1.
Biology
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Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, identification and taxonomy. Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable, the term biology is derived from the Greek word βίος, bios, life and the suffix -λογία, -logia, study of. The Latin-language form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica, the first German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a book, karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the biology or the doctrine of life. Although modern biology is a recent development, sciences related to. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, however, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece. While the formal study of medicine back to Hippocrates, it was Aristotle who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz, Al-Dīnawarī, who wrote on botany, biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoeks dramatic improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria, investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining. Advances in microscopy also had a impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the importance of the cell. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians
2.
Psychology
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Psychology is the science of behavior and mind, embracing all aspects of conscious and unconscious experience as well as thought. It is a discipline and a social science which seeks to understand individuals and groups by establishing general principles. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social, behavioral, Psychologists explore behavior and mental processes, including perception, cognition, attention, emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, and personality. This extends to interaction between people, such as relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind, Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. Psychology has been described as a hub science, with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the sciences, natural sciences, medicine, humanities. By many accounts psychology ultimately aims to benefit society, the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a range of topics related to mental processes and behavior. The word psychology derives from Greek roots meaning study of the psyche, the Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. In 1890, William James defined psychology as the science of mental life and this definition enjoyed widespread currency for decades. Also since James defined it, the more strongly connotes techniques of scientific experimentation. Folk psychology refers to the understanding of people, as contrasted with that of psychology professionals. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, historians note that Greek philosophers, including Thales, Plato, and Aristotle, addressed the workings of the mind. As early as the 4th century BC, Greek physician Hippocrates theorized that mental disorders had physical rather than supernatural causes, in China, psychological understanding grew from the philosophical works of Laozi and Confucius, and later from the doctrines of Buddhism. This body of knowledge involves insights drawn from introspection and observation and it frames the universe as a division of, and interaction between, physical reality and mental reality, with an emphasis on purifying the mind in order to increase virtue and power. Chinese scholarship focused on the advanced in the Qing Dynasty with the work of Western-educated Fang Yizhi, Liu Zhi. Distinctions in types of awareness appear in the ancient thought of India, a central idea of the Upanishads is the distinction between a persons transient mundane self and their eternal unchanging soul. Divergent Hindu doctrines, and Buddhism, have challenged this hierarchy of selves, yoga is a range of techniques used in pursuit of this goal
3.
Testosterone
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Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone and an anabolic steroid. In addition, testosterone is essential for health and well-being, insufficient levels of testosterone in men may lead to abnormalities including frailty and bone loss. Testosterone is also used as a medication to treat male hypogonadism, since testosterone levels gradually decrease as men age, synthetic testosterone is sometimes prescribed to older men to counteract this deficiency. Testosterone is a steroid from the class containing a keto. It is biosynthesized in several steps from cholesterol and is converted in the liver to inactive metabolites and it exerts its action through binding to and activation of the androgen receptor. In humans and most other vertebrates, testosterone is secreted primarily by the testicles of males and, to a lesser extent, small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal glands. On average, in males, levels of testosterone are about 7–8 times as great as in adult females. As the metabolic consumption of testosterone in males is greater, the production is about 20 times greater in men. Females are also sensitive to the hormone. In general, androgens such as testosterone promote protein synthesis and thus growth of tissues with androgen receptors, Testosterone can be described as having virilising and anabolic effects. Anabolic effects include growth of mass and strength, increased bone density and strength. Many of these fall into the category of secondary sex characteristics. Testosterone effects can also be classified by the age of usual occurrence, for postnatal effects in both males and females, these are mostly dependent on the levels and duration of circulating free testosterone. Effects before birth are divided into two categories, classified in relation to the stages of development, the first period occurs between 4 and 6 weeks of the gestation. There is also development of the gland and seminal vesicles. During the second trimester, androgen level is associated with gender formation and this period affects the femininization or masculinization of the fetus and can be a better predictor of feminine or masculine behaviours such as sex typed behaviour than an adults own levels. Early infancy androgen effects are the least understood, in the first weeks of life for male infants, testosterone levels rise. The levels remain in a range for a few months
4.
Dopamine
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Dopamine is an organic chemical of the catecholamine and phenethylamine families that plays several important roles in the brain and body. It is an amine synthesized by removing a carboxyl group from a molecule of its precursor chemical L-DOPA, dopamine is also synthesized in plants and most multicellular animals. In the brain, dopamine functions as a neurotransmitter—a chemical released by neurons to send signals to nerve cells. The brain includes several distinct dopamine pathways, one of plays a major role in reward-motivated behavior. Most types of rewards increase the level of dopamine in the brain, other brain dopamine pathways are involved in motor control and in controlling the release of various hormones. These pathways and cell groups form a system which is neuromodulatory. Outside the central system, dopamine functions primarily as a local chemical messenger. With the exception of the vessels, dopamine in each of these peripheral systems is synthesized locally. Several important diseases of the system are associated with dysfunctions of the dopamine system. Parkinsons disease, a condition causing tremor and motor impairment, is caused by a loss of dopamine-secreting neurons in an area of the midbrain called the substantia nigra. Its metabolic precursor L-DOPA can be manufactured, and in its pure form marketed as Levodopa is the most widely used treatment for the condition. There is evidence that schizophrenia involves altered levels of dopamine activity, similar dopamine antagonist drugs are also some of the most effective anti-nausea agents. Restless legs syndrome and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder are associated with decreased dopamine activity, dopaminergic stimulants can be addictive in high doses, but some are used at lower doses to treat ADHD. A dopamine molecule consists of a structure with one amine group attached via an ethyl chain. As such, dopamine is the simplest possible catecholamine, a family that includes the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and epinephrine. The presence of a ring with this amine attachment makes it a substituted phenethylamine. Like most amines, dopamine is an organic base, as a base, it is generally protonated in acidic environments. The protonated form is highly water-soluble and relatively stable, but can become oxidized if exposed to oxygen or other oxidants, in basic environments, dopamine is not protonated
5.
