1.
Hong Kong
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Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China, is an autonomous territory on the Pearl River Delta of East Asia. Macau lies across the delta to the west, and the Chinese province of Guangdong borders the territory to the north. With a total area of 1,106 square kilometres. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during World War II until British control resumed in 1945, under the principle of one country, two systems, Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative, in addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of appropriate fields. Hong Kong is one of the worlds most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the worlds most competitive and freest economic entity. As the worlds 8th largest trading entity, its legal tender, Hong Kongs tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by simple taxation with a competitive level of corporate tax and supported by its independent judiciary system. However, while Hong Kong has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world and it has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the worlds longest life expectancy. Over 90% of the population use of well-developed public transportation. Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring areas of Mainland China. Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island, before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour, literally means Little Hong Kong)—between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was a point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen. Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time, fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbours fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour, the name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926. Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric. As of 1997, its name is the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China. This is the title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law. Hong Kong has carried many nicknames, the most famous among those is the Pearl of the Orient, which reflected the impressive nightscape of the citys light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour
2.
Dewey Decimal Classification
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The Dewey Decimal Classification, or Dewey Decimal System, is a proprietary library classification system first published in the United States by Melvil Dewey in 1876. It has been revised and expanded through 23 major editions, the latest issued in 2011 and it is also available in an abridged version suitable for smaller libraries. It is currently maintained by the Online Computer Library Center, a cooperative that serves libraries. OCLC licenses access to a version for catalogers called WebDewey. The Decimal Classification introduced the concepts of relative location and relative index which allow new books to be added to a library in their location based on subject. Libraries previously had given books permanent shelf locations that were related to the order of acquisition rather than topic, the classifications notation makes use of three-digit Arabic numerals for main classes, with fractional decimals allowing expansion for further detail. Using Arabic numerals for symbols, it is flexible to the degree that numbers can be expanded in linear fashion to cover aspects of general subjects. A library assigns a number that unambiguously locates a particular volume in a position relative to other books in the library. The number makes it possible to find any book and to return it to its place on the library shelves. The classification system is used in 200,000 libraries in at least 135 countries, the major competing classification system to the Dewey Decimal system is the Library of Congress Classification system created by the U. S. Melvil Dewey was an American librarian and self-declared reformer and he was a founding member of the American Library Association and can be credited with the promotion of card systems in libraries and business. He developed the ideas for his classification system in 1873 while working at Amherst College library. He applied the classification to the books in library, until in 1876 he had a first version of the classification. In 1876, he published the classification in pamphlet form with the title A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and he used the pamphlet, published in more than one version during the year, to solicit comments from other librarians. It is not known who received copies or how many commented as only one copy with comments has survived, in March 1876, he applied for, and received copyright on the first edition of the index. The edition was 44 pages in length, with 2,000 index entries, comprised 314 pages, with 10,000 index entries. Editions 3–14, published between 1888 and 1942, used a variant of this same title, Dewey modified and expanded his system considerably for the second edition. In an introduction to that edition Dewey states that nearly 100 persons hav contributed criticisms, one of the innovations of the Dewey Decimal system was that of positioning books on the shelves in relation to other books on similar topics
3.
System
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A system is a set of interacting or interdependent component parts forming a complex or intricate whole. Every system is delineated by its spatial and temporal boundaries, surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. Alternatively, and usually in the context of social systems. The term system comes from the Latin word systēma, in turn from Greek σύστημα systēma, whole compounded of several parts or members, system, according to Marshall McLuhan, System means something to look at. You must have a high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, prior to Descartes, there was no system, in the 19th century the French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, who studied thermodynamics, pioneered the development of the concept of a system in the natural sciences. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the substance in steam engines. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, in 1850, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius generalized this picture to include the concept of the surroundings and began to use the term working body when referring to the system. The biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy became one of the pioneers of the systems theory. Norbert Wiener and Ross Ashby, who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems, in the 1980s John H. Holland, Murray Gell-Mann and others coined the term complex adaptive system at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute. Environment and boundaries Systems theory views the world as a system of interconnected parts. One scopes a system by defining its boundary, this means choosing which entities are inside the system, one can make simplified representations of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. These models may define the structure and behavior of the system, Natural and human-made systems There are natural and human-made systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their behavior can be interpreted as purposefull by an observer, human-made systems are made to satisfy an identified and stated need with purposes that are achieved by the delivery of wanted outputs. Their parts must be related, they must be designed to work as a coherent entity – otherwise they would be two or more distinct systems, Theoretical framework An open system exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings. Most systems are open systems, like a car, a coffeemaker, a closed system exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment, like Earth or the project Biosphere2 or 3. An isolated system exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment, a theoretical example of such system is the Universe. Inputs are consumed, outputs are produced, the concept of input and output here is very broad
4.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
5.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
6.
