1.
Lighthouse of Praia da Barra
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The Lighthouse of Praia da Barra, also known as the Aveiro Lighthouse is an active lighthouse in the civil parish of Gafanha da Nazaré, municipality of Ílhavo, in the Portuguese district of Aveiro. Open to the public, visits are held Wednesdays from 14,00 to 17,00, the authorities had rejected the idea of reusing the signal tower from the Fort of Barra in order to construct the Barra light in 1858. On 14 October 1870, by dispatch a general plan was approved for the coast. The plan for the lighthouse was approved in 1879, that included a tower of 55 metres high. The construction of the lighthouse occurred between 1879 and 1893, after alterations to the original project and this lighthouse replaced the services of the Hermitage of Senhora das Areias which, from the writings of friar Agostinho de Santa Maria. The first beacon was an incandescent petrol lamp and horn combination, in addition, the Holmes fog signal was installed at the same time to provide a warning in the fog. By 1929, the lighthouse was repaired following the several faults, public works occurred this year, that included the isolation of the main structure with tiled walls and the installation of 14 cement columns to reinforce the building. In 1950, the lighthouse was added to the electrical network. Between 1958 and 1959, the DGEMN began building repairs, under the auspice of the Serviços de Construção e Conservação, in the following four years an elevator was built to provide access to the beacon, and the light was automated in 1990. The lighthouse is situated along the mouth of the Vouga River, in the village of Barra, along the Avenida Fernão de Magalhães. The lighthouse tower is 62 metres high, with the beacon extending to 66 metres height, the round stone tower rises from a two-story lighthouse keepers house, supported by a spiral staircase of 271 stone steps, while the elevator rises through the middle of the spiral stairway. List of lighthouses in Portugal List of tallest lighthouses in the world List of Lights,113, The West Coasts of Europe and Africa, the Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and Azovskoye More. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, gCX49T Farol de Aveiro in Aveiro, Portugal created by Malok0, geocaching
2.
Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
3.
Lens (optics)
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A lens is a transmissive optical device that focuses or disperses a light beam by means of refraction. A simple lens consists of a piece of transparent material, while a compound lens consists of several simple lenses. Lenses are made from such as glass or plastic, and are ground. A lens can focus light to form an image, unlike a prism, devices that similarly focus or disperse waves and radiation other than visible light are also called lenses, such as microwave lenses, electron lenses, acoustic lenses, or explosive lenses. The word lens comes from the Latin name of the lentil, the genus of the lentil plant is Lens, and the most commonly eaten species is Lens culinaris. The lentil plant also gives its name to a geometric figure, the variant spelling lense is sometimes seen. While it is listed as a spelling in some dictionaries. The oldest lens artifact is the Nimrud lens, dating back 2700 years to ancient Assyria, david Brewster proposed that it may have been used as a magnifying glass, or as a burning-glass to start fires by concentrating sunlight. Another early reference to magnification dates back to ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs in the 8th century BC, the earliest written records of lenses date to Ancient Greece, with Aristophanes play The Clouds mentioning a burning-glass. Some scholars argue that the evidence indicates that there was widespread use of lenses in antiquity. Such lenses were used by artisans for fine work, and for authenticating seal impressions, both Pliny and Seneca the Younger described the magnifying effect of a glass globe filled with water. The Viking lenses were capable of concentrating enough sunlight to ignite fires, between the 11th and 13th century reading stones were invented. Often used by monks to assist in illuminating manuscripts, these were primitive plano-convex lenses initially made by cutting a sphere in half. As the stones were experimented with, it was understood that shallower lenses magnified more effectively. Lenses came into use in Europe with the invention of spectacles. Spectacle makers created improved types of lenses for the correction of vision based more on knowledge gained from observing the effects of the lenses. With the invention of the telescope and microscope there was a deal of experimentation with lens shapes in the 17th. Opticians tried to construct lenses of varying forms of curvature, wrongly assuming errors arose from defects in the figure of their surfaces
4.
Navigational aid
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A navigational aid is any sort of marker which aids the traveler in navigation, the term is most commonly used to refer to nautical or aviation travel. Common types of such aids include lighthouses, buoys, fog signals, red ATONs always have even numbers, and green ATONs have odd numbers. Under the IALA B standard used in North and South America, when you are going to sea, the red ATON is on your left, under the IALA A standard used in Europe, Africa and most of Asia, the colors are reversed. In the IALA B system, the red ATONs are on your right when you return from sea, red daybeacons are triangles and green daybeacons are squares. All of these ATONs are Lateral Markers that mark traffic channels and these give the direction of safe water as a cardinal direction relative to the mark. There are also other markers that give information other than the edges of safe waters, most are white with orange markings and black lettering. They are used to give direction and information, warn of hazards and destructions, mark controlled areas and these ATONs do not mark traffic channels. On non-lateral markers, there are shapes that show certain things, Squares show information, including places to find food, supplies. Diamonds warn about dangers like rocks, construction, dams, or stumps, circles mark a controlled area such as no wake, idles speed, speed limit, or ski zone. Crossed diamonds show areas off limits to all boats, like swimming areas, there are some special colored ATONs. When there are red and green stripes, you are at the junction of two channels. The ATONs indicate the primary channel, if the green is on the top, the preferred channel is to the right. If the red is on top, the channel is to the left. The light matches the top stripe color and these ATONs are sometimes called junction buoys. ATONs are often integrated with Automatic Identification System, e. g. a lighthouse can be equipped with an AIS transmitter. Sometimes it is impractical to equip the ATON with an AIS transponder and this is known as a synthetic ATON. Lead marks and lights are fixed markers that are displaced to allow a mariner to navigate a fixed channel along the preferred route. They are also known as channel markers and they can normally be used coming into and out of the channel
5.
