarine pigment was developed, and synthetic blue dyes and pigments gradually replaced mineral pigments and vegetable dyes. Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Vincent van Gogh and other late 19th century painters used ultramarine and cobalt blue not just to depict nature, in the late 18th century and 19th century, blue became a popular colour for military uniforms and police uniforms. In the 20th century, because blue was associated with harmony, it was chosen as the colour of the flags of the United Nations. Surveys in the US and Europe show that blue is the colour most commonly associated with harmony, faithfulness, confidence, distance, infinity, the imagination, cold, and sometimes with sadness. In US and European public opinion polls it is the most popular colour, Blue is the colour of light between violet and green on the visible spectrum. Blues also vary in shade or tint, darker shades of blue contain black or grey, darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and Prussian blue, while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and Egyptian blue. Today most blue pigments and dyes are made by a chemical process, the modern English word blue comes from Middle English bleu or blewe, from the Old French bleu, a word of Germanic origin, related to the Old High German word blao. In heraldry, the azure is used for blue
22.
Joseph Jenkins Roberts
–
Joseph Jenkins Roberts was the first and seventh President of Liberia. Born free in Norfolk, Virginia, US, Roberts emigrated to Liberia in 1829 as a young man and he opened a trading store in Monrovia, and later engaged in politics. When Liberia became independent in July 26,1847, Roberts was elected the first Black American president for the Republic of Liberia, in 1872 he was elected again to serve as Liberias seventh president. Roberts was born free in Norfolk, Virginia, the second-oldest of seven children and his father was said to be a planter of Welsh origin. Josephs mother Amelia, described as a mulatto who was quite fair, was the planters slave mistress or concubine and he freed Amelia and her children when she was still young. Amelia gave all of her children but one the name of Jenkins. Once free, Amelia married James Roberts, a free black, Roberts gave her children his surname and raised them as his own. Roberts owned a business on the James River. By the time of his death, he had acquired wealth for an African-American of those times. Joseph Roberts and his siblings by the planter, were estimated to be seven-eighths European ancestry, as the Liberian historian Abayomi Karnga noted in 1926, He was not really black, he was an octoroon and could have easily passed for a white man. As a boy, Joseph began to work in his stepfathers business, the family moved to Petersburg, which was an industrial city. Shortly after relocating, his stepfather James Roberts died, Joseph continued to work in his familys business, but also served as an apprentice in a barber shop. The owner of the shop, William Colson, was also a minister. He gave Roberts access to his library, which provided much of the youths early education. In 1828 Roberts married an 18-year-old woman named Sarah and they had an infant child whom they took with them when they emigrated to Liberia, under the auspices of the American Colonization Society. Both Sarah and the child died in the first year of living in the colony, some time after his wifes death, Roberts married again, to Jane Rose Waring. She was a daughter of Colston Waring and Harriet Graves, Virginians who had migrated to the colony. After hearing of the plans of the American Colonization Society to colonize the African coast at Cape Mesurado near modern-day Monrovia, the restrictions in Virginia on free Negroes played an important part in his decision
23.
Rubber tapping
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Rubber tapping is the process by which the latex is collected from a rubber tree. An incision is made in the bark, which cuts through the latex vessels. Timing of the incision must be planned within the cycle to optimise the latex yield. Rubber tapping is an environmentally attractive land use, jungle rubber is essentially old secondary forest, strongly resembling the primary forest. Its species richness is about half that of the primary forest, thiollay estimated that jungle rubber supports about 137 bird species, against 241 in the primary forest itself. Jungle rubber is expected to resemble primary forest in its hydrological functions, monoculture rubber tree plantations have far less of an environmental impact than other crops, such as coffee or especially oil palm. Each night a rubber tapper must remove a layer of bark along a downward half spiral on the tree trunk. If done carefully and with skill, this tapping panel will yield latex for up to five years, then the opposite side will be tapped, allowing this side to heal over. The spiral allows the latex to run down to a collecting cup, the work is done at night or in the early morning before the days temperature rises, so the latex will drip longer before coagulating and sealing the cut. Depending on the product, additional chemicals can be added to the latex cup to preserve the latex longer. Ammonia solution helps prevent natural coagulation and allows the latex to remain in its liquid state, plastic bags containing a coagulant have replaced cups in many plantations in Malaysia. This form of latex is used as the raw material for latex concentrate, naturally coagulated latex, sometimes referred to as cup lump, is collected for processing into block rubbers, which are referred to as technically specified rubbers. The serum left after latex coagulation is rich in quebrachitol, a cyclitol or cyclic polyol, in information technology the term Rubber tapping is sometimes used as a lampoon for planned Production deployments, where the timing of the deployment is crucial. Such deployments are generally done late in the night when customer activity is minimum, for high availability information technology services such as data centres, telecommunications, Internet service providers etc. A time period is stated in advance to the customer to prepare for any possible service disruption to bring any change to the service. Such a disclosure is typically guaranteed as part of a service level agreement, a maintenance window is scheduled between 02,00 AM to 06,00 AM which is the possible low traffic and customer usage time frame. Natural rubber Forestry Maple syrup Chico Mendes The Rubber Tapping Process Extraction of Rubber on YouTube
24.