Knowledge
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Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It can be implicit or explicit, it can be more or less formal or systematic, however, several definitions of knowledge and theories to explain it exist. Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes, perception, communication, and reasoning, the eventual demarcation of philosophy from science was made possible by the notion that philosophys core was theory of knowledge, a theory distinct from the sciences because it was their foundation. Without this idea of a theory of knowledge, it is hard to imagine what philosophy could have been in the age of modern science, the definition of knowledge is a matter of ongoing debate among philosophers in the field of epistemology. Some claim that conditions are not sufficient, as Gettier case examples allegedly demonstrate. Richard Kirkham suggests that our definition of knowledge requires that the evidence for the belief necessitates its truth. In contrast to this approach, Ludwig Wittgenstein observed, following Moores paradox, that one can say He believes it, but it isnt so, but not He knows it, but it isnt so. He goes on to argue that these do not correspond to distinct mental states, what is different here is not the mental state of the speaker, but the activity in which they are engaged. For example, on account, to know that the kettle is boiling is not to be in a particular state of mind. Wittgenstein sought to bypass the difficulty of definition by looking to the way knowledge is used in natural languages and he saw knowledge as a case of a family resemblance. Following this idea, knowledge has been reconstructed as a concept that points out relevant features. Symbolic representations can be used to indicate meaning and can be thought of as a dynamic process, hence the transfer of the symbolic representation can be viewed as one ascription process whereby knowledge can be transferred. Other forms of communication include observation and imitation, verbal exchange, philosophers of language and semioticians construct and analyze theories of knowledge transfer or communication. In his collection of essays Technopoly, Neil Postman demonstrates the argument against the use of writing through an excerpt from Platos work Phaedrus, in this excerpt, the scholar Socrates recounts the story of Thamus, the Egyptian king and Theuth the inventor of the written word. In this story, Theuth presents his new invention writing to King Thamus, King Thamus is skeptical of this new invention and rejects it as a tool of recollection rather than retained knowledge. Media theorists like Andrew Robinson emphasise that the depiction of knowledge in the modern world was often seen as being truer than oral knowledge. It is harder to preserve records of what was said or who originally said it – usually neither the nor the content can be verified. Gossip and rumors are examples prevalent in both media, major libraries today can have millions of books of knowledge
7.
Conrad Gessner
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Conrad Gessner was a Swiss naturalist and bibliographer. He was well known as a botanist, physician and classical linguist and his five-volume Historia animalium is considered the beginning of modern zoology, and the flowering plant genus Gesneria and its family Gesneriaceae are named after him. A genus of moths is also named Gesneria after him and he is denoted by the author abbreviation Gesner when citing a botanical name. Gessner was born on March 26,1516 in Zürich, Switzerland, he was the son of Ursus Gessner, Gessners father realized he was clever, and sent him to live with a great uncle, who grew and collected medicinal herbs for a living. Here the boy became familiar with many plants and their medicinal purposes which led to a lifelong interest in natural history, Gessner first attended the Carolinum in Zürich, then he entered the Fraumünster seminary. In school, he impressed his teachers so much that a few of them helped him so he could further his education at universities such as Strassburg. One even acted as a father to him after the death of his father at the Battle of Kappel. After the death of his father he left Zürich and traveled to Strasbourg, here he broadened his knowledge of ancient languages by studying Hebrew at the Strasbourg Academy. In 1535, religious unrest drove him back to Zürich, where he made an imprudent marriage and his friends again came to his aid and enabled him to study at Basel. Throughout his life Gessner was interested in history, and collected specimens and descriptions of wildlife through travel and extensive correspondence with other friends. His approach to research consisted of four components, observation, dissection, travel to distant lands. This rising observational approach was new to Renaissance scholars because people usually relied completely upon Classical writers for their research and he died of the plague, the year after his ennoblement on December 13,1565. In 1537 his sponsors obtained for him the professorship of Greek at the newly founded academy of Lausanne, here he had leisure to devote himself to scientific studies, especially botany. After three years of teaching, Gessner was able to travel to the medical university of Montpellier. He then settled down to practice medicine in Zürich, where he obtained the post of lecturer of Aristotelean physics at the Carolinum, the precursor of the University of Zürich. After 1554 he became the city physician and it is there, apart from a few journeys to foreign countries and he devoted himself to preparing works on many subjects of different sorts. Gesners great zoological work, Historiae animalium, is a 4, a fifth folio on snakes was issued in 1587. A German translation of the first 4 volumes titled Thierbuch was published in Zürich in 1563 and this book was considered to be the first modern zoological work
8.