Maritime pilot
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A pilot, also referred to as a marine pilot, maritime pilot, or harbor pilot is a mariner who manoeuvres ships through dangerous or congested waters, such as harbors or river mouths. Since the pilot is on board the ship, he controls the tugs and linesmen through a radio, the ships captain ensures his crew carry out the pilots orders. Even if a ship Captain is a visitor to a certain Port, he can not match the expertise. In an unfortunate case of an accident, high pollution is a risk as the ships carry thousands of tonnes of fuel for her own consumption. Also if a ship is wrecked in the channel, the channel, legally, the master has full responsibility for safe navigation of his vessel, even if a pilot is on board. Only in transit of the Panama Canal and in Canada does the pilot have the responsibility for the navigation of the vessel. In English law, Section 742 of the Merchant Shipping Act 1894 defines a pilot as any person not belonging to a ship who has the conduct thereof. In other words, someone other than a member of the crew who has control over the speed, direction, the current United Kingdom legislation governing pilotage is the Pilotage Act 1987. Pilotage is one of the oldest professions, as old as sea travel, the oldest recorded history dates back to about the 7th century BC. The economic and environmental risk from large cargo ships makes the role of the pilot essential. Eventually, because the act of pilotage needed to be regulated and to ensure pilots had adequate insurance. The California Board of Pilot Commissioners was the first government agency created by Californias legislature, before harbour boards were established, pilots known as hobblers would compete with one another. The first to reach a ship would navigate it to the docks. In Dún Laoghaire, Ireland, there is a monument to the hobblers who lost their lives, in Kent they were known as hovellers and worked alongside and in competition with the licensed pilots, but were sometimes blamed as wreckers. George Byng Gattie defends the hovellers or hobilers as lifesavers in his 1890 book about the Goodwin Sands, although licensed by the harbour to operate within their jurisdiction, pilots were generally self-employed, and so had to have quick transport to get from the port to the incoming ships. As pilots were often still dual-employed, they used their own fishing boats to reach the incoming vessels, but fishing boats were heavy working boats, and filled with fishing equipment, hence a new type of boat was required. Early boats were developed from single-masted cutters and twin-masted yawls, and these were effectively light-weight and over-powered single masted boats with large steeply angled keels, making them deep draft under power and shallow draft in lighter sail. Joseph Henderson was an early American harbor pilot and he is well known for being a Sandy Hook Pilot for the New York harbor and along the Atlantic Coast during the Civil War
6.
Shoal
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Often it refers to those submerged ridges, banks, or bars that rise near enough to the surface of a body of water as to constitute a danger to navigation. Shoals are also known as sandbanks, sandbars, or gravelbars, two or more shoals that are either separated by shared troughs or interconnected by past and or present sedimentary and hydrographic processes are referred to as a shoal complex. The term shoal is also used in a number of ways that can be similar or quite different from how it is used in the geologic, geomorphic. Shoals are characteristically long and narrow ridges and they can develop where a stream, river, or ocean current promotes deposition of sediment and granular material, resulting in localized shallowing of the water. Marine shoals also develop either by the in place drowning of barrier islands as the result of sea level rise or by the erosion. Shoals can appear as a coastal landform in the sea, where they are classified as a type of bank, or as fluvial landforms in rivers, streams. A shoal–sandbar may seasonally separate a smaller body of water from the sea, such as, Marine lagoons Brackish water estuaries Freshwater seasonal stream and river mouths and deltas. They are typically composed of sand, although they could be of any matter that the moving water has access to and is capable of shifting around. Wave shoaling is the process when surface waves move towards shallow water, such as a beach, they slow down, their wave height increases and this behavior is called shoaling, and the waves are said to shoal. The waves may or may not build to the point where they break, depending on how large they were to begin with, in particular, waves shoal as they pass over submerged sandbanks or reefs. This can be treacherous for boats and ships, shoaling can also diffract waves, so the waves change direction. For example, if waves pass over a bank which is shallower at one end than the other. Thus the wave fronts will refract, changing direction like light passing through a prism, refraction also occurs as waves move towards a beach if the waves come in at an angle to the beach, or if the beach slopes more gradually at one end than the other. Sandbars, also known as a trough bars, form where the waves are breaking, sometimes this occurs seaward of a trough. Sand carried by the moving bottom current is deposited where the current reaches the wave break. Other longshore bars may lie further offshore, representing the point of even larger waves. A harbor or river bar is a sedimentary deposit formed at an entrance or river mouth by. Where beaches are suitably mobile, or the river’s suspended and/or bed loads are large enough, deposition can build up a sandbar that completely blocks a river mouth and damming the river
7.
Reef
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A reef is a bar of rock, sand, coral or similar material, lying beneath the surface of water. Reefs may be up to 261 feet below the surface, artificial reefs such as shipwrecks are sometimes created to enhance physical complexity on generally featureless sand bottoms in order to attract a diverse assemblage of organisms, especially fish. There is a variety of reef types, including oyster reefs. These biotic reef types take on additional names depending upon how the reef lies in relation to the land, Reef types include fringing reef, barrier reefs, as well as atolls. A fringing reef is a reef that is attached to an island, a barrier reef forms a calcareous barrier around an island resulting in a lagoon between the shore and the reef. An atoll is a reef with no land present. The reef front is a high energy locale whereas the internal lagoon will be at an energy with fine grained sediments. One useful definition distinguishes reefs from mounds as follows, reefs are held up by a macroscopic skeletal framework. Coral reefs are an excellent example of this kind, corals and calcareous algae grow on top of one another and form a three-dimensional framework that is modified in various ways by other organisms and inorganic processes. By contrast, mounds lack a macroscopic skeletal framework, mounds are built by microorganisms or by organisms that dont grow a skeletal framework. A microbial mound might be built exclusively or primarily by cyanobacteria, excellent examples of biostromes formed by cyanobacteria occur in the Great Salt Lake of Utah, and in Shark Bay, Western Australia. Cyanobacteria do not have skeletons and individuals are microscopic, cyanobacteria encourage the precipitation or accumulation of calcium carbonate and can produce distinct sediment bodies in composition that have relief on the seafloor. Cyanobacterial mounds were most abundant before the evolution of shelly macroscopic organisms, bryozoans and crinoids, common contributors to marine sediments during the Mississippian, produced a very different kind of mound. Bryozoans are small and the skeletons of crinoids disintegrate, however, bryozoan and crinoid meadows can persist over time and produce compositionally distinct bodies of sediment with depositional relief. The Proterozoic Belt Supergroup contains evidence of microbial mat and dome structures similar to stromatolite reef complexes. Ancient reefs buried within stratigraphic sections are of considerable interest to geologists because they provide information about the location in Earths history. Corals, including some major extinct groups Rugosa and Tabulata, have been important reef builders through much of the Phanerozoic since the Ordovician Period. However, other groups, such as calcifying algae, especially members of the red algae Rhodophyta
8.