Brown
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In the CMYK color model used in printing or painting, brown is made by combining red, black, and yellow, or red, yellow, and blue. In the RGB color model used to project colors onto television screens and computer monitors, brown is made by combining red and green, the brown color is seen widely in nature, in wood, soil, human hair color, eye color and skin pigmentation. Brown is the color of wood or rich soil. According to public opinion surveys in Europe and the United States, brown is the least favorite color of the public, the color most often associated with plainness, the rustic, the term is from Old English brún, in origin for any dusky or dark shade of color. The first recorded use of brown as a name in English was in 1000. The Common Germanic adjective *brûnoz, *brûnâ meant both dark colors and a glistening or shining quality, whence burnish, the current meaning developed in Middle English from the 14th century. In Southeast Asia, the name often comes from chocolate, coklat in Malay. In Japan, the word means the color of tea. Brown has been used in art since prehistoric times, paintings using umber, a natural clay pigment composed of iron oxide and manganese oxide, have been dated to 40,000 BC. Paintings of brown horses and other animals have found on the walls of the Lascaux cave dating back about 17,300 years. The female figures in ancient Egyptian tomb paintings have brown skin, light tan was often used on painted Greek amphorae and vases, either as a background for black figures, or the reverse. The Ancient Greeks and Romans produced a fine reddish-brown ink, of a color called sepia and this ink was used by Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and other artists during the Renaissance, and by artists up until the present time. In Ancient Rome, brown clothing was associated with the classes or barbarians. The term for the plebeians, or urban poor, was pullati, in the Middle Ages brown robes were worn by monks of the Franciscan order, as a sign of their humility and poverty. Each social class was expected to wear a color suitable to their station, russet was a coarse homespun cloth made of wool and dyed with woad and madder to give it a subdued grey or brown shade. By the statute of 1363, poor English people were required to wear russet, the medieval poem Piers Plowman describes the virtuous Christian, And is gladde of a goune of a graye russet As of a tunicle of Tarse or of trye scarlet. The umbers were not widely used in Europe before the end of the fifteenth century, artists began using far greater use of browns when oil painting arrived in the late fifteenth century. In Northern Europe, Jan van Eyck featured rich earth browns in his portraits to set off the brighter colors, the 17th and 18th century saw the greatest use of brown
25.
William Tubman
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William Vacanarat Shadrach Tubman was a Liberian politician. He was the 19th President of Liberia, serving from his election in 1944 until his death in 1971, Tubman is regarded as the father of modern Liberia, his presidency was marked by attracting sufficient foreign investment to modernize the economy and infrastructure. During his tenure, Liberia experienced a period of prosperity and he also led a policy of national unity in order to reduce the social and political differences between his fellow Americo-Liberians and the indigenous Liberians. William Tubman was born November 29,1895, in Harper, Tubmans father, the Reverend Alexander Tubman, was a stonemason, general in the Liberian army, and a former Speaker of the Liberian House of Representatives, as well as a Methodist preacher. A strict disciplinarian, he required his five children to attend daily family prayer services and sleep on the floor because he thought beds were too soft, Tubmans mother, Elizabeth Rebecca Tubman, was from Atlanta, Georgia. Emily Tubman was instrumental in the manumission of enslaved African Americans, initially, she had great difficulty freeing her slaves in ante-bellum Georgia. Despite appeals to the Georgia State Legislature and financial donations to the University of Georgia, Tubman sought the help of her friend and mentor, Henry Clay of Kentucky, president of the American Colonization Society. This organization, made up of abolitionists and slaveholders, had proposed colonization in Africa as a solution for freedmen, rather than allowing them to remain in the United States. Their presence was considered to unsettle slaves in the South, Clay assured her that sending her former slaves to Liberia would be a safe and suitable option. After arriving in Liberia, this group of freedmen took Tubman as their surname and they named their community Tubman Hill after their benefactress. Tubman, the son, went to primary school in Harper, followed by the Methodist Cape Palmas Seminary. Beginning at age 15 in 1910, he participated in military operations within the country through 1917. Planning to become a preacher, at age 19 Tubman was named as a Methodist lay pastor, after studying law under various private tutors, he passed the bar examination and became a lawyer in 1917. Tubman was soon appointed as a recorder in the Maryland County Monthly and Probate Court a tax collector, teacher and he joined Freemason lodges of the Prince Hall Freemasonry, a fraternal organization established by African Americans after being excluded from the Freemasons. Having joined the True Whig Party, the dominant party of Liberia since 1878, in 1923, aged 28, he was elected to the Senate of Liberia from Maryland County, holding the record as the youngest senator in the history of Liberia. Re-elected as senator in 1929, Tubman became the adviser to vice president Allen Yancy. He resigned from the Senate in 1931 to defend Liberia before the League of Nations amid allegations that his country was using slave labor, an official biography speculates that Barclay appointed Tubman to the Liberian Supreme Court to remove him as a competitor for the presidency. In December 1942, Liberia had to elect a successor to President Edwin Barclay, six candidates ran for office, the two favorites were Tubman and Foreign Minister Clarence L. Simpson
26.
Scooter (motorcycle)
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A scooter or motor scooter is a motorcycle with step-through frame and a platform for the riders feet. Elements of scooter design have been present in some of the earliest motorcycles, Scooter development continued in Europe and the United States between the World Wars. The global popularity of scooters dates from the post-World War II introductions of the Vespa and these scooters were intended to provide low-power personal transportation. The original layout is widely used in this application. Maxi-scooters, with engines from 250 to 850 cc have been developed for Western markets, scooters are popular for personal transport, partly due to being cheap to buy, easy to operate and convenient to park and store. Licensing requirements for scooters are easier and cheaper than for cars in most parts of the world, a motor scooter is a motorcycle similar to a kick scooter with a seat, a floorboard, and small or low wheels. The United States Department of Transportation defines a scooter as a motorcycle that has a platform for the feet or has integrated footrests. The classic scooter design features a frame and a flat floorboard for the riders feet. This design is possible because most scooter engines and drive systems are attached to the axle or under the seat. Scooters usually feature bodywork, including a front leg shield and body that conceals all or most of the mechanicals, there is often some integral storage space, either under the seat, built into the front leg shield, or both. Scooters have varying engine displacements and configurations ranging from 50 cc single-cylinder to 850 cc twin-cylinder models, some scooters carry a spare wheel. Many recent scooters use conventional front forks with the front axle fastened at both ends, most jurisdictions do not differentiate between scooters and motorcycles. For all legal purposes in the United States of America, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration recommends using the motorcycle for all of these vehicles. However, while NHTSA excludes the term motor scooter from legal definition, it proceeds, in the same document, the emissions of mopeds and scooters have been the subject of multiple studies. In the same study, four-stroke mopeds, with and without catalytic converters, approximate parity with automobiles was achieved with NOx emissions in these studies. Emissions performance was tested on a basis and was unaffected by fuel economy. Scooter-like traits began to develop in motorcycle designs around the 1900s, in 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller produced the first motorcycle that was available for purchase. Their motorcycle had a frame, with its fuel tank mounted on the down tube, its parallel two-cylinder engine mounted low on the frame
27.