Jacques Charles Brunet
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Jacques Charles Brunet was a French bibliographer. He was born in Paris, the son of a bookseller, in 1810 the first edition of his bibliographical dictionary, Manuel du libraire et de lamateur des livres, appeared. Brunet published successive editions of the dictionary, which came to be recognized as the first book of its class in European literature. The last of the 6 volumes of the 5th edition of the Manuel du libraire contained a catalogue in which the works are arranged in classes according to their subjects. A supplement to this edition was published by P. Deschamps, among Brunets other works are Nouvelles Recherches bibliographiques, Recherches sur les éditions originales des cinq livres du roman satirique de Rabelais, and an edition of the French poems of J. G. Alione dAsti, dating from the beginning of the 16th century, Brunet has been praised as a worth successor to Guillaume-François Debure. In 1848 he received the decoration of the legion of honor, see also the notice by Antoine Le Roux de Lincy prefixed to the catalogue of his own valuable library. Manuel du libraire et de lamateur de livres, contenant 1°, 2°, une table en forme de catalogue raisonné. Paris, Brunet,1810,3 vol. in-8°, potier,1852, In-8°,144 et 58 p. Manuel du libraire et de lamateur de livres, Paris, Firmin Didot frères, 1860–1865. 6 vol. in-8 et son supplément4th ed and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Brunet, Jacques Charles. Rines, George Edwin, ed. Brunet, Jacques Charles, ripley, George, Dana, Charles A. eds
9.
Library of Congress Classification
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The Library of Congress Classification is a system of library classification developed by the Library of Congress. It is used by most research and academic libraries in the U. S. the Classification is also distinct from Library of Congress Subject Headings, the system of labels such as Boarding schools and Boarding schools—Fiction that describe contents systematically. The classification was invented by Herbert Putnam in 1897, just before he assumed the librarianship of Congress, with advice from Charles Ammi Cutter, it was influenced by his Cutter Expansive Classification, the Dewey Decimal System, and the Putnam Classification System. It was designed specifically for the purposes and collection of the Library of Congress to replace the fixed location system developed by Thomas Jefferson, by the time Putnam departed from his post in 1939, all the classes except K and parts of B were well developed. LCC has been criticized for lacking a theoretical basis, many of the classification decisions were driven by the practical needs of that library rather than epistemological considerations. Although it divides subjects into broad categories, it is essentially enumerative in nature and that is, it provides a guide to the books actually in one librarys collections, not a classification of the world. In 2007 the Wall Street Journal reported that in the countries it surveyed most public libraries, the National Library of Medicine classification system uses the initial letters W and QS–QZ, which are not used by LCC. Some libraries use NLM in conjunction with LCC, eschewing LCCs R for Medicine, others use LCCs QP–QR schedules and include Medicine R. Subclass AC – Collections. Collected works Subclass AE – Encyclopedias Subclass AG – Dictionaries and other reference works Subclass AI – Indexes Subclass AM – Museums. Collectors and collecting Subclass AN – Newspapers Subclass AP – Periodicals Subclass AS – Academies, directories Subclass AZ – History of scholarship and learning. The humanities Subclass B – Philosophy Subclass BC – Logic Subclass BD – Speculative philosophy Subclass BF – Psychology Subclass BH – Aesthetics Subclass BJ – Ethics Subclass BL – Religions, rationalism Subclass BM – Judaism Subclass BP – Islam. Seals Subclass CE – Technical Chronology, calendar Subclass CJ – Numismatics Subclass CN – Inscriptions. Former Soviet Republics – Poland Subclass DL – Northern Europe, maps Subclass GA – Mathematical geography. Cartography Subclass GB – Physical geography Subclass GC – Oceanography Subclass GE – Environmental Sciences Subclass GF – Human ecology, anthropogeography Subclass GN – Anthropology Subclass GR – Folklore Subclass GT – Manners and customs Subclass GV – Recreation. Leisure Subclass H – Social sciences Subclass HA – Statistics Subclass HB – Economic theory, demography Subclass HC – Economic history and conditions Subclass HD – Industries. Labor Subclass HE – Transportation and communications Subclass HF – Commerce Subclass HG – Finance Subclass HJ – Public finance Subclass HM – Sociology Subclass HN – Social history, Social reform Subclass HQ – The family. Marriage, Women and Sexuality Subclass HS – Societies, secret, benevolent, races Subclass HV – Social pathology. Municipal government Subclass JV – Colonies and colonization, International migration Subclass JX – International law, see JZ and KZ Subclass JZ – International relations Subclass K – Law in general