Puberty
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Puberty is the process of physical changes through which a childs body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction. It is initiated by signals from the brain to the gonads, the ovaries in a girl. In response to the signals, the gonads produce hormones that stimulate libido and the growth, function, and transformation of the brain, bones, muscle, blood, skin, hair, breasts, and sex organs. Physical growth—height and weight—accelerates in the first half of puberty and is completed when a body has been developed. Until the maturation of their capabilities, the pre-pubertal physical differences between boys and girls are the external sex organs. On average, girls begin puberty around ages 10–11, boys around ages 11–12, girls usually complete puberty around ages 15–17, while boys usually complete puberty around ages 16–17. In the 21st century, the age at which children, especially girls, reach puberty is lower compared to the 19th century. Puberty which starts earlier than usual is known as precocious puberty, Puberty which starts later than usual is known as delayed puberty. Two of the most significant differences between puberty in girls and puberty in boys are the age at which it begins, and the sex steroids involved, the testosterones. Although there is a range of normal ages, girls typically begin the process of puberty at age 10 or 11. Girls usually complete puberty by ages 15–17, while boys usually complete puberty by ages 16–17, girls attain reproductive maturity about four years after the first physical changes of puberty appear. In contrast, boys accelerate more slowly but continue to grow for about six years after the first visible pubertal changes, any increase in height beyond the post-pubertal age is uncommon. For boys, an androgen called testosterone is the sex hormone. While testosterone is produced, all changes are characterized as virilization. The conversion of testosterone to estradiol depends on the amount of body fat, the male growth spurt also begins later, accelerates more slowly, and lasts longer before the epiphyses fuse. Although boys are on average 2 centimetres shorter than girls before puberty begins, the hormone that dominates female development is an estrogen called estradiol. While estradiol promotes growth of the breasts and uterus, it is also the principal hormone driving the growth spurt and epiphyseal maturation. Estradiol levels rise earlier and reach higher levels in women than in men, the hormonal maturation of females is considerably more complicated than in boys
6.
Intimate relationship
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An intimate relationship is an interpersonal relationship that involves physical and/or emotional intimacy. Physical intimacy is characterized by friendship, platonic love, romantic love, while the term intimate relationship commonly implies the inclusion of a sexual relationship, the term is also used as a euphemism for a relationship that is strictly sexual. Intimate relationships play a role in the overall human experience. Humans have a desire to belong and to love, which is usually satisfied within an intimate relationship. These relationships involve feelings of liking or loving one or more people, romance, physical or sexual attraction, sexual relationships, Intimate relationships allow a social network for people to form strong emotional attachments. Intimacy generally refers to the feeling of being in a personal association. It is a familiar and very close connection with another as a result of a bond that is formed through knowledge. Genuine intimacy in human relationships requires dialogue, transparency, vulnerability, the verb intimate means to state or make known. The activity of intimating underpins the meanings of intimate when used as a noun, the noun intimate means a person with whom one has a particularly close relationship. The adjective intimate indicates detailed knowledge of a thing or person, in human relationships, the meaning and level of intimacy varies within and between relationships. Intimate conversations become the basis for confidences that bind people together, to sustain intimacy for any length of time requires well-developed emotional and interpersonal awareness. Intimacy requires an ability to be separate and together participants in an intimate relationship. It results in a connection in which there is an emotional range involving both robust conflict and intense loyalty, lacking the ability to differentiate oneself from the other is a form of symbiosis, a state that is different from intimacy, even if feelings of closeness are similar. From a center of self-knowledge and self differentiation, intimate behavior joins family members and it evolves through reciprocal self-disclosure and candor. Psychological consequences of intimacy problems are found in adults who have difficulty in forming and maintaining intimate relationships, individuals often experience the human limitations of their partners, and develop a fear of adverse consequences of disrupted intimate relationships. Studies show that fear of intimacy is negatively related to comfort with emotional closeness and with relationship satisfaction, scholars distinguish between four different forms of intimacy, physical, emotional, cognitive, and experiential. Physical intimacy is sensual proximity or touching, examples include being inside someones personal space, holding hands, emotional intimacy, particularly in sexual relationships, typically develops after a certain level of trust has been reached and personal bonds have been established. Cognitive or intellectual intimacy takes place when two people exchange thoughts, share ideas and enjoy similarities and differences between their opinions, if they can do this in an open and comfortable way, they can become quite intimate in an intellectual area
7.