Purple
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Purple is a color intermediate between blue and red. It is similar to violet, but unlike violet, which is a color with its own wavelength on the visible spectrum of light, purple is a composite color made by combining red. According to surveys In Europe and the U. S. purple is the color most often associated with royalty, magic, mystery, when combined with pink, it is associated with eroticism, femininity and seduction. Purple was the color worn by Roman magistrates, it became the color worn by the rulers of the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Roman Empire. Similarly in Japan, the color is associated with the Emperor. The complementary color of purple is yellow, the first recorded use of the word purple in the English language was in the year 975 AD. In heraldry, the word purpure is used for purple, in the traditional color wheel used by painters, violet and purple are both placed between red and blue. Purple occupies the space closer to red, between crimson and violet, violet is closer to blue, and is usually less saturated than purple. While the two look similar, from the point of view of optics there are important differences. There is no such thing as the wavelength of purple light, monochromatic violet light cannot be produced by the red-green-blue color system, the method used to create colors on a television screen or computer display. This means that when light strikes the eye, the S-cone should be stimulated strongly. The resulting color has the same hue as pure violet, however, one curious psychophysical difference between purple and violet is their appearance with an increase in luminance. Violet, as it brightens, looks more and more blue, the same effect does not happen with purple. This is the result of what is known as the Bezold–Brücke shift, while the scientific definitions of violet and purple are clear, the cultural definitions are more varied. The color known in antiquity as Tyrian purple ranged from crimson to a deep bluish-purple, in France, purple is defined as a dark red, inclined toward violet. The color called purple by the French, pourpre, contains red and half the amount of blue of the color called purple in the United States. In German, this color is sometimes called Purpurrot to avoid confusion, Purple first appeared in prehistoric art during the Neolithic era. These works have been dated to between 16,000 and 25,000 BC, as early as the 15th century BC the citizens of Sidon and Tyre, two cities on the coast of Ancient Phoenicia, were producing purple dye from a sea snail called the spiny dye-murex
28.
Samuel Doe
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Samuel Kanyon Doe was a Liberian politician who served as the leader of Liberia from 1980 to 1990. Doe disbanded the constitution and headed the military junta for the next five years. In 1985 he ordered an election and officially became the 21st President of Liberia, the election was marked by controversy as there was evidence of election fraud. Doe, a member of the Krahn tribe from inland Liberia, was the first indigenous head of state in Liberian history and his people are a largely rural minority ethnic group and indigenous, like 95% of Liberians. Historically indigenous Liberians had been marginalized in the society developed by the group known as the Americo-Liberians, made up of immigrants. They were descended from the free-born and formerly enslaved people, primarily from the United States. Doe opened Liberian ports to Canadian, Chinese and European ships and this brought in considerable foreign investment from foreign shipping firms and earned Liberia a reputation as a tax haven. Doe attempted to legitimize his regime with passage of a new constitution in 1984, however, opposition to his rule increased, especially after the 1985 elections, which were declared to be fraudulent by most foreign observers. For political reasons, the US continued to support him and it began cutting off critical foreign aid to Doe. This, combined with the popular anger generated by Does favoritism toward his native Krahn tribe, a civil war began in December 1989, when rebels entered Liberia through Ivory Coast with the intent of capturing Doe. He was captured and overthrown on 9 September 1990 and he was tortured during interrogation and executed. On May 6,1951 Doe was born in Tuzon, an inland village in Grand Gedeh County. His family belonged to the Krahn people, a minority indigenous group important in this area, at the age of sixteen, Doe finished elementary school and enrolled at a Baptist junior high school in Zwedru. Two years later, he enlisted in the Armed Forces of Liberia, hoping thereby to obtain a scholarship to a school in Kakata. Over the next ten years, he was assigned to a range of duty stations, including education at a military school and he finally completed high school by correspondence. Doe was promoted to the grade of Master sergeant on 11 October 1979 and made an administrator for the Third Battalion in Monrovia, which position he occupied for eleven months. Commanding a group of Krahn soldiers, Master Sergeant Samuel Doe led a coup on 12 April 1980 by attacking the Liberian Executive Mansion and killing President William R. Tolbert. His forces killed another 26 of Tolberts supporters in the fighting, thirteen members of the Cabinet were publicly executed ten days later
29.
Arecaceae
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The Arecaceae are a botanical family of perennial climbers, shrubs, acaules and trees commonly known as palm trees. They are flowering plants, a family in the monocot order Arecales, currently 181 genera with around 2600 species are known, most of them restricted to tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate climates. Most palms are distinguished by their large, compound, evergreen leaves, known as fronds, however, palms exhibit an enormous diversity in physical characteristics and inhabit nearly every type of habitat within their range, from rainforests to deserts. Palms are among the best known and most extensively cultivated plant families and they have been important to humans throughout much of history. Many common products and foods are derived from palms, and palms are widely used in landscaping, making them one of the most economically important plants. In many historical cultures, palms were symbols for such ideas as victory, peace, for inhabitants of cooler climates today, palms symbolize the tropics and vacations. Whether as shrubs, trees, or vines, palms have two methods of growth, solitary or clustered, the common representation is that of a solitary shoot ending in a crown of leaves. This monopodial character may be exhibited by prostrate, trunkless, some common palms restricted to solitary growth include Washingtonia and Roystonea. Palms may instead grow in sparse though dense clusters, the trunk develops an axillary bud at a leaf node, usually near the base, from which a new shoot emerges. The new shoot, in turn, produces an axillary bud, exclusively sympodial genera include many of the rattans, Guihaia, and Rhapis. Several palm genera have both solitary and clustering members, Palms which are usually solitary may grow in clusters, and vice versa. These aberrations suggest the habit operates on a single gene, Palms have large, evergreen leaves that are either palmately or pinnately compound and spirally arranged at the top of the stem. The leaves have a sheath at the base that usually splits open on one side at maturity. The inflorescence is a spadix or spike surrounded by one or more bracts or spathes that become woody at maturity, the flowers are generally small and white, radially symmetric, and can be either uni- or bisexual. The sepals and petals usually number three each, and may be distinct or joined at the base, the stamens generally number six, with filaments that may be separate, attached to each other, or attached to the pistil at the base. The fruit is usually a single-seeded drupe but some genera may contain two or more seeds in each fruit, like all monocots, palms do not have the ability to increase the width of a stem via the same kind of vascular cambium found in non-monocot woody plants. This explains the shape of the trunk that is often seen in palms. The Arecaceae are notable among monocots for their height and for the size of their seeds, leaves, Ceroxylon quindiuense, Colombias national tree, is the tallest monocot in the world, reaching up to 60 m tall
30.