10.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
11.
Hierarchy
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A hierarchy is an arrangement of items in which the items are represented as being above, below, or at the same level as one another. A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally, indirect hierarchical links can extend vertically upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues, each reports to a superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are alternative and complementary to hierarchy. A hierarchy is a system or organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other according to status or authority, Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, for example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague, degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has a node has). Hierarchies can be categorized based on the degree, the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes, linear and branching, in a linear hierarchy, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a lineup, note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels, every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a hierarchy is the hierarchy of life. In a branching hierarchy, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more, for many people, the word hierarchy automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes, the broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree. A flat hierarchy is a hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span, therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms which can be decomposed into subatomic particles. An overlapping hierarchy is a hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word both in reference to the hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy
12.
S. R. Ranganathan
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Siyali Ramamrita Ranganathan was a mathematician and librarian from India. His most notable contributions to the field were his five laws of science and the development of the first major faceted classification system. He is considered to be the father of science, documentation. His birthday is observed every year as the National Library Day in India and he was a university librarian and professor of library science at Banaras Hindu University and professor of library science at the University of Delhi. The last appointment made him director of the first Indian school of librarianship to offer higher degrees and he was president of the Indian Library Association from 1944 to 1953. In 1957 he was elected a member of the International Federation for Information and Documentation and was made a vice-president for life of the Library Association of Great Britain. Ranganathan, born on 12 August 1892 to Ramamrita, in Siyali in British-ruled India at Tanjavoor District and his lifelong goal was to teach mathematics, and he was successively a member of the mathematics faculties at universities in Mangalore, Coimbatore and Madras). As a mathematics professor, he published mainly on the history of mathematics. His career as an educator was somewhat hindered by stammering, the Government of India awarded Padmashri to Dr. S. R. Ranganathan in 1957 for valuable contributions to Library Science, in 1923, the University of Madras created the post of University Librarian to oversee their poorly organized collection. His sole knowledge of librarianship came from an Encyclopædia Britannica article he read days before the interview, Ranganathan was initially reluctant to pursue the position. To his own surprise, he received the appointment and accepted the position in January 1924, at first, Ranganathan found the solitude of the position was intolerable. In a matter of weeks, complaining of boredom, he went back to the university administration to beg for his teaching position back. Ranganathan travelled to University College London, which at that time housed the only degree program in library science in Britain. As an outsider, he focused on what he perceived to be flaws with the decimal classification. He also devised the Acknowledgment of Duplication, which states that any system of classification of information necessarily implies at least two different classifications for any given datum. He anecdotally proved this with the Dewey Decimal Classification by taking several books, for example, a book on warfare in India could be classified under warfare or India. To Ranganathan, a structured, step-by-step system acknowledging each facet of the topic of the work was immensely preferable to the anarchy and intellectual laziness of the DDC
13.