Air navigation
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The basic principles of air navigation are identical to general navigation, which includes the process of planning, recording, and controlling the movement of a craft from one place to another. Successful air navigation involves piloting an aircraft from place to place without getting lost, breaking the laws applying to aircraft, air navigation differs from the navigation of surface craft in several ways, Aircraft travel at relatively high speeds, leaving less time to calculate their position on route. Aircraft normally cannot stop in mid-air to ascertain their position at leisure, Aircraft are safety-limited by the amount of fuel they can carry, a surface vehicle can usually get lost, run out of fuel, then simply await rescue. There is no rescue for most aircraft. Additionally, collisions with obstructions are usually fatal, therefore, constant awareness of position is critical for aircraft pilots. The techniques used for navigation in the air will depend on whether the aircraft is flying under visual flight rules or instrument flight rules. In the latter case, the pilot will navigate exclusively using instruments and radio navigation such as beacons. In the VFR case, a pilot will largely navigate using dead reckoning combined with visual observations and this may be supplemented using radio navigation aids. The first step in navigation is deciding where one wishes to go, a private pilot planning a flight under VFR will usually use an aeronautical chart of the area which is published specifically for the use of pilots. This map will depict controlled airspace, radio aids and airfields prominently, as well as hazards to flying such as mountains, tall radio masts. It also includes sufficient ground detail - towns, roads, wooded areas - to aid visual navigation, in the UK, the CAA publishes a series of maps covering the whole of the UK at various scales, updated annually. The information is updated in the notices to airmen, or NOTAMs. The pilot will choose a route, taking care to avoid controlled airspace that is not permitted for the flight, restricted areas, danger areas, the chosen route is plotted on the map, and the lines drawn are called the track. The aim of all subsequent navigation is to follow the track as accurately as possible. Occasionally, the pilot may elect on one leg to follow a clearly visible feature on the such as a railway track, river, highway. The pilot must adjust heading to compensate for the wind, in order to follow the ground track and these figures are generally accurate and updated several times per day, but the unpredictable nature of the weather means that the pilot must be prepared to make further adjustments in flight. A general aviation pilot will make use of either the E6B flight computer – a type of slide rule – or a purpose-designed electronic navigational computer to calculate initial headings. The primary instrument of navigation is the magnetic compass, the needle or card aligns itself to magnetic north, which does not coincide with true north, so the pilot must also allow for this, called the magnetic variation
9.
History of lighthouses
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The history of lighthouses refers to the development of the use of towers, buildings, or other types of structure, as an aid to navigation for maritime pilots at sea or on inland waterways. Before the development of clearly defined ports, mariners were guided by fires built on hilltops, since raising the fire would improve the visibility, placing the fire on a platform became a practice that led to the development of the lighthouse. In antiquity, the lighthouse functioned more as a marker to ports than as a warning signal for reefs and promontories. According to Homeric legend, Palamidis of Nafplio invented the first lighthouse, although they are attested with the Lighthouse of Alexandria. However, Themistocles had earlier established a lighthouse at the harbor of Piraeus connected to Athens in the 5th century BC, coins from Alexandria, Ostia, and Laodicea in Syria also exist. While the evidence provides insight into the structure of these structures. The remains at A Coruña and Dover help determine how each lighthouse structure functioned, the example from Dover has been converted at some stage into a simple watchtower. Lighthouse keepers may have added combustible liquids to reduce the expenditure on fuel and keep the light steady during gales, but little information exists in the literature from the time. It may also be possible that the light was protected from the wind by glass windows and it is likely that lighthouses would have required considerable labour for transporting the fuel and maintaining the flame. At Cape Hatteras in the 1870s, one keeper and two assistants kept themselves busy by tending more sophisticated flames from powerful oil lamps, while artistic representations assist us in re-creating a visual image of lighthouses, they present many problems. Depictions of lighthouses on Roman coins, inscriptions, carvings, most show a building with two or three stories that decreases in width as it ascends. The limited size of coins could cause the producer of the coin to alter the image to fit on the surface, the similarity in depictions of lighthouses is symbolic rather than accurate representations of specific beacons. As navigation improved, lighthouses gradually expanded into Western and Northern Europe, one of the oldest working lighthouses in Europe is Hook Lighthouse located at Hook Head in County Wexford, Ireland. It was built during the period, in a sturdy –circular design. A century later, in the Late Middle Ages, a 40-foot tower was built by Edward the Black Prince at Cordouan near the Gironde estuary, one hundred years later, in 1581, Henri III asked architect Louis de Foix to build a new one. Building the lighthouse took twenty-seven years and was completed in 1611. The tiered Cordouan symbolized French maritime power and prestige, the interior had sumptuous kings apartments, decorated pillars and murals. The tower later became the first to use the revolutionary Fresnel lens, in the early 1820s. )In Britain, lighthouses were privately owned and the right to collect dues was by warrant either from a local authority or the crown
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Lighthouse of Alexandria