Green
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Green is the color between blue and yellow on the spectrum of visible light. It is evoked by light with a predominant wavelength of roughly 495–570 nm, the modern English word green comes from the Middle English and Anglo-Saxon word grene, from the same Germanic root as the words grass and grow. It is the color of living grass and leaves and as a result is the color most associated with springtime, growth, by far the largest contributor to green in nature is chlorophyll, the chemical by which plants photosynthesize and convert sunlight into chemical energy. Many creatures have adapted to their environments by taking on a green hue themselves as camouflage. Several minerals have a color, including the emerald, which is colored green by its chromium content. In surveys made in Europe and the United States, green is the color most commonly associated with nature, life, health, youth, spring, hope and envy. In Europe and the U. S. green is associated with death, sickness, or the devil. In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, when the color of clothing showed the social status, green was worn by merchants, bankers. The Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci wears green, showing she is not from a noble family, Green is also the traditional color of safety and permission, a green light means go ahead, a green card permits permanent residence in the United States. It is the most important color in Islam and it was the color of the banner of Muhammad, and is found in the flags of nearly all Islamic countries, and represents the lush vegetation of Paradise. It is also associated with the culture of Gaelic Ireland. Because of its association with nature, it is the color of the environmental movement, political groups advocating environmental protection and social justice describe themselves as part of the Green movement, some naming themselves Green parties. This has led to campaigns in advertising, as companies have sold green, or environmentally friendly. The word green comes from the Middle English and Old English word grene, which, like the German word grün, has the same root as the words grass and grow. It is from a Common Germanic *gronja-, which is reflected in Old Norse grænn, Old High German gruoni, ultimately from a PIE root *ghre- to grow. The first recorded use of the word as a term in Old English dates to ca. Latin with viridis also has a genuine and widely used term for green, related to virere to grow and ver spring, it gave rise to words in several Romance languages, French vert, Italian verde. Likewise the Slavic languages with zelenъ, Ancient Greek also had a term for yellowish, pale green – χλωρός, chloros, cognate with χλοερός verdant and χλόη the green of new growth
31.
William R. Tolbert Jr.
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William Richard Tolbert Jr. was the 20th President of Liberia from 1971 until 1980, when he was killed in a coup détat led by Samuel Doe. Trained as a servant, he entered the countrys House of Representatives in 1943 for the True Whig Party. He was elected Vice president to William Tubman in 1952 and served in that position until he became President following Tubmans death in 1971, Tolbert was born in Bensonville, Liberia. An Americo-Liberian, he was the grandson of a former American slave from South Carolina who emigrated to Liberia in the Liberian exodus of 1878, the Tolbert clan was one of the largest Americo-Liberian families in Liberia. He attended Bensonville Elementary School, Crummell Hall Episcopalian High School and he married Victoria A. Hoff, with whom he had eight children. Tolbert was first elected to the House of Representatives in 1943, a Baptist minister, in 1965 he became the first African to serve as president of the Baptist World Alliance, and was also a member of Phi Beta Sigma fraternity. He became Grand Master of the Masonic Order of Liberia, following Tubmans death in 1971, Tolbert succeeded him as president. To the outside world, this peaceful transition seemed to signal political stability in Liberia, however, Liberia was effectively a one-party state where civil liberties were limited and the judiciary and the legislative branches were subservient to the executive branch. Upon becoming president, Tolbert initiated some liberal reforms, because Tolbert was a member of one of the most influential and affluent Americo-Liberian families, everything from cabinet appointments to economic policy was tainted with allegations of nepotism. This initiative caused a deal of chagrin among Americo-Liberians who accused Tolbert of letting the peasants into the kitchen. Indeed, it lacked support within Tolberts own administration, while the indigenous majority felt the change was occurring too slowly, many Americo-Liberians felt it was too rapid. Despite following Tubmans 27-year presidency, Tolbert refused to follow his predecessors hold on office until death, I do not have to President to do so. Abandoning Tubmans strong pro-West foreign policy, Tolbert adopted one which focused on promoting Liberias political independence, to this end, he established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union, Peoples Republic of China, Cuba, and several other Eastern Bloc countries, thus adopting a more nonaligned posture. Tolbert severed Liberias ties with Israel during the Yom Kippur War in October 1973, however, Tolbert supported the United States on the Vietnam War, as had his predecessor, William Tubman. Tolbert was chairman of the Organisation of African Unity from July 1979 until he was killed in April 1980, throughout the seventies, the world price of rubber was depressed, putting pressure on the Liberian economy. Tolbert brought a new approach to the Liberian governments relations with foreign companies, companies such as Firestone, which had operated for years without being audited by the government, were audited, and forced to pay millions of dollars in back taxes. Old concession agreements were renegotiated, and new concession agreements were negotiated with an emphasis on accountability of the sector to the Liberian government. By the late 1970s, Tolbert became increasingly open to overtures of economic assistance from Libya, the Libyans were on the verge of starting work on a low-cost housing project in Monrovia when the project was halted by the 1980 coup détat
32.