Psychosexual development
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Each stage – the oral, the anal, the phallic, the latent, and the genital – is characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal drive. He argued that adult neurosis often is rooted in childhood sexuality, sexual infantilism, in pursuing and satisfying his or her libido, the child might experience failure and thus might associate anxiety with the given erogenous zone. e. The tendency to place objects in the mouth, the id dominates, because neither the ego nor the super ego is yet fully developed, and, since the infant has no personality, every action is based upon the pleasure principle. Nonetheless, the ego is forming during the oral stage, two factors contribute to its formation, in developing a body image, he or she is discrete from the external world. Weaning is the key experience in the oral stage of psychosexual development. In the case of too little gratification, the infant might become passive upon learning that gratification is not forthcoming, the style of parenting influences the resolution of the id–ego conflict, which can be either gradual and psychologically uneventful, or which can be sudden and psychologically traumatic. If the child obeys the id, and the yield, he or she might develop a self-indulgent personality characterized by personal slovenliness. If the parents respond to that, the child must comply, but might develop a sense of self, because it was the parents will, and not the childs ego. The third stage of development is the phallic stage, spanning the ages of three to six years, wherein the childs genitalia are his or her primary erogenous zone. In the phallic stage, a boys decisive psychosexual experience is the Oedipus complex and this psychological complex derives from the 5th-century BC Greek mythologic character Oedipus, who unwittingly killed his father, Laius, and sexually possessed his mother, Jocasta. Analogously, in the stage, a girls decisive psychosexual experience is the Electra complex. The boy focuses his libido upon his mother, and focuses jealousy, Electra, Whereas boys develop castration anxiety, girls develop penis envy that is rooted in anatomic fact, without a penis, she cannot sexually possess mother, as the infantile id demands. As a result, the girl redirects her desire for sexual union upon father, thus, moreover, after the phallic stage, the girls psychosexual development includes transferring her primary erogenous zone from the infantile clitoris to the adult vagina. Freud thus considered a girls Oedipal conflict to be more intense than that of a boy, resulting, potentially. Psychologic defense, In both sexes, defense mechanisms provide transitory resolutions of the conflict between the drives of the Id and the drives of the Ego. The first defense mechanism is repression, the blocking of memories, emotional impulses, in a boy, a phallic-stage fixation might lead him to become an aggressive, over-ambitious, vain man. The genital stage affords the person the ability to confront and resolve his or her remaining psychosexual childhood conflicts, as in the phallic stage, the genital stage is centered upon the genitalia, but the sexuality is consensual and adult, rather than solitary and infantile. Hence, the stage proved controversial, for being based upon clinical observations of the Oedipus complex
8.
Unconscious mind
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The unconscious mind consists of the processes in the mind which occur automatically and are not available to introspection, and include thought processes, memories, interests, and motivations. Even though these processes exist well under the surface of conscious awareness they are theorized to exert an impact on behavior, the term was coined by the 18th-century German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling and later introduced into English by the poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge. The concept was popularized by the Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, in psychoanalytic theory, unconscious processes are understood to be directly represented in dreams, as well as in slips of the tongue and jokes. Thus the unconscious mind can be seen as the source of dreams and automatic thoughts, the repository of forgotten memories, and it has been argued that consciousness is influenced by other parts of the mind. These include unconsciousness as a habit, being unaware. Phenomena related to semi-consciousness include awakening, implicit memory, subliminal messages, trances, hypnagogia, while sleep, sleepwalking, dreaming, delirium, and comas may signal the presence of unconscious processes, these processes are seen as symptoms rather than the unconscious mind itself. Some critics have doubted the existence of the unconscious, the term unconscious was coined by the 18th-century German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling and later introduced into English by the poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Some rare earlier instances of the term unconsciousness can be found in the work of the 18th-century German physician, the idea of internalised unconscious processes in the mind was also instigated in antiquity and has been explored across a wide variety of cultures. Unconscious aspects of mentality were referred to between 2500 and 600 BC in the Hindu texts known as the Vedas, found today in Ayurvedic medicine, william Shakespeare explored the role of the unconscious in many of his plays, without naming it as such. In 1880, Edmond Colsenet supports at the Sorbonne, a thesis on the unconscious. Elie Rabier and Alfred Fouillee perform syntheses of the unconscious at a time when Freud was not interested in the concept, psychologist Jacques Van Rillaer points out that, the unconscious was not discovered by Freud. Sigmund Freud and his followers developed an account of the unconscious mind and it plays an important role in psychoanalysis. Freud divided the mind into the mind and the unconscious mind. Later was then divided into the id and the superego. In this theory, the unconscious refers to the processes of which individuals make themselves unaware. Freud proposed a vertical and hierarchical architecture of human consciousness, the mind, the preconscious. He believed that significant psychic events take place below the surface in the unconscious mind and he interpreted such events as having both symbolic and actual significance. In psychoanalytic terms, the unconscious does not include all that is not conscious, Freud viewed the unconscious as a repository for socially unacceptable ideas, wishes or desires, traumatic memories, and painful emotions put out of mind by the mechanism of psychological repression
9.