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The Lighthouse of Alexandria, sometimes called the Pharos of Alexandria, was a lighthouse built by the Ptolemaic Kingdom between 280 and 247 BC which was between 120 and 137 m tall. One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, for centuries it was one of the tallest man-made structures in the world. Badly damaged by three earthquakes between AD956 and 1323, it became an abandoned ruin. It was the third longest surviving ancient wonder until 1480, when the last of its remnant stones were used to build the Citadel of Qaitbay on the site, in 1994, French archaeologists discovered some remains of the lighthouse on the floor of Alexandrias Eastern Harbour. The Ministry of State of Antiquities in Egypt has planned, as of late 2015, to turn submerged ruins of ancient Alexandria, including those of the Pharos, Pharos was a small island located on the western edge of the Nile Delta. In 332 BC Alexander the Great founded the city of Alexandria on an isthmus opposite Pharos, Alexandria and Pharos were later connected by a mole spanning more than 1200 metres, which was called the Heptastadion. The east side of the mole became the Great Harbour, now an open bay, on the west side lay the port of Eunostos, the lighthouse was constructed in the 3rd century BC. After Alexander the Great died of a fever at age 32, the first Ptolemy announced himself king in 305 BC, the building was finished during the reign of his son, the second Ptolemy. It took twelve years to complete, at a total cost of 800 talents, the light was produced by a furnace at the top, and the tower was said to have been built mostly with solid blocks of limestone. Strabo reported that Sostratus had a dedication inscribed in letters to the Saviour Gods. Later Pliny the Elder wrote that Sostratus was the architect, which is disputed, in the second century AD the satirist Lucian wrote that Sostratus inscribed his name under plaster bearing the name of Ptolemy. This was so that when the plaster with Ptolemys name fell off, judith McKenzie writes that The Arab descriptions of the lighthouse are remarkably consistent, although it was repaired several times especially after earthquake damage. The height they give varies only fifteen per cent from c.103 to 118 m, the fullest description of the lighthouse comes from Arab traveller Abou Haggag Youssef Ibn Mohammed el-Balawi el-Andaloussi, who visited Alexandria in A. D.1166. At its apex was positioned a mirror which reflected sunlight during the day, extant Roman coins struck by the Alexandrian mint show that a statue of a Triton was positioned on each of the buildings four corners. A statue of Poseidon or Zeus stood atop the lighthouse, the Phaross masonry blocks were interlocked, sealed together using molten lead, to withstand the pounding of the waves. Al-Masudi writes that the eastern side featured an inscription dedicated to Zeus. The lighthouse was damaged in the earthquake of 956. Finally the stubby remnant disappeared in 1480, when the then-Sultan of Egypt, Qaitbay, the search was cunningly made in such a manner that the foundations were undermined, and the Pharos collapsed
11.
Port
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A port is a location on a coast or shore containing one or more harbors where ships can dock and transfer people or cargo to or from land. Port locations are selected to optimize access to land and navigable water, for commercial demand, Ports with deeper water are rarer, but can handle larger ships. Since ports throughout history handled every kind of traffic, support and storage facilities vary widely, may extend for miles, some ports have an important military role. One of the worlds oldest known artificial harbors is at Wadi al-Jarf on the Red Sea, along with the finding of harbor structures, ancient anchors have also been found. Guangzhou was an important port during the ancient times as far back as the Qin Dynasty, canopus was the principal port in Egypt for Greek trade before the foundation of Alexandria. Athens port of Piraeus was the base for the Athenian fleet, lothal is one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilisation, located in the Bhāl region of the modern state of Gujarāt and dating from 3700 BCE. Ostia Antica was the port of ancient Rome with Portus established by Claudius, Ports often have cargo-handling equipment, such as cranes and forklifts for use in loading ships, which may be provided by private interests or public bodies. Often, canneries or other processing facilities will be located nearby, some ports feature canals, which allow ships further movement inland. Access to intermodal transportation, such as railroads and highways, is critical to a port, so that passengers, Ports with international traffic have customs facilities. Harbor pilots and tugboats may maneuver large ships in tight quarters when near docks, the terms port and seaport are used for different types of port facilities that handle ocean-going vessels, and river port is used for river traffic, such as barges and other shallow-draft vessels. An inland port is a port on a lake, river, or canal with access to a sea or ocean. An example of this is the St. Lawrence Seaway which allows ships to travel from the Atlantic Ocean several thousand kilometers inland to Great Lakes ports like Duluth-Superior, a fishing port is a port or harbor for landing and distributing fish. It may be a facility, but it is usually commercial. A fishing port is the port that depends on an ocean product. In recent decades, regulations to save fishing stock may limit the use of a fishing port, a dry port is an inland intermodal terminal directly connected by road or rail to a seaport and operating as a centre for the transshipment of sea cargo to inland destinations. A warm-water port is one where the water does not freeze in wintertime, because they are available year-round, warm-water ports can be of great geopolitical or economic interest. A seaport is further categorized as a port or a cargo port. Additionally, cruise ports are known as a home port or a port of call
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Alexandria
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Alexandria is the second largest city and a major economic centre in Egypt, extending about 32 km along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the north central part of the country. Its low elevation on the Nile delta makes it vulnerable to rising sea levels. Alexandria is Egypts largest seaport, serving approximately 80% of Egypts imports and exports and it is an important industrial center because of its natural gas and oil pipelines from Suez. Alexandria is also an important tourist destination, Alexandria was founded around a small Ancient Egyptian town c.331 BC by Alexander the Great. Alexandria was the second most powerful city of the ancient world after Rome, Alexandria is believed to have been founded by Alexander the Great in April 331 BC as Ἀλεξάνδρεια. Alexanders chief architect for the project was Dinocrates, Alexandria was intended to supersede Naucratis as a Hellenistic center in Egypt, and to be the link between Greece and the rich Nile valley. The city and its museum attracted many of the greatest scholars, including Greeks, Jews, the city was later plundered and lost its significance. Just east of Alexandria, there was in ancient times marshland, as early as the 7th century BC, there existed important port cities of Canopus and Heracleion. The latter was rediscovered under water. An Egyptian city, Rhakotis, already existed on the shore also and it continued to exist as the Egyptian quarter of