Marketplace
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A market, or marketplace, is a location where people regularly gather for the purchase and sale of provisions, livestock, and other goods. In different parts of the world, a place may be described as a souk, bazaar. Some markets operate on most days, others may be once a week. The term, market comes from the Latin mercatus, the exact phrase was “Ic wille þæt markete beo in þe selue tun, ” which roughly translates as “I want to be at that market in the good town. ”Markets have existed since ancient times. Open air, public markets were known in ancient Babylonia and Assyria and these markets were typically situated in the towns centre where they were surrounded by alleyways occupied by skilled artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, in ancient Greece markets operated within the agora, and in ancient Rome the forum. In the Graeco-Roman world, the market primarily served the local peasantry. They would sell small surpluses from their farming activities, purchase minor farm equipment. Major producers such as the estates were sufficiently attractive for merchants to call directly at their farm-gates. The very wealthy landowners managed their own distribution, which may have involved exporting, the nature of export markets in antiquity is well documented in ancient sources and archaeological case studies. At Pompeii multiple markets served the population of approximately 12,000, produce markets were located in the vicinity of the Forum, while livestock markets were situated on the citys perimeter, near the amphitheatre. A long narrow building at the north-west corner of the Forum was some type of market, on the opposite corner stood the macellum, thought to have been a meat and fish market. Market stall-holders paid a tax for the right to trade on market days. Some archaeological evidence suggests that markets and street vendors were controlled by local government, a graffito on the outside of a large shop documents a seven-day cycle of markets, Saturn’s day at Pompeii and Nuceria, Sun’s day at Atella and Nola, Moon’s day at Cumae. etc. The presence of an official commercial calendar suggests something of the importance to community life. Markets were also important centres of social life, in early Western Europe, markets developed close to monasteries, castles or royal residences. Priories and aristocratic manorial households created considerable demand for goods and services - both luxuries and necessities and these centres of trade attracted sellers and would stimulate the growth of the town. A charter would protect trading privileges in return for an annual fee, from the 11th and 12th century, the number of markets and fairs burgeoned
33.
Violet (color)
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Violet is the color of amethyst, lavender and beautyberries. It takes its name from the violet flower, Violet is the color at the end of the visible spectrum of light between blue and the invisible ultraviolet. Violet color has a predominant light wavelength of roughly 380-450 nanometers, light with a shorter wavelength than violet but longer than X-rays and gamma rays is called ultraviolet. In the color wheel used by painters, it is located between blue and purple. This is not true violet, since it is composed of multiple longer wavelengths rather than a wavelength shorter than that of blue light. Violet and purple look very similar, but violet is a color, with its own set of wavelengths on the spectrum of visible light, while purple is a composite color, made by combining blue. In history, violet and purple have long associated with royalty and majesty. The emperors of Rome wore purple togas, as did the Byzantine emperors, during the Middle Ages violet was worn by bishops and university professors and was often used in art as the color of the robes of the Virgin Mary. According to surveys in Europe and the United States, violet is the people most often associate with extravagance and individualism, the unconventional, the artificial. In Chinese painting, the color represents the harmony of the universe because it is a combination of red. In Hinduism and Buddhism violet is associated with the Crown Chakra, from the Middle English and old French violette, and from the Latin viola, the names of the violet flower. The first recorded use of violet as a name in English was in 1370. Violet can also refer to the first violas which were painted a similar color. In the traditional color used by painters, violet and purple are both placed between red and blue. Purple occupies the space closer to red, between crimson and violet, Violet is closer to blue, and usually less intense and bright than purple. The range of purples is created by combining blue and red light of any intensities, Violet is one of the oldest colors used by man. It has also found in the cave of Altamira and Lascaux. It was sometimes used an alternative to black charcoal, sticks of manganese, used for drawing, have been found at sites occupied by Neanderthal man in France and Israel
34.
Hippopotamus
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The common hippopotamus, or hippo, is a large, mostly herbivorous mammal in sub-Saharan Africa, and one of only two extant species in the family Hippopotamidae, the other being the pygmy hippopotamus. The name comes from the ancient Greek for river horse, after the elephant and rhinoceros, the common hippopotamus is the third-largest type of land mammal and the heaviest extant artiodactyl. The common ancestor of whales and hippos split from other even-toed ungulates around 60 million years ago, the earliest known hippopotamus fossils, belonging to the genus Kenyapotamus in Africa, date to around 16 million years ago. Despite its stocky shape and short legs, it is capable of running 30 km/h over short distances, the hippopotamus is a highly aggressive and unpredictable animal and is ranked among the most dangerous animals in Africa. Nevertheless, they are threatened by habitat loss and poaching for their meat. The common hippopotamus is semiaquatic, inhabiting rivers, lakes and mangrove swamps, during the day, they remain cool by staying in the water or mud, reproduction and childbirth both occur in water. They emerge at dusk to graze on grasses, while hippopotamuses rest near each other in the water, grazing is a solitary activity and hippos are not territorial on land. The Latin word hippopotamus is derived from the ancient Greek ἱπποπόταμος, hippopotamos, from ἵππος, hippos, horse, in English, the plural is hippopotamuses, but hippopotami is also used, hippos can be used as a short plural. Hippopotamuses are gregarious, living in groups of up to thirty animals, a group is called a pod, herd, dale, or bloat. The hippopotamus is the genus of the family Hippopotamidae. The pygmy hippopotamus belongs to a different genus in Hippopotamidae, either Choeropsis or Hexaprotodon, Hippopotamidae are sometimes known as hippopotamids. Sometimes, the subfamily Hippopotaminae is used, further, some taxonomists group hippopotamuses and anthracotheres in the superfamily Anthracotheroidea. Hippopotamidae are classified along with other even-toed ungulates in the order Artiodactyla, other artiodactyls include camels, cattle, deer and pigs, although hippopotamuses are not closely related to these groups. Genetic analyses have tested the existence of three of these putative subspecies, a study examining mitochondrial DNA from skin biopsies taken from 13 sampling locations, considered genetic diversity and structure among hippo populations across the continent. The authors found low, but significant, genetic differentiation among H. a. amphibius, H. a. capensis, neither H. a. tschadensis nor H. a. constrictus has been tested. Until 1909, naturalists grouped hippos with pigs, based on molar patterns, the common ancestor of hippos and whales branched off from Ruminantia and the rest of the even-toed ungulates, the cetacean and hippo lineages split soon afterwards. The most recent theory of the origins of Hippopotamidae suggests that hippos and this hypothesized ancestral group likely split into two branches around 54 million years ago. All branches of the anthracotheres, except that which evolved into Hippopotamidae, merycopotamus, Libycosaurus and all hippopotamids can be considered to form a clade, with Libycosaurus being more closely related to hippos
35.