Consciousness
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Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness, or, of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. Despite the difficulty in definition, many believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is. Western philosophers, since the time of Descartes and Locke, have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness, the majority of experimental studies assess consciousness in humans by asking subjects for a verbal report of their experiences. The origin of the concept of consciousness is often attributed to John Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Locke defined consciousness as the perception of what passes in a mans own mind and his essay influenced the 18th-century view of consciousness, and his definition appeared in Samuel Johnsons celebrated Dictionary. Consciousness is also defined in the 1753 volume of Diderot and dAlemberts Encyclopédie, the earliest English language uses of conscious and consciousness date back, however, to the 1500s. This phrase had the meaning of knowing that one knows. In its earliest uses in the 1500s, the English word conscious retained the meaning of the Latin conscius. For example, Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan wrote, Where two, or more men, know of one and the fact, they are said to be Conscious of it one to another. The Latin phrase conscius sibi, whose meaning was more related to the current concept of consciousness, was rendered in English as conscious to oneself or conscious unto oneself. For example, Archbishop Ussher wrote in 1613 of being so conscious unto myself of my great weakness, Lockes definition from 1690 illustrates that a gradual shift in meaning had taken place. A related word was conscientia, which primarily means moral conscience, in the literal sense, conscientia means knowledge-with, that is, shared knowledge. The word first appears in Latin juridical texts by such as Cicero. Here, conscientia is the knowledge that a witness has of the deed of someone else, rené Descartes is generally taken to be the first philosopher to use conscientia in a way that does not fit this traditional meaning. Descartes used conscientia the way modern speakers would use conscience, in Search after Truth he says conscience or internal testimony. The dictionary meaning of the word consciousness extends through several centuries, B. inward awareness of an external object, state, or fact. The philosophy of mind has given rise to many stances regarding consciousness, something within ones mind is introspectively conscious just in case one introspects it. Introspection is often thought to deliver ones primary knowledge of ones mental life, an experience or other mental entity is phenomenally conscious just in case there is something it is like for one to have it
10.
Id, ego and super-ego
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The super-ego can stop one from doing certain things that ones id may want to do. The super-ego is observable in how someone can view themselves as guilty, bad, pathetic, shameful, weak, Freud in The Ego and the Id discusses the general character of harshness and cruelty exhibited by the ideal – its dictatorial Thou shalt. At the time at which the Oedipus complex gives place to the super-ego they are something quite magnificent, the earlier in development, the greater the estimate of parental power. When one defuses into rivalry with the imago, then one feels the dictatorial thou shalt to manifest the power the imago represents. Four general levels are found in Freuds work, the auto-erotic, the narcissistic, the anal, and these different levels of development and the relations to parental imagos correspond to specific id forms of aggression and affection. Freuds proposal was influenced by the ambiguity of the term unconscious, the id is the disorganized part of the personality structure that contains a humans basic, instinctual drives. Id is the component of personality that is present from birth. It is the source of our needs, wants, desires. The id contains the libido, which is the source of instinctual force that is unresponsive to the demands of reality. We approach the id with analogies, we call it a chaos, in the id, …contrary impulses exist side by side, without cancelling each other out. There is nothing in the id that could be compared with negation, nothing in the id which corresponds to the idea of time. Developmentally, the id precedes the ego, i. e. the psychic apparatus begins, at birth, as an undifferentiated id, part of which then develops into a structured ego. The mind of a child is regarded as completely id-ridden, in the sense that it is a mass of instinctive drives and impulses. The id knows no judgements of value, no good and evil, instinctual cathexes seeking discharge—that, in our view, is all there is in the id. It is regarded as the reservoir of libido, the instinctive drive to create—the life instincts that are crucial to pleasurable survival. For Freud, the death instinct would thus seem to express itself—though probably only in part—as an instinct of destruction directed against the external world, Freud considered that the id, the whole person. Originally includes all the instinctual impulses, the destructive instinct as well, as eros or the life instincts. The reality principle that operates the ego is a mechanism that enables the individual to delay gratifying immediate needs
11.
Defence mechanisms
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A defence mechanism is an unconscious psychological mechanism that reduces anxiety arising from unacceptable or potentially harmful stimuli. Sigmund Freud was one of the first proponents of this construct, defence mechanisms may result in healthy or unhealthy consequences depending on the circumstances and frequency with which the mechanism is used. In psychoanalytic theory, repression is considered as the basis for defence mechanisms. Healthy persons normally use different defences throughout life, an ego defence mechanism becomes pathological only when its persistent use leads to maladaptive behaviour such that the physical or mental health of the individual is adversely affected. Among the purposes of ego defence mechanisms is to protect the mind/self/ego from anxiety and/or social sanctions and/or to provide a refuge from a situation with which one cannot currently cope, one resource used to evaluate these mechanisms is the Defense Style Questionnaire. The concept of id impulses comes from Sigmund Freud’s structural model, according to this theory, id impulses are based on the pleasure principle, instant gratification of ones own desires and needs. Sigmund Freud believed that the id represents biological instinctual impulses in humans, such as aggression, for example, when the id impulses conflict with the superego, unsatisfied feelings of anxiousness or feelings of anxiety come to the surface. To reduce these unpleasant feelings, the ego might use defence mechanisms, Freud believed that conflicts between these two structures resulted in conflicts associated with psychosexual stages. Freud proposed three structures of the psyche or personality, Id, The id is the reservoir of the libido. It is a selfish, childish, pleasure-oriented part of the personality with no ability to delay gratification, superego, The superego contains internalised societal and parental standards of good and bad, right and wrong behaviour. They include conscious appreciations of rules and regulations as well as those incorporated unconsciously, ego, The ego acts as a moderator between the pleasure sought by the id and the morals of the superego, seeking compromises to pacify both. It can be viewed as the sense of time and place. In the ego, there are two ongoing processes, there is no logic and no time line. Lust is important for this process, by contrast, there is the conscious secondary process, where strong boundaries are set and thoughts must be organised in a coherent way. The superego forms as the child grows and learns parental and social standards, when anxiety becomes overwhelming, it is the egos place to protect the person by employing defence mechanisms. Guilt, embarrassment and shame often accompany anxiety, the signaling function of anxiety is thus seen as a crucial one and biologically adapted to warn the organism of danger or a threat to its equilibrium. Defence mechanisms work by distorting the id impulses into acceptable forms, the list of defence mechanisms is huge and there is no theoretical consensus on the exact number. Classifying defence mechanisms according to some of their properties has been attempted, different theorists have different categorizations and conceptualizations of defence mechanisms
12.