the city. A few months after the foundation, Alexander left Egypt and never returned to his city, after Alexanders departure, his viceroy, Cleomenes, continued the expansion. Although Cleomenes was mainly in charge of overseeing Alexandrias continuous development, the Heptastadion, inheriting the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming the center of the new commerce between Europe and the Arabian and Indian East, the city grew in less than a generation to be larger than Carthage. In a century, Alexandria had become the largest city in the world and and it became Egypts main Greek city, with Greek people from diverse backgrounds. Alexandria was not only a center of Hellenism, but was home to the largest urban Jewish community in the world. The Septuagint, a Greek version of the Tanakh, was produced there, in AD115, large parts of Alexandria were destroyed during the Kitos War, which gave Hadrian and his architect, Decriannus, an opportunity to rebuild it. On 21 July 365, Alexandria was devastated by a tsunami, the Islamic prophet, Muhammads first interaction with the people of Egypt occurred in 628, during the Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha. He sent Hatib bin Abi Baltaeh with a letter to the king of Egypt and Alexandria called Muqawqis In the letter Muhammad said, I invite you to accept Islam, Allah the sublime, shall reward you doubly. But if you refuse to do so, you bear the burden of the transgression of all the Copts
13.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
14.
Tower of Hercules
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The Tower of Hercules is an ancient Roman lighthouse on a peninsula about 2.4 kilometers from the centre of A Coruña, Galicia, in north-western Spain. Until the 20th century, the tower itself was known as the Farum Brigantium, the Latin word farum is derived from the Greek pharos for the Lighthouse of Alexandria. The structure is 55 metres tall and overlooks the North Atlantic coast of Spain, the structure, almost 1900 years old and and renovated in 1791, is the oldest Roman lighthouse in use today. There is a garden featuring works by Pablo Serrano and Francisco Leiro. The Tower of Hercules is a National Monument of Spain, and it is the second tallest lighthouse in Spain, after the Faro de Chipiona. The tower is known to have existed by the 2nd century, built or perhaps rebuilt under Trajan and it is thought to be modeled after the Lighthouse of Alexandria. The tower has been in constant use since the 2nd century and is considered to be the oldest existing lighthouse in the world, the restoration was undertaken by naval engineer Eustaquio Giannini during the reign of Charles III of Spain, and was finished in 1791. Within, the much-repaired Roman and medieval masonry may be inspected, the Romans who conquered this region of Spain believed it to be, in a figurative sense, the end of the earth, whence its name Finisterra. This region is notorious for shipwrecks, earning it the name Costa da Morte, through the millennia many mythical stories of its origin have been told. According to a myth that blends Celtic and Greco-Roman elements, the hero Hercules slew the giant tyrant Geryon after three days and three nights of continuous battle. Hercules then—in a Celtic gesture— buried the head of Geryon with his weapons, the lighthouse atop a skull and crossbones representing the buried head of Hercules’ slain enemy appears in the coat-of-arms of the city of Corunna. The glimpse of that distant green land lured them to sail north to Ireland, according to the legend Breogáns descendants stayed in Ireland and are the Celtic ancestors of the current Irish people. A colossal statue of Breogán has been erected near the Tower, early geographical descriptions on the location of Brigantia point out that the town could be actually located in Corunna or in the locality of the modern town of Betanzos. This, however, could be a false etymology, the place he chose was an uninhabited place called Clunia, which later on evolved to Cruña and Coruña, and so to Corunna. The place name Clunia is believed to come from the Proto-Celtic root *klou̯ni, meaning meadow
15.
Ostia Antica
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Ostia Antica is a large archeological site, close to the modern suburb of Ostia, that was the location of the harbour city of ancient Rome, which is approximately 30 kilometres to the northeast. Ostia is a derivation of os, the Latin word for mouth, at the mouth of the River Tiber, Ostia was Romes seaport, but due to silting the site now lies 3 kilometres from the sea. The site is noted for the excellent preservation of its ancient buildings, magnificent frescoes, Ostia may have been Romes first colonia. An inscription seems to confirm the establishment of the old castrum of Ostia in the 7th century BC, the oldest archaeological remains so far discovered date back to only the 4th century BC. The most ancient buildings currently visible are from the 3rd century BC, notably the Castrum, Ostia was a scene of fighting during the period of the civil wars Sullas first civil war between Gaius Marius and Sulla during the 1st century BC. In 87 BC, Marius attacked the city in order to cut off the flow of trade to Rome, forces led by Cinna, Carbo and Sertorius crossed the Tiber at three points before capturing the city and plundering it. After his victory here, Marius moved on to attack and capture Antium, Aricia, in 68 BC, the town was sacked by pirates. During the sack, the port was set on fire, the war fleet was destroyed. Within a year, the pirates had been defeated, the town was then re-built, and provided with protective walls by the statesman and orator Marcus Tullius Cicero. During Julius Caesars time as Dictator, one of his improvements to the city was his establishment of better supervision of the supply of grain to Rome and he proposed better access to grain by the use of a new harbor in Ostia along with a canal from Tarracina. The town was developed during the first century AD under the influence of Tiberius. The town was also enriched by the construction of a new harbor on the northern mouths of the Tiber. The new harbor, not surprisingly called Portus, from the Latin for harbor, was excavated from the ground at the orders of the emperor Claudius. This harbor became silted up and needed to be supplemented later by a built by Trajan finished in the year 113 AD, it has a hexagonal form. Moreover, it must remember also that at a short distance. These elements took business away from Ostia itself and began its commercial decline, Ostia itself was provided with all the services a town of the time could require, in particular, a famous lighthouse. By 1954 eighteen mithraea had been discovered, Mithras had his largest following among the population that were the majority of this port town. Archaeologists also discovered the public latrinae, organised for collective use as a series of seats that allow us to imagine today that their function was also a social one
16.