Economy of Liberia
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Liberia is one of the poorest countries in the world, and its economy is extremely underdeveloped, largely due to the First Liberian Civil War in 1989-96. The civil war destroyed much of Liberias economy, especially the infrastructure in, the war also caused a brain drain and the loss of capital, as the civil war involved overthrowing the Americo-Liberian minority that ruled the country. Some returned during 1997, but many have not, local manufacturing, such as it exists, is mainly foreign-owned. The Liberian economy had relied heavily on the mining of iron ore prior to the civil war, Liberia was a major exporter of iron ore on the world market. In the 1970s and 1980s, iron mining accounted for more than half of Liberias export earnings. Since the coup détat of 1980, the economic growth rate has slowed down because of a decline in the demand for iron ore on the world market. The United Nations imposed sanctions on Liberia in May 2001 for its support to the rebels of the Revolutionary United Front in neighboring Sierra Leone and these sanctions have been lifted following elections in 2005. In March 2010, Bob Johnson, founder of BET, funded the first hotel constructed in Liberia in 20 years, the 13-acre luxury resort was built in the Paynesville section of Monrovia. Liberias external debt was estimated in 2006 at approximately $4.5 billion, as a result of bilateral, multilateral and commercial debt relief from 2007 to 2010, the countrys external debt fell to $222.9 million by 2011. Liberias business sector is controlled by foreigners mainly of Lebanese. There also are limited numbers of Chinese engaged in agriculture, the largest timber concession, Oriental Timber Corporation, is Indonesian owned. There also are significant numbers of West Africans engaged in cross-border trade, legal monopolies are possible, for example, Cemenco holds a monopoly on cement production. Unlike almost all countries in the world, Liberia has not adopted the metric system as its primary system of measurement. Timber and rubber are Liberias main export items since the end of the war, Liberia earns more than $100 million and more than $70 million annually from timber and rubber exports, respectively. Alluvial diamond and gold mining activities also account for some economic activity, in recent years, foreign investment from ArcelorMittal Steel, BHP Biliton, and China Union is aiding the revitalization of the iron-ore mining sector. Liberia has begun exploration for oil, unproven oil reserves may be in excess of one billion barrels. The government divided its offshore waters into 17 blocks and began auctioning off exploration licenses for the blocks in 2004, an additional 13 ultra-deep offshore blocks were demarcated in 2011 and planned for auction. Among the companies to have won licenses are Repsol, Chevron, Anadarko, Liberia maintains an open maritime registry, meaning that owners of ships can register their vessels as Liberian with relatively few restrictions
36.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
37.
Standard Catalog of World Coins
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The Standard Catalog of World Coins is a series of numismatic catalogs, commonly known as the Krause catalogs. They are published by Krause Publications, a division of F+W Media, the by-century volumes list by date virtually every coin type, most of which are photographed, with mintage and other information, plus market valuations in up to 5 grades. Listings are by denomination rather than series, as in earlier World coin catalogs, the proprietary Krause-Mishler numbers are widely used, for just a few countries earlier systems such as Y and C numbers are given instead. The century format is considered inconvenient and expensive for those who collect geographically. Originally covering 1835 or so to date, the main catalog evolved into an annual 20th century-only work, plus separate 17th, 18th, beginning with the 34th ed, listings covering 2001 to date are included in a separate 21st Century catalog. Data from the volumes are collated together in special editions for Crowns, Gold, German. Fantasies and medallion issues, which do not appear in the catalogs, are covered in a publication called Unusual World Coins. There is also a publication called Collecting World Coins that includes only 20th-, list priced at $73 to $85 they are often discounted, and can be found in many public libraries. Older editions are steeply discounted even though revisions between editions in many areas are minimal, following the appearance of unlicensed DVD versions, DVDs were included with the 1601-1700 4th edition, the 1901-2000 36th edition, and possibly others, but are now sold as a separate product. George S. Cuhaj is the current editor, with Thomas Michael credited as market analyst, although Krause collate contributions from many collecting experts, coin catalog Standard Catalog of World Paper Money A Guide Book of United States Coins Piedfort Vcoins. com Krause Publications Numismaster. com
38.
History of Liberia
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In 1847, Liberia proclaimed its independence from the American Colonization Society. Liberia was under control and as protectorate of United States and it retained its independence throughout the Scramble for Africa by European colonial powers during the late 19th century, and the country remained in the American sphere of influence. Up until 1980, Liberia was dominated by the minority of descendants of the free black colonists. From the 1920s, the country dependent on exploitation of natural resources, particularly the rubber industry. Historians believe that many of the peoples of Liberia migrated there from the north. Portuguese explorers established contacts with people of the later known as Liberia as early as 1462. They named the area Costa da Pimentia or Grain Coast because of the abundance of melegueta pepper, in 1602 the Dutch established a trading post at Grand Cape Mount but destroyed it a year later. In 1663, the British installed trading posts on the Pepper Coast, no further known settlements by non-African colonists occurred along the Grain Coast until the arrival in 1821 of free blacks from the United States. From around 1800, in the United States, people opposed to slavery were planning ways to achieve manumission of slaves and, ultimately. At the same time, slaveholders in the South opposed having free blacks in their midst, while mostly freed across the North, former slaves and free blacks suffered considerable discrimination, and some territories and states in the Northwest prohibited migration by free people of color. Some abolitionists and slaveholders discussed the idea of setting up a colony in Africa as a place to relocate freed African-American slaves and they also tried to recruit colonists from among populations of free blacks and free people of color. Most opposed relocation, as they had been born and had claims to the United States, the first ship, Mayflower of Liberia, departed New York on February 6,1820, for West Africa carrying 86 settlers. Between 1821 and 1838, the American Colonization Society developed the first settlement, on July 26,1847, it declared its independence. As early as the period of the American Revolution, many members of American society thought that African Americans could not succeed in living in their society as free people. Thomas Jefferson was among those who proposed colonization in Africa, relocating free blacks outside the new nation, after 1783 the ranks of free blacks expanded markedly. Northern states abolished slavery, some on a schedule of gradual abolition that kept adults enslaved until the 1840s in New York, in addition, some slaveholders were inspired by the ideals of the Revolutionary War and freed their slaves, often by will at the owners death. The number of blacks increased markedly in the South, especially in the Upper South where changing agriculture reduced the need for slave labor. In addition, Quaker, Methodist and Baptist preachers were active in those years encouraging slaveholders to free their slaves, the Northeast states abolished slavery following the war, generally on a graduated basis where it was still economically viable, as in the mid-Atlantic states
39.