Karl Abraham
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Karl Abraham was an early important and influential German psychoanalyst, and a collaborator of Sigmund Freud, who called him his best pupil. He was born in Bremen, Germany and his parents were Nathan Abraham, a Jewish religion teacher and his wife Ida. His studies in medicine enabled him to take a position at the Burghölzli Swiss Mental Hospital, the setting of this hospital initially introduced him to the psychoanalysis of Carl Gustav Jung. In 1907, he had his first contact with Sigmund Freud, returning to Germany, he founded the Berliner Society of Psychoanalysis in 1910. He was the president of the International Psychoanalytical Association from 1914 to 1918, Karl Abraham collaborated with Freud on the understanding of manic-depressive illness, leading to Freuds paper on Mourning and Melancholia in 1917. He was the analyst of Melanie Klein during 1924–1925, and of a number of other British psychoanalysts, including Edward Glover, James Glover and he was a mentor for an influential group of German analysts, including Karen Horney, Helene Deutsch, and Franz Alexander. He described the personality traits and psychopathology that result from the oral and anal stages of development, in the oral stage of development, the first relationships children have with objects determine their subsequent relationship to reality. Oral satisfaction can result in self-assurance and optimism, whereas oral fixation can lead to pessimism, moreover, a person with an oral fixation will present a disinclination to take care of him/herself and will require others to look after him/her. This may be expressed through extreme passivity or through a highly active oral-sadistic behaviour, in the anal stage, when the training in cleanliness starts too early, conflicts may result between a conscious attitude of obedience and an unconscious desire for resistance. This can lead to such as frugality, orderliness and obstinacy. This disturbance is linked with disappointing incidents of early childhood, in the case of men always with the mother and this concept of the prooedipal “bad” mother was a new development in contrast to Freud’s oedipal mother and paved the way for the theories of Melanie Klein. Moreover, Abraham investigated child sexual trauma and, like Freud, furthermore, he argued that dementia praecox is associated with child sexual trauma, based on the relationship between hysteria and child sexual trauma demonstrated by Freud. Abraham also showed interest in cultural issues and he analyzed various myths suggesting their relation to dreams and wrote an interpretation of the spiritual activities of the Egyptian monotheistic Pharaoh Amenhotep IV. Abraham died prematurely on December 25,1925, from complications of a lung infection, normentafeln zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Wirbeltiere, Heft 2. Beiträge zur Kenntnis des Delirium tremens der Morphinisten, ber Versuche mit Veronal bei Erregungszuständen der Paralytiker. On the significance of Sexual Trauma in Childhood for the Symptomatology of Dementia Praecox, Abraham, M. D. Clinical Papers and Essays on Psycho-Analysis. London, The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psychoanalysis, dreams and Myths, A study in folk-Psychology. Abraham, M. D. Clinical Papers and Essays on Psycho-Analysis, london, The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psychoanalysis
13.
Alfred Adler
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Alfred W. Adler was an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the school of individual psychology. His emphasis on the importance of feelings of inferiority—the inferiority complex—is recognized as an element which plays a key role in personality development. Alfred Adler considered human beings as a whole, therefore he called his psychology Individual Psychology. Adler was the first to emphasize the importance of the element in the re-adjustment process of the individual. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Adler as the 67th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Alfred Adler was born at Mariahilfer Straße 208 in Rudolfsheim, then a village on the fringes of Vienna, and today part of Rudolfsheim-Fünfhaus. He was third of the seven children of a Hungarian-born, Jewish grain merchant, others contend that he was the second of the children. Alfreds younger brother died in the bed next to him, when Alfred was only three years old, Alfred was an active, popular child and an average student who was also known for his competitive attitude toward his older brother, Sigmund. Early on, he developed rickets, which kept him from walking until he was four years old, at the age of four, he developed pneumonia and heard a doctor say to his father, Your boy is lost. At that point, he decided to be a physician and he was very interested in the subjects of psychology, sociology and philosophy. After studying at University of Vienna, he specialized as an eye doctor and his clients included circus people, and it has been suggested that the unusual strengths and weaknesses of the performers led to his insights into organ inferiorities and compensation. In 1902 Adler received an invitation from Sigmund Freud to join an informal group that included Rudolf Reitler. The group, the Wednesday Society, met regularly on Wednesday evenings at Freuds home and was the beginning of the psychoanalytic movement, a long-serving member of the group, Adler became president of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society eight years later. He remained a member of the Society until 1911, when he and a group of his supporters formally disengaged from Freuds circle and this departure suited both Freud and Adler, since they had grown to dislike each other. During his association with Freud, Adler frequently maintained his own ideas which diverged from Freuds. While Adler is often referred to as a pupil of Freuds, in fact this was never true, they were colleagues, in 1929 Adler showed a reporter with the New York Herald a copy of the faded postcard that Freud had sent him in 1902. He wanted to prove that he had never been a disciple of Freuds, Adler founded the Society for Individual Psychology in 1912 after his break from the psychoanalytic movement. Adlers group initially included some orthodox Nietzschean adherents and their enmity aside, Adler retained a lifelong admiration for Freuds ideas on dreams and credited him with creating a scientific approach to their clinical utilization
14.