Latakia
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Latakia, Lattakia or Latakiyah, is the principal port city of Syria, as well as the capital of the Latakia Governorate. Historically, it has also known as Lāŏdĭcḗa or Lāŏdĭcḗa ad Mắre. In addition to serving as a port, the city is a center for surrounding agricultural towns. According to the 2004 official census, the population of the city is 383,786 and it is the 5th-largest city in Syria after Aleppo, Damascus, Homs and Hama, and it borders Tartus to the south, Hama to the east, and Idlib to the north. Cape Apostolos Andreas, the tip of Cyprus, is about 68 miles away. Although the site has been inhabited since the 2nd millennium BCE, Latakia was subsequently ruled by the Romans, then the Ummayads and Abbasids in the 8th–10th centuries CE. Under their rule, the Byzantines frequently attacked the city, periodically recapturing it before losing it again to the Arabs, afterward, Latakia was ruled successively by the Seljuk Turks, Crusaders, Ayyubids, Mamluks, and the Ottomans. Following World War I, Latakia was assigned to the French mandate of Syria and this autonomous territory became the Alawite State in 1922, proclaiming its independence a number of times until reintegrating into Syria in 1944. Like many Seleucid cities, Latakia was named after a member of the ruling dynasty, first named Laodikeia on the Coast by Seleucus I Nicator in honor of his mother, Laodice. In Latin, its name became Lāŏdĭcḗa ad Mắre, the original name survives in its Arabic form as al-Ladhiqiyyah, from which the French Lattaquié and English Latakia or Lattakia derive. To the Ottomans, it was known as Turkish, Lazkiye, the location of Latakia, the Ras Ziyarah promontory, has a long history of occupation. The Phoenician city of Ramitha was located here, known to the Greeks as Leukê Aktê. The city was described in Strabos Geographica, It is a city most beautifully built, has a good harbour, and has territory which, besides its other good crops, abounds in wine. Now this city furnishes the most of the wine to the Alexandreians, and while the summits are at a considerable distance from Lāŏdĭcḗa, sloping up gently and gradually from it, they tower above Apameia, extending up to a perpendicular height. The city was an important colonia of the Roman empire in ancient Syria for seven centuries and it was called Laodicea in Syria or Lāŏdĭcḗa ad mắre and was the capital of the Eastern Roman province of Theodorias from 528 AD until 637 AD. A sizable Jewish population lived in Lāŏdĭcḗa during the first century, the heretic Apollinarius was bishop of Lāŏdĭcḗa in the 4th century. The city minted coins from an early date, following the defeat of Antiochene forces at the Battle of Harran in 1104 the city was reoccupied by the Byzantines however they would again lose the city. Despite a treaty in 1108 with Bohemond promising to return Latakia to the Empire by 1110 it was firmly under the control of the Principality of Antioch
17.
Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
18.
Eddystone Lighthouse
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The Eddystone Lighthouse is on the dangerous Eddystone Rocks,9 statute miles south of Rame Head, England, United Kingdom. While Rame Head is in Cornwall, the rocks are in Devon, the current structure is the fourth to be built on the site. The first and second were destroyed by storm and fire, the third, also known as Smeatons Tower, is the best known because of its influence on lighthouse design and its importance in the development of concrete for building. Its upper portions have been re-erected in Plymouth as a monument, the first lighthouse, completed in 1699, was the worlds first open ocean lighthouse although the Cordouan lighthouse preceded it as the first offshore lighthouse. The Eddystone Rocks are an extensive reef approximately 12 miles SSW of Plymouth Sound, one of the most important naval harbours of England, and midway between Lizard Point, Cornwall and Start Point. Given the difficulty of gaining a foothold on the rocks particularly in the predominant swell it was a time before anyone attempted to place any warning on them. The first lighthouse on Eddystone Rocks was a wooden structure built by Henry Winstanley. The lighthouse was also the first recorded instance of an offshore lighthouse, construction started in 1696 and the light was lit on 14 November 1698. This gives rise to the claims that there have been five lighthouses on Eddystone Rock, winstanleys tower lasted until the Great Storm of 1703 erased almost all trace on 27 November. Winstanley was on the lighthouse, completing additions to the structure, no trace was found of him, or of the other five men in the lighthouse. The cost of construction and five years maintenance totalled £7,814 7s. 6d, during which time dues totalling £4,721 19s. 3d had been collected at one penny per ton from passing vessels. Following the destruction of the first lighthouse, Captain John Lovett acquired the lease of the rock and he commissioned John Rudyard to design the new lighthouse, built as a conical wooden structure around a core of brick and concrete. A temporary light was first shone from it in 1708 and the work was completed in 1709 and this proved more durable, surviving nearly fifty years. On the night of 2 December 1755, the top of the lantern caught fire, the three keepers threw water upwards from a bucket but were driven onto the rock and were rescued by boat as the tower burnt down. Keeper Henry Hall, who was 94 at the time, died from ingesting molten lead from the lantern roof. A report on this case was submitted to the Royal Society by the physician Dr. Edward Spry, the third lighthouse marked a major step forward in the design of such structures. Recommended by the Royal Society, civil engineer John Smeaton modelled the shape on an oak tree and he pioneered hydraulic lime, a concrete that cured under water, and developed a technique of securing the granite blocks using dovetail joints and marble dowels. Construction started in 1756 at Millbay and the light was first lit on 16 October 1759, Smeatons lighthouse was 59 feet high and had a diameter at the base of 26 feet and at the top of 17 feet
19.