First Liberian Civil War
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The First Liberian Civil War was an internal conflict in Liberia from 1989 until 1997. The conflict killed over 600,000 people and eventually led to the involvement of the Economic Community of West African States, the peace did not last long, and in 1999 the Second Liberian Civil War broke out. Samuel Doe had led a coup détat that overthrew the government in 1980. There had been one unsuccessful coup by a military leader. In December 1989, former government minister Charles Taylor moved into the country from neighboring Côte dIvoire to start an uprising meant to topple the Doe government. During the civil war, factions formed around Taylor and those who supported his former soldier with the National Patriotic Front of Liberia, Prince Johnson. Johnson took the capital Monrovia in 1990 and executed Doe, while Taylors forces, the Armed Forces of Liberia, peace negotiations and foreign involvement led to a ceasefire in 1995 that was broken the next year before a final peace agreement and new national elections were held in 1997. Taylor was elected President of Liberia in July 1997, Samuel Doe had taken power in a popular coup in 1980 against William R. Tolbert, becoming the first Liberian President of non Americo-Liberian descent. Any hope that Doe would improve the way Liberia was run was put aside as he quickly clamped down on opposition, as promised, Doe held elections in 1985 and won the presidency by just enough of a margin to avoid a runoff. However, international monitors condemned this election as fraudulent, thomas Quiwonkpa, the former Commanding General of the Armed Forces of Liberia whom Doe had demoted and forced to flee the country, attempted to overthrow Does regime from neighboring Sierra Leone. The coup attempt failed and Quiwonkpa was killed and eaten and his body was publicly exhibited on the grounds of the Executive Mansion in Monrovia soon after his death. Large scale government crackdowns followed in Nimba County, Zuleyee in the north of the country against the Gio, the mistreatment of the Gio and Mano tribes fueled ethnic tensions in Liberia, which had already been rising due to Does preferential treatment of his own group, the Krahn. Charles Taylor, who had left Does government after being accused of embezzlement and they invaded Nimba County on 24 December 1989. The Liberian Army retaliated against the population of the region, attacking unarmed civilians. Many left as refugees for Guinea and Côte dIvoire, but opposition to Doe was inflamed, Prince Johnson, an NPFL fighter, split to form his own guerrilla force soon after crossing the border, based on the Gio tribe and named Independent National Patriotic Front of Liberia. Charles Taylor organized and trained indigenous northerners in Ivory Coast, during Does regime Taylor had served in the Liberian Governments General Services Agency, acting as its de facto director. Doe requested Taylors extradition for embezzling $900,000 of Liberian government funds, Taylor was thus arrested in the United States and after sixteen months broke out of a Massachusetts jail in circumstances that are still unclear. The NPFL initially encountered plenty of support within Nimba County, which had endured the majority of Samuel Doe’s wrath after the 1985 attempted coup, when Taylor and his force of 100 rebels reentered Liberia in 1989, on Christmas Eve, thousands of Gio and Mano joined them
40.
Second Liberian Civil War
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The Second Liberian Civil War began in 1999 when a rebel group backed by the government of neighbouring Guinea, the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy, emerged in northern Liberia. In early 2003, a rebel group, the Movement for Democracy in Liberia, emerged in the south. The capital Monrovia was besieged by LURD, and the shelling of the city resulted in the deaths of many civilians. Thousands of people were displaced from their homes as a result of the conflict, the First Liberian Civil War ended with the Liberian general election,1997 in which Charles Taylor took power. The second civil war began in April 1999, when Liberian dissidents under the banner of the Organization of Displaced Liberians invaded Liberia from Guinea, Guinea became LURD’s main source of military and financial support. By July 2000, the dissident groups had coalesced as the LURD led by Sekou Conneh. The dissidents were thought to be mostly Mandinka and Krahn fighters of the former ULIMO-J, simultaneous September 2000 counter-attacks on Guinea from Liberia and Sierra Leone by RUF – still loyal to Taylor and Guinean dissidents – achieved initial success. By January 2001, however, Taylor’s forces were pushed back inside Sierra Leone, the insurgents were posing a major threat to the Taylor government. Liberia was now engaged in a complex three-way conflict with Sierra Leone, by the beginning of 2002, both of these countries were supporting LURD, while Taylor was supporting various opposition factions in both countries. By supporting — practically creating — the SL rebels, the Revolutionary United Front, Taylor also drew the enmity of the British and Americans. British and U. S. pressure on Taylor increased with rising support for Guinea and U. S. /U. K. -proposed sanctions. By mid-February 2002 LURD troops were just 44 kilometres from Monrovia, at Klay Junction, while LURD claims between 300 and 500 men were assigned to that mission. In May, an attack on Arthington, less than 20 kilometres from the capital, the state of emergency was lifted in September 2002, after, the government claimed, the township of Bopolu had been retaken. In early 2003, a rebel group, the Ivoirian-backed Movement for Democracy in Liberia, emerged in the south. Despite some setbacks, by mid-2003 LURD controlled the third of the country and was threatening the capital. The capital Monrovia was besieged by LURD, and that groups shelling of the city resulted in the deaths of many civilians, thousands of people were displaced from their homes as a result of the conflict. A new bout of fighting began in March 2003 after a lull and by early May, LURD. Regional and wider pressure led to the convening of a conference in Accra by the then Chair of the Economic Community of West African States, President John Kufuor of Ghana, by July 2003 Monrovia appeared to be in danger of being occupied and devastated despite ongoing peace talks
41.