Library catalog
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A library catalog or library catalogue is a register of all bibliographic items found in a library or group of libraries, such as a network of libraries at several locations. The card catalog was a sight to library users for generations. Some still refer to the catalog as a card catalog. Some libraries with OPAC access still have card catalogs on site, many libraries that retain their physical card catalog will post a sign advising the last year that the card catalog was updated. Some libraries have eliminated their card catalog in favour of the OPAC for the purpose of saving space for other use, the largest library catalog in the world is the WorldCat. org union catalog managed by the non-profit library cooperative OCLC, based in Dublin, Ohio. In January 2016, WorldCat. org had over 360,000,000 catalog records, charles Ammi Cutter made the first explicit statement regarding the objectives of a bibliographic system in his Rules for a Printed Dictionary Catalog in 1876. 1960/61 Cutters objectives were revised by Lubetzky and the Conference on Cataloging Principles in Paris, a catalog also serves as an inventory or bookkeeping of the librarys contents. If an item is not found in the catalog, the user may continue her search at another library, Library thieves, who may be staff or regular visitors of the library, risk discovery if an item listed in the catalog is missing from the shelves. To reduce this risk, a thief may also steal the catalog card describing the item, a catalog card is an individual entry in a library catalog containing bibliographic information, including author’s name, book title, and even approximate location. The first cards used may have been French playing cards, which, in November of 1789, the French began collecting all books from religious houses and decided to use these books to build a system of public libraries, including creating an inventory of all books. The backs of the cards contained the bibliographic information for each book. English inventor Francis Ronalds began using a catalog of cards to manage his growing book collection around 1815, in the mid-1800s, Natale Battezzati, an Italian publisher, developed a card system for booksellers in which cards represented authors, titles and subjects. Very shortly afterward, Melvil Dewey and other American librarians began to champion the card catalog because of its great expandability, in some libraries books were catalogued based on the size of the book while other libraries organized based only on the author’s name. This made finding a book difficult, Dewey and others devised a new system. Books were organized by subject then those would be organized based on the author’s name. Each book was assigned a “call number” which identified the subject, the decimal points divided different sections of the call number. The call number on the card matched a number written on the spine of each book and he published his findings in the Annual Report of the Library for 1863 and were adopted by many American libraries. Work on the began in 1862 and within the first year 35,762 catalog cards had been created
14.
Library management
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Library management is a sub-discipline of institutional management that focuses on specific issues faced by libraries and library management professionals. Library management encompasses normal managerial tasks, as well as intellectual freedom, issues faced in library management frequently overlap with those faced in managing non-profit organizations. The use of systems have caused librarians to develop and leverage common constructs that act as tools for both library professionals and library users alike. These constructs include master catalogs, domain catalogs, indexes, unique identifiers, unique identifier tokens, and artifacts. A master catalog acts as a catalog of all domain or topic-specific catalogs and often directs the user to a specific area of a library. In contrast, domain catalogs are usually made up of a system of large libraries. As a result, the master catalog leads the user to domain catalogs that contain references to specific artifacts that fall within the category or domain assigned to that catalog. For example, a large library may have many domain catalogs—one for law, one for history, one for fiction. In the case of smaller libraries where the use of domain catalogs are unnecessary, indexes represent a grouping of artifacts by some relevant grouping constraint. The most common index groupings are by title, by subject, often referred to more simply as IDs, unique identifiers represent a means of assigning and tagging an artifact with a readable string of characters that is unique to that single artifact. Such identifiers usually include the address or location of the artifact within the library, unique identification strings are broken into predefined and fixed position segments or sub-strings. Each segment is called a token and represents a mapping to something meaningful, such tokens are often separated by a character that is often referred to as a tokenizer. Artifacts represent those things or authorized copies of things that are being categorized, stored within. Examples of artifacts include books, periodicals, research documentation, film, an important aspect of library management is planning and maintaining library facilities. To supplement their budget, managers often secure funding through donor gifts. Many facilities have begun including cafes, Friends of the Library spaces and these areas should be taken into account when planning for building expansions. The site for new construction must be found, then the building must be designed, constructed, once established, it is important that the building is regularly maintained. This may be completed by delegating tasks to maintenance personnel or by hiring an outside company through bids, LLAMA membership includes a free subscription to the online quarterly magazine Library Leadership & Management, as well as discounts on other publications and related conferences