Eddystone Rocks
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The Eddystone, or the Eddystone Rocks, are a seaswept and heavily eroded group of rocks situated some 9 statute miles south west of Rame Head in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. Although the nearest point on the mainland to the Eddystone is in Cornwall, the fall within the city limits of Plymouth. There have been four lighthouses on the Eddystone Rocks, winstanley, Rudyard, Smeaton and finally the Douglass Lighthouse, which is the present one. A traditional sea-shanty The Eddystone Light chronicles a fictional encounter between the lighthouse keeper and a mermaid, the Seekers, the Weavers, and Peter, Paul and Mary have recorded the shanty
20.
English Channel
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The English Channel, also called simply the Channel, is the body of water that separates southern England from northern France, and links the southern part of the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. It is about 560 km long and varies in width from 240 km at its widest to 33.3 km in the Strait of Dover and it is the smallest of the shallow seas around the continental shelf of Europe, covering an area of some 75,000 km2. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the English Channel as follows, a line joining Isle Vierge to Lands End. The southwestern limit of the North Sea, the IHO defines the southwestern limit of the North Sea as a line joining the Walde Lighthouse and Leathercoat Point. The Walde Lighthouse is 6 km east of Calais, and Leathercoat Point is at the end of St Margarets Bay. The Strait of Dover, at the Channels eastern end, is its narrowest point and it is relatively shallow, with an average depth of about 120 m at its widest part, reducing to a depth of about 45 m between Dover and Calais. Eastwards from there the adjoining North Sea reduces to about 26 m in the Broad Fourteens where it lies over the watershed of the land bridge between East Anglia and the Low Countries. It reaches a depth of 180 m in the submerged valley of Hurds Deep,48 km west-northwest of Guernsey. The eastern region along the French coast between Cherbourg and the mouth of the Seine river at Le Havre is frequently referred to as the Bay of the Seine. There are several islands in the Channel, the most notable being the Isle of Wight off the English coast. The coastline, particularly on the French shore, is indented, several small islands close to the coastline, including Chausey. The Cotentin Peninsula in France juts out into the Channel, whilst on the English side there is a parallel channel known as the Solent between the Isle of Wight and the mainland. The Celtic Sea is to the west of the Channel, the time difference of about six hours between high water at the eastern and western limits of the Channel is indicative of the tidal range being amplified further by resonance. It was never defined as a border and the names were more or less descriptive. It was not considered as the property of a nation, strangely, before the development of the modern nations, British scholars very often referred to it as Gaulish and the French one as British or English. The name English Channel has been used since the early 18th century. In modern Dutch, however, it is known as Het Kanaal, later, it has also been known as the British Channel or the British Sea having been called the Oceanus Britannicus by the 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy. The same name is used on an Italian map of about 1450, the Anglo-Saxon texts often call it Sūð-sǣ as opposed to Norð-sǣ
21.
Henry Winstanley
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Henry Winstanley was an English painter and engineer who constructed the first Eddystone lighthouse after losing two ships on the Eddystone rocks. He died while working on the project during the Great Storm of 1703 and he was born in Saffron Walden, Essex, and baptised there on 31 March 1644. His father Henry became land steward to the Earl of Suffolk, owner of Audley End House, in 1652, in 1666 Audley End House was bought by Charles II for use as a base when attending Newmarket races, and it became effectively a royal palace. Winstanley developed an interest in engraving after a tour of Europe between 1669 and 1674, where he was impressed by Continental architecture and the engravings in which it was portrayed. On his return he is believed to have studied engraving with Wenceslas Hollar and he also designed a set of playing cards which became very popular and sold well. He was appointed Clerk of Works at Audley End in 1679 on the death of his predecessor, Winstanley was well known in Essex for his fascination with gadgets both mechanical and hydraulic. He had a built for him at Littlebury which he filled with whimsical mechanisms of his own design and construction. In the 1690s he opened a Mathematical Water Theatre known as Winstanleys Water-works in Londons Piccadilly and it was a successful and profitable venture and continued to operate for some years after its creator’s death. Winstanley became a merchant, investing some of the money he had made from his work, two of them were wrecked on the Eddystone Rocks near Plymouth, and he demanded to know why nothing was done to protect vessels from this hazard. Told that the reef was too treacherous to mark, he declared that he would build a lighthouse there himself, construction started on 14 July 1696. One notable incident during its construction occurred in June 1697, at this time Britain and France were at war, and a naval vessel had been assigned to protect the workers whenever they were on the reef. On this particular day, the commissioner at Plymouth, George St Lo, ordered the ship to join the fleet, instead, a French privateer destroyed the work done so far on the foundations and carried Winstanley off to France. Louis XIV, however, ordered his release, with the words, France is at war with England. Winstanley returned to the Eddystone reef, construction resumed, and the first Eddystone Lighthouse was completed in November 1698, the lighthouse suffered some weather damage during the winter of 1698 -1699, and the light was often obscured by spray breaking over the top of the tower. Winstanley therefore had it rebuilt the following spring on a scale, with extra stonework. During the five years of their operation, no ships were wrecked on the Eddystone, Winstanley was recorded as having expressed great faith in his construction, going so far as to wish that he might be inside it during the greatest storm there ever was. The tower was destroyed on the night of 27 November 1703. Winstanley was visiting the lighthouse that night to make repairs, Henry Winstanley, Artist, Inventor and Lighthouse-Builder, 1644-1703
22.