Wilfred Bion
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Wilfred Ruprecht Bion DSO was an influential British psychoanalyst, who became president of the British Psychoanalytical Society from 1962 to 1965. Wilfred Bion was a potent and original contributor to psychoanalysis and he was one of the first to analyze patients in psychotic states using an unmodified analytic technique, he extended existing theories of projective processes and developed new conceptual tools. Bions ideas are highly unique, so that he remained larger than life to almost all who encountered him and he has been considered by Neville Symington as possibly the greatest psychoanalytic thinker. after Freud. Bion was born in Mathura, North-Western Provinces, India, and he was demobilised on 1 September 1921, and was granted the rank of captain. The full citation for his DSO reads, Awarded the Distinguished Service Order, T. /2nd Lt, Wilfred Ruprecht Bion, Tank Corps. For conspicuous gallantry, and devotion to duty, when in command of his tank in an attack he engaged a large number of enemy machine guns in strong positions, thus assisting the infantry to advance. When his tank was put out of action by a hit he occupied a section of trench with his men and machine guns. He moved about in the open, giving directions to other tanks when they arrived and he also got a captured machine gun into action against the enemy, and when reinforcements arrived he took command of a company of infantry whose commander was killed. He showed magnificent courage and initiative in a most difficult situation, after World War I, Bion studied history at The Queens College, Oxford, earning a bachelor of arts degree in 1922, then studying medicine at University College London. This was to prove an important influence on Bions interest in group behavior and it did, however, bring him into fruitful contact with Samuel Beckett. He wanted to train in Psychoanalysis and in 1938 he began an analysis with John Rickman. These ideas on the psychoanalysis of groups were taken up and developed by others such as S. H. Foulkes, Rickman, Bridger, Main. It was less a guide for the therapy of individuals within or by the group, the book quickly became a touchstone work for applications of group theory in a wide variety of fields. During the war Bions wife, Betty Jardine, gave birth to a daughter and his daughter, Parthenope, became a highly regarded psychoanalyst In Italy. She died prematurely, in a car crash in Italy in 1998, as his interest in psychoanalysis increased, he underwent training analysis, between 1946 and 1952, with Melanie Klein. He met his wife, Francesca, at the Tavistock in 1951. He joined a group of Kleins students, who were developing Kleins theory of the paranoid-schizoid. He produced a series of original and influential papers on the analysis of schizophrenia, and the specifically cognitive, perceptual
15.
Josef Breuer
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Born in Vienna, his father, Leopold Breuer, taught religion in Viennas Jewish community. Breuers mother died when he was young, and he was raised by his maternal grandmother. He graduated from the Akademisches Gymnasium of Vienna in 1858 and then studied at the university for one year before enrolling in the school of the University of Vienna. He passed his exams in 1867 and went to work as assistant to the internist Johann Oppolzer at the university. Breuer, working under Ewald Hering at the medical school in Vienna, was the first to demonstrate the role of the vagus nerve in the reflex nature of respiration. This was a departure from previous physiological understanding, and changed the way scientists viewed the relationship of the lungs to the nervous system, the mechanism is now known as the Hering–Breuer reflex. That the sense of balance depends on the three semicircular canals was discovered in 1870 by the physiologist Friedrich Goltz, but Goltz did not discover how the balance-sensing apparatus functions. Breuer is perhaps best known for his work in the 1880s with Anna O. a woman suffering from paralysis of her limbs, Breuer observed that her symptoms reduced or disappeared after she described them to him. Anna O. humorously called this procedure chimney sweeping and she also coined the more serious appellation for this form of therapy, talking cure. Breuer later referred to it as the “cathartic method”, Breuer was then a mentor to the young Sigmund Freud, and had helped set him up in medical practice. Never before had anyone removed a hysterical symptom by such a method, Freud and Breuer documented their discussions of Anna O. and other case studies in their 1895 book, Studies in Hysteria. He also gives others, such as Pierre Janet, credit and argues for “eclecticism”, the two men became increasingly estranged. In 1894 Breuer was elected a Corresponding Member of the Vienna Academy of Sciences, Breuer married Mathilde Altmann in 1868, and they had five children. His daughter Dora later committed suicide rather than be deported by the Nazis, another one of his daughters, Margarete Schiff, perished in Theresienstadt on September 9,1942. Breuers granddaughter, Hanna Schiff, died imprisoned by the Nazis. Das Verhalten der Eigenwärme in Krankheiten, die Selbststeuerung der Athmung durch den Nervus vagus. In, Sitzungsberichte der Akademie der Wissenschaften Wien, math. -naturw, bemerkungen zu Senators „Beiträge zur Lehre von der Eigenwärme und dem Fieber“. Über die Function der Bogengänge des Ohrlabyrinthes, beiträge zur Lehre vom statischen Sinne
16.