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The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
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Authority control
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The word authority in authority control derives from the idea that the names of people, places, things, and concepts are authorized, i. e. they are established in one particular form. The unique header can guide users to all relevant information including related or collocated subjects, accordingly, authority control is an example of controlled vocabulary and of bibliographic control. Subject headings from the Library of Congress fulfill a similar to authority records. As time passes, information changes, prompting needs for reorganization, Authority control helps researchers get a handle on a specific subject with less wasted effort. A well-designed digital catalog/database enables a researcher to query a few words of an entry to bring up the established term or phrase, thus improving accuracy. It can be used in conjunction with keyword searching using and or not or or or other Boolean operators on a web browser and it increases chances that a given search will return relevant items. The process of authority control is not only of great help to researchers searching for a subject to study. Cataloguers can use authority records when trying to categorize new items, since they can see which records have already been catalogued and it enables cataloguers to detect and correct errors. In some instances, software programs support workers tasked with maintaining the catalog to do ongoing tasks such as automated clean-up and it helps creators and users of metadata. It can help catch errors caused by typos or misspellings which can accumulate over time. For example, machines can catch such as Elementary school techers. Sometimes within a catalog there are different names or spellings for only one person or subject and this can bring confusion since researchers may miss some information. Authority control is used by cataloguers to collocate materials that belong together. Records are used to establish uniform titles which collocate all versions of a work under one unique heading even when such versions are issued under different titles. In an online catalog, various entries might look like the following. Diana, Princess of Wales, 1961-1997 Diana, Princess of Wales 1961-1997 Diana, Princess of Wales, 1961-1997 DIANA, PRINCESS OF WALES, Diana, Princess of Wales, - Iconography. These different terms describe the same person, one international effort to prevent such confusion is the Virtual International Authority File which is a collaborative attempt to provide a single heading for a particular subject. The idea is to create a single virtual authority file
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Commonsense reasoning
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These assumptions include judgments about the physical properties, purpose, intentions and behavior of people and objects, as well as possible outcomes of their actions and interactions. A device that exhibits commonsense reasoning will be capable of predicting results and drawing conclusions that are similar to humans folk psychology and naive physics. In Artificial intelligence, commonsense knowledge is the set of information that an individual is intended to know or assume. The way to obtain commonsense is by learning it or experiencing it, in communication, it is what people don’t have to say because the interlocutor is expected to know or make a presumption about. Due to the scope of the commonsense knowledge this issue is considered to be among the most difficult ones in the AI research sphere. In order for any task to be done as a human mind would manage it, such tasks include object recognition, machine translation and text mining. To perform them, the machine has to be aware of the concepts that an individual. In 1961, Bar Hillel first discussed the need and significance of knowledge for natural language processing in the context of machine translation. Some ambiguities are resolved by using simple and easy to acquire rules, others require a broad acknowledgement of the surrounding world, thus they require more commonsense knowledge. For instance when a machine is used to translate a text, problems of ambiguity arise, Online translators often resolve ambiguities using analogous or similar words. The machine has seen and read in the body of texts that the German words for laboring, the same applies for telephone and function properly. However, the statistical proxy which works in simple cases often fails in complex ones, existing computer programs carry out simple language tasks by manipulating short phrases or separate words, but they don’t attempt any deeper understanding and focus on short-term results. Issues of this kind arise in computer vision, in an isolated image they would be difficult to identify. Movies prove to be more difficult tasks. Some movies contain scenes and moments that cannot be understood by simply matching memorized templates to images, for instance, to understand the context of the movie, the viewer is required to make inferences about characters’ intentions and make presumptions depending on their behavior. In the contemporary state of the art, it is impossible to build and manage a program that will perform tasks as reasoning. The most that can be done is to identify basic actions, the need and importance of commоnsеnse rеasoning in autonomous robots that work in a real-life uncontrolled environment is evident. Such tasks seem obvious when an individual possess simple commonsense reasoning, significant progress in the field of the automated commonsense reasoning is made in the areas of the taxonomic reasoning, actions and change reasoning, reasoning about time