Ebola virus epidemic in Liberia
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An epidemic of Ebola virus disease occurred in Liberia from 2014 to 2015, along with the neighbouring countries of Guinea and Sierra Leone. The first cases of virus were reported by late March 2014, the Ebola virus, a biosafety level four pathogen, is an RNA virus discovered in 1976. Before the outbreak of the Ebola epidemic the country had 50 doctors for its population of 4.3 million, the countrys health system was seriously weakened by a civil war that ended in 2003. His mother, sister, and grandmother became ill with similar symptoms. People infected by those initial cases spread the disease to other villages, thus, the disease had several months to spread before it was recognized as Ebola. On 30 March 2014, Liberia confirmed its first two cases of Ebola virus disease in the country, by 23 April thirty-four cases and six deaths from Ebola in Liberia were recorded. By 17 June sixteen people had succumbed to the disease in the country, the initial cases were thought to be malaria, an extremely common disease in Liberia, and thus leading to doctors being infected with the Ebola virus. By 17 June the first deaths occurred in Monrovia from Ebola when seven patients died from the disease, among them were a nurse along with other members of her household. At the time there were about 16 cases reported in Liberia in total, the nurse was treated at Redemption Hospital, a free state-run health care facility in New Kru Town west of Monrovia. On 2 July the head surgeon of Redemption Hospital died from the disease and he was treated at the JFK Medical Center in Monrovia. Following his death Redemption Hospital was shut down, and patients were transferred or referred to other facilities in the area. By 21 July four nurses at Phebe Hospital in Bong County contracted the disease, on 27 July Dr. Samuel Brisbane, one of Liberias top doctors, succumbed to Ebola. A doctor from Uganda also died from the disease, two U. S. health care workers, one a doctor and the other a nurse were also infected with the disease. Both of them missionaries, they were evacuated from Liberia to the USA for treatment where they made a full recovery. By 28 July most border crossings had been closed, with checkpoints set up at the remaining ports. Arik Air suspended all flights between Nigeria and Liberia, on July 30, Liberia shut down its schools in an attempt to prevent the outbreak from spreading. On the first weekend of August, locals quarreled with a team trying to bury 22 bodies. The police were summoned and order was restored, on 4 August, the Liberian government ordered all corpses of those who died to be cremated
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Geography of Liberia
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Liberia is a Sub-Saharan nation in West Africa located at 6 °N,9 °W. It borders the north Atlantic Ocean to the southwest and three other African nations on the three sides. In total, Liberia comprises 110,000 square kilometres of which 96,300 square kilometres is land and 15,000 square kilometres is water. The total length of Liberias land borders is 1,587 kilometres,310 kilometres with Sierra Leone on the northwest,560 kilometres with Guinea to the north, Liberia currently claims a territorial sea of 200 nmi. Liberia has a hilly terrain, from rolling plains along the coast to a rolling plateau. The lowest point on Liberia is at sea level on the Atlantic Ocean, the highest point on Liberia is 1380 m above sea level at Mount Wuteve. Natural resources that are found in Liberia include iron ore, timber, diamonds, gold, arable land,4. 04%permanent crops,1. 62%other,94. 34%21 square kilometres of Liberias land was irrigated as of 2003. The natural hazard that occurs in Liberia is a dust-laden harmattan wind blows from the Sahara. Northernmost point – unnamed location on the border with Guinea in the Sodia river immediately north of the town of Vonamai, easternmost point – unnamed headland at the confluence of the Cavally river and the Hana river, River Gee County. Southernmost point – Kablaké headland, Maryland County, westernmost point - unnamed headland immediately west of the town of Sewulu at the mouth of the Mano River, Grand Cape Mount County. Administrative divisions of Liberia List of cities in Liberia List of rivers of Liberia List of Liberian national forests
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Environmental issues in Liberia
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Endangered species are hunted for human consumption as bushmeat in Liberia. Species hunted for food in Liberia include elephants, pygmy hippopotamus, chimpanzees, leopards, duikers, forest rangers in Liberia say that bushmeat poachers will kill any forest animal they encounter. Bushmeat is widely eaten in Liberia, and is considered a delicacy, a 2004 public opinion survey found that bushmeat ranked second behind fish amongst residents of the capital Monrovia as a preferred source of protein. Of households where bushmeat was served, 80% of residents said they cooked it “once in a while, ” while 13% cooked it once a week, the survey was conducted during the last civil war, and bushmeat consumption is now believed to be far higher. Poachers hunt protected species inside Liberias national parks, including the Sapo, the poachers mostly hunt using snares and wire traps. Bushmeat is often exported to neighboring Sierra Leone and Ivory Coast and it is illegal to kill protected species like chimpanzees and elephants in Liberia. However, forest rangers are not allowed to carry guns, and are understaffed, prosecution of poachers is also hampered by weak anti-poaching legislation. Liberia is a biodiversity hotspot - a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat from humans. Liberia hosts the last remaining populations of certain species including western chimpanzees, forest elephants. Liberia contains a significant portion of West Africas remaining rainforest, with about 43% of the Upper Guinean forest - an important forest that spans several West African nations, slash-and-burn agriculture is one of the human activities eroding Liberias natural forests. A2004 UN report estimated that between 1990 and 2004, forest cover in Liberia had fallen by around seven per cent to just over 31 per cent of Liberias total area, illegal logging has increased in Liberia since the end of the Second Civil War in 2003. In 2012 President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf granted licenses to companies to cut down 58% of all the primary rainforest left in Liberia, after international protests, many of those logging permits were cancelled. Liberia and Norway struck an agreement in September 2014 whereby Liberia ceases all logging in exchange for $150 million in development aid, Liberia agreed to place 30% or more of its forests under protected area status by 2020. It will also pilot direct payments to communities for protecting the forest, Norway will seek independent verification that trees remain standing before payments are made. In 2004, a United Nations Environment Program report estimated that 99 per cent of Liberians burnt charcoal, the report found that Liberia was beginning to export charcoal in the region. Coastal mangrove swamps were also being burnt for fuel, removing nursery grounds for fish, pollution is a significant issue in Liberias capital city- Monrovia. Piles of household and industrial rubbish in Monrovia build up and are not always collected by sanitation companies paid by the World Bank to collect this waste. In 2009 the World Bank stated that its goal was to increase collection and disposal to 45 percent of Monrovias daily generated waste by December 2013, during Liberias civil wars, Monrovia went without any formal garbage collection service for 17 years
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