Max Eitingon
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Max Eitingon was a Belarusian-German medical doctor and psychoanalyst, instrumental in establishing the institutional parameters of psychoanalytic education and training. Eitingon was cofounder and president from 1920 to 1933 of the Berlin Psychoanalytic Polyclinic, Eitingon was born to an extremely wealthy orthodox Jewish family in Mohilev, Imperial Russia, the son of a successful fur trader Chaim Eitingon. When he was twelve the family moved to Leipzig, before completing his dissertation, Eitingon worked as an intern at Eugen Bleulers Burghölzli Clinic in Zurich. In 1907 he was sent by Bleuler to meet Freud, and in 1908-9 underwent five weeks of analysis with Freud and he completed his dissertation, Effect of an epileptic attack on mental associations, with Carl Jungs help, and settled in Berlin. In 1913 he married Mirra Jacovleina Raigorodsky, an actress with the Moscow Art Theater, during World War I Eitingon became an Austrian citizen, joining the army as a doctor and using hypnosis to treat soldiers with war trauma. Settling in Berlin after the war, he was invited by Freud to join the secret Psychoanalytic Committee, Eitingon financed the building of a polyclinic, using Freuds son Ernst Freud as architect. Eitingon, Karl Abraham and Ernst Simmel ran the clinic until the rise of Nazism in 1933, at the 1925 Bad Homburg Congress, Eitingon proposed that the Berlin system of psychoanalytic training should be made an international standard under an International Training Commission. Eitingon was appointed president of the ITC, and kept the position until his death in 1943, after the family business suffered in the US Great Depression, Eitingon was forced for the first time to take a patient to earn his living. In 1932 he had a cerebral thrombosis, on Freuds advice, Eitingon left Germany in September 1933 and emigrated to Palestine. In 1934 he founded the Palestine Psychoanalytic Association in Jerusalem, however, despite Freuds recommendation, he did not manage to gain a chair in psychoanalysis at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Eitingon died on 30 July 1943 in Jerusalem, and is buried on Mount Scopus, genie, Talent und Psychoanalyse, Zentralblatt für Psychoanalyse 2 539-540. Gott und Vater, Imago 3, 90-93 Ein Fall von Verlesen, Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse 3, zur psychoanalytischen Bewegung, Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse 8, 103-106. Report of the Berlin Psychoanalytical Polyclinic, Bulletin of the International Psychoanalytical Association 4,254
17.
Erik Erikson
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Erik Homburger Erikson was a German-born American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis and his son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American sociologist. Although Erikson lacked even a bachelors degree, he served as a professor at prominent institutions such as Harvard, a Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Erikson as the 12th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Eriksons mother, Karla Abrahamsen, came from a prominent Jewish family in Copenhagen and she was married to Jewish stockbroker Valdemar Isidor Salomonsen, but had been estranged from him for several months at the time Erik was conceived. Little is known about Eriks biological father except that he was a Danish gentile, on discovering her pregnancy, Karla fled to Frankfurt, Germany, where Erik was born on June 15,1902 and was given the surname Salomonsen. Following Eriks birth, Karla trained to be a nurse and moved to Karlsruhe, in 1905 she married Eriks Jewish pediatrician, Theodor Homberger. In 1908, Erik Salomonsens name was changed to Erik Homberger, the development of identity seems to have been one of Eriksons greatest concerns in his own life as well as in his theory. As an older adult, he wrote about his adolescent “identity confusion” in his European days. “My identity confusion, ” he wrote was at times on “the borderline between neurosis and adolescent psychosis. ”Erikson’s daughter writes that her father’s “real psychoanalytic identity” was not established until he “replaced his stepfather’s surname with a name of his own invention. ”During his childhood and early adulthood he was known as Erik Homberger, and his parents kept the details of his birth a secret. He was a tall, blond, blue-eyed boy who was raised in the Jewish religion, at temple school, the kids teased him for being a Nordic, at grammar school, they teased him for being Jewish. At Das Humanistische Gymnasium his main interests were art, history and languages, after graduation, instead of attending medical school, as his stepfather had desired, he attended art school in Munich, but soon dropped out. Uncertain about his vocation and his fit in society, Erikson began a period of roaming about Germany and Italy as a wandering artist with his childhood friend Peter Blos. During this period he continued to contend with questions about his father and competing ideas of ethnic, religious and he specialized in child analysis and underwent a training analysis with Anna Freud. Helene Deutsch and Edward Bibring supervised his initial treatment of an adult, simultaneously he studied the Montessori method of education, which focused on child development and sexual stages. In 1933 he received his diploma from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute and this and his Montessori diploma were to be Eriksons only earned academic credentials for his lifes work. In 1931 Erikson married Joan Mowat Serson, a Canadian dancer, during their marriage Erikson converted to Christianity. Unable to regain Danish citizenship because of requirements, the family left for the United States. In 1936, Erikson left Harvard and joined the staff at Yale University, while at Yale he became a naturalized citizen of the United States and changed his familys surname from his adoptive fathers name of Homberger to Erikson
18.
Anna Freud
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Anna Freud was an Austrian-British psychoanalyst. She was the 6th and last child of Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays and she followed the path of her father and contributed to the field of psychoanalysis. Compared to her father, her work emphasized the importance of the ego, a Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Freud as the 99th most cited psychologist of the 20th century. Anna Freud was born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary on 3 December 1895 and she was the youngest daughter of Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays. She grew up in comfortable bourgeois circumstances and she had difficulties getting along with her siblings, specifically with her sister Sophie Freud. It seems that in general, she was competitive with her siblings. The close relationship between Anna and her father was different from the rest of her family and she was a lively child with a reputation for mischief. Freud wrote to his friend Wilhelm Fliess in 1899, Anna has become downright beautiful through naughtiness, Freud is said to refer to her in his diaries more than others in the family. Later on Anna Freud would say that she didn’t learn much in school, instead she learned from her father and this was how she picked up Hebrew, German, English, French and Italian. At the age of 15, she started reading her father’s work, commentators have noted how in the dream of little Anna. little Anna only hallucinates forbidden objects. Anna finished her education at the Cottage Lyceum in Vienna in 1912, suffering from a depression and anorexia, she was very insecure about what to do in the future. In 1914 she passed the test to work as an apprentice at her old school. From 1915 to 1917, she worked as an apprentice for third, fourth. She finally quit her career in 1920, due to multiple episodes of illness. Her first analysis was conducted by her father Sigmund Freud from 1918 to 1922, jacques Van Rillaer describes this incestuous analysis. She presented the paper Beating Fantasies and Daydreams to the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, in 1923, Anna Freud began her own psychoanalytical practice with children and two years later she was teaching at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Training Institute on the technique of child analysis. From 1925 until 1934, she was the Secretary of the International Psychoanalytical Association while she continued child analysis and seminars and it became a founding work of ego psychology and established Freud’s reputation as a pioneering theoretician. In 1938 the Freuds had to flee from Austria as a consequence of the Nazis intensifying harassment of Jews in Vienna following the Anschluss by Germany
19.
Sigmund Freud
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Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg and he qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna. Upon completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology, Freud lived and worked in Vienna, having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. In 1938 Freud left Austria to escape the Nazis and he died in exile in the United Kingdom in 1939. In creating psychoanalysis, Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association and discovered transference, Freuds redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to formulate the Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis of dreams as wish-fulfillments provided him with models for the analysis of symptom formation. On this basis Freud elaborated his theory of the unconscious and went on to develop a model of psychic structure comprising id, in his later work Freud developed a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture. Though in overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains influential within psychology, psychiatry, and psychotherapy, nonetheless, Freuds work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture. In the words of W. H. Audens 1940 poetic tribute, by the time of Freuds death, Freud was born to Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the first of eight children. Both of his parents were from Galicia, in modern-day Ukraine and his father, Jakob Freud, a wool merchant, had two sons, Emanuel and Philipp, by his first marriage. Jakobs family were Hasidic Jews, and although Jakob himself had moved away from the tradition and he and Freuds mother, Amalia Nathansohn, who was 20 years younger and his third wife, were married by Rabbi Isaac Noah Mannheimer on 29 July 1855. They were struggling financially and living in a room, in a locksmiths house at Schlossergasse 117 when their son Sigmund was born. He was born with a caul, which his mother saw as an omen for the boys future. In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg, Freuds half brothers emigrated to Manchester, England, parting him from the inseparable playmate of his early childhood, Emanuels son, John. Jakob Freud took his wife and two children firstly to Leipzig and then in 1860 to Vienna where four sisters and a brother were born, Rosa, Marie, Adolfine, Paula, in 1865, the nine-year-old Freud entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium, a prominent high school. He proved an outstanding pupil and graduated from the Matura in 1873 with honors and he loved literature and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew, Latin and Greek. Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17, in 1876, Freud spent four weeks at Clauss zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organs. He graduated with an MD in 1881, in 1882, Freud began his medical career at the Vienna General Hospital
20.
Erich Fromm
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Erich Seligmann Fromm was a German social psychologist, psychoanalyst, sociologist, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist. He was associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory, Erich Fromm was born on March 23,1900, at Frankfurt am Main, the only child of Orthodox Jewish parents. He started his studies in 1918 at the University of Frankfurt am Main with two semesters of jurisprudence. During the summer semester of 1919, Fromm studied at the University of Heidelberg, where he began studying sociology under Alfred Weber, psychiatrist-philosopher Karl Jaspers, Fromm received his PhD in sociology from Heidelberg in 1922. During the mid-1920s, he trained to become a psychoanalyst through Frieda Reichmanns psychoanalytic sanatorium in Heidelberg and he began his own clinical practice in 1927. In 1930 he joined the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research and completed his psychoanalytical training, after the Nazi takeover of power in Germany, Fromm moved first to Geneva and then, in 1934, to Columbia University in New York. Together with Karen Horney and Harry Stack Sullivan, Fromm belongs to a Neo-Freudian school of psychoanalytical thought, Horney and Fromm each had a marked influence on the others thought, with Horney illuminating some aspects of psychoanalysis for Fromm and the latter elucidating sociology for Horney. Their relationship ended in the late 1930s and he was on the faculty of Bennington College from 1941 to 1949, and taught courses at the New School for Social Research in New York from 1941 to 1959. When Fromm moved to Mexico City in 1949, he became a professor at the National Autonomous University of Mexico and he taught at UNAM until his retirement, in 1965, and at the Mexican Society of Psychoanalysis until 1974. In 1974 he moved from Mexico City to Muralto, Switzerland, all the while, Fromm maintained his own clinical practice and published a series of books. Indeed, Escape from Freedom is viewed as one of the works of political psychology. His second important work, Man for Himself, An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics, first published in 1947, taken together, these books outlined Fromms theory of human character, which was a natural outgrowth of Fromms theory of human nature. Central to Fromms world view was his interpretation of the Talmud and he began studying Talmud as a young man under Rabbi J. Horowitz and later under Rabbi Salman Baruch Rabinkow, a Chabad Hasid. While working towards his doctorate in sociology at the University of Heidelberg, Fromm studied the Tanya by the founder of Chabad, Fromm also studied under Nehemia Nobel and Ludwig Krause while studying in Frankfurt. Fromms grandfather and two great grandfathers on his fathers side were rabbis, and an uncle on his mothers side was a noted Talmudic scholar. However, Fromm turned away from orthodox Judaism in 1926, towards secular interpretations of scriptural ideals, the cornerstone of Fromms humanistic philosophy is his interpretation of the biblical story of Adam and Eves exile from the Garden of Eden. However, Fromm distinguished his concept of love from unreflective popular notions as well as Freudian paradoxical love. Fromm also asserted that few people in society had respect for the autonomy of their fellow human beings
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