Civil engineer
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The term civil engineer was established in 1750 to contrast engineers working on civil projects with the military engineers, who worked on armaments and defenses. Over time, various sub-disciplines of civil engineering have become recognized, other engineering practices became recognized as independent engineering disciplines, including chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering. In some places, an engineer may perform land surveying, in others, surveying is limited to construction surveying. Civil engineers generally work in a variety of locations and conditions, many spend time outdoors at construction sites so that they can monitor operations or solve problems onsite. The job is typically a blend of in-office and on-location work, in many countries, civil engineers are subject to licensure. In some jurisdictions with mandatory licensing, people who do not obtain a license may not call themselves civil engineers, in Belgium, Civil Engineer is a legally protected title applicable to graduates of the five-year engineering course of one of the six universities and the Royal Military Academy. Their speciality can be all fields of engineering, civil, structural, electrical, mechanical, chemical, physics and this use of the title may cause confusion to the English speaker as the Belgian civil engineer can have a speciality other than civil engineering. In fact, Belgians use the adjective civil in the sense of civilian, traditionally, students were required to pass an entrance exam on mathematics to start civil engineering studies. This exam was abolished in 2004 for the Flemish Community, but is organised in the French Community. Today the degree spans over all fields within engineering, like engineering, mechanical engineering, computer science, electronics engineering. A civil engineer is the most well-known of the two, still, the area of expertise remains obfuscated for most of the public. A noteworthy difference is the courses in mathematics and physics, regardless of the equivalent masters degree. This is because the educational system is not fully adopted to the international standard graduation system. Today this is starting to change due to the Bologna process, a Scandinavian civilingenjör will in international contexts commonly call herself Master of Science in Engineering and will occasionally wear an engineering class ring. At the Norwegian Institute of Technology, the tradition with an NTH Ring goes back to 1914, in Norway, the title Sivilingeniør will no longer be issued after 2007, and has been replaced with Master i teknologi. In the English translation of the diploma, the title will be Master of Science, since Master of Technology is not a title in the English-speaking world. The extra overlapping year of studies have also been abolished with this change to make Norwegian degrees more equal to their international counterparts, in Spain, a civil engineering degree can be obtained after four years of study in the various branches of mathematics, physics, mechanics, etc. The earned degree is called Grado en Ingeniería Civil, further studies at a graduate school include masters and doctoral degrees
23.
John Smeaton
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John Smeaton FRS was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and lighthouses. He was also a mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer, and often regarded as the father of civil engineering and he was associated with the Lunar Society. Smeaton was born in Austhorpe, Leeds, England, in 1750, his premises were in the Great Turnstile in Holborn. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1753, Smeatons water wheel experiments were conducted on a small scale model with which he tested various configurations over a period of seven years. The resulting increasing efficiency in water power contributed to the Industrial Revolution and this led him into conflict with members of the academic establishment who rejected Leibnizs theory, believing it inconsistent with Sir Isaac Newtons conservation of momentum. Recommended by the Royal Society, Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse and he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. Portland cement led to the re-emergence of concrete as a building material. He also acted as a consultant on the disastrous 63-year-long New Harbour at Rye, the project is now known informally as Smeatons Harbour, but despite the name his involvement was limited and occurred more than 30 years after work on the harbour commenced. Employing his skills as a engineer, he devised a water engine for the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew in 1761. In 1782 he built the Chimney Mill at Spital Tongues in Newcastle upon Tyne and he also improved Thomas Newcomens atmospheric engine, erecting one at Chacewater mine, Wheal Busy, in Cornwall in 1775. In 1789 Smeaton applied an idea by Denis Papin, by using a pump to maintain the pressure. This bell, built for the Hexham bridge project, was not intended for underwater work, Smeaton is also credited with explaining the fundamental differences and benefits of overshot versus undershot water wheels. Smeaton experimented with the Newcomen steam engine and made marked improvements around the time James Watt was building his first engines, highly regarded by other engineers, he contributed to the Lunar Society and founded the Society of Civil Engineers in 1771. He coined the term civil engineers to distinguish them from military engineers graduating from the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, the Society was a forerunner of the Institution of Civil Engineers, established in 1818, and was renamed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers in 1830. His pupils included canal engineer William Jessop and architect and engineer Benjamin Latrobe and he died after suffering a stroke while walking in the garden of his family home at Austhorpe, and was buried in the parish church at Whitkirk, West Yorkshire. Smeaton is one of six civil engineers depicted in the Stephenson stained glass window, designed by William Wailes, a memorial stone commemorating Smeaton himself was unveiled in the Abbey on 7 November 1994, by Noel Ordman, President of the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers. John Smeaton Academy, a school in the suburbs of Leeds adjacent to the Pendas Fields estate near Austhorpe, is named after Smeaton
24.
Smeaton's Tower
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Smeatons Tower is the third and most notable Eddystone Lighthouse. It marked a step forward in lighthouse design. In use from 1759 to 1877, it was dismantled and rebuilt on Plymouth Hoe in Plymouth, Devon, where it now stands as a memorial to its designer, John Smeaton. The Royal Society recommended Smeaton for the task, and he modelled the lighthouse on an oak tree and he rediscovered the use of hydraulic lime, a form of concrete used in Roman times. The technique allowed concrete to set under water, as Smeaton put granite blocks using dovetail joints. Construction started in 1756 at a site in Millbay, where Smeaton built a jetty, timber rails of 3 ft 6 in gauge were laid for four-wheeled flat trucks, which were used to move masonry around the site. A 10-ton ship named the Eddystone Boat was based here, the ship carried the 2¼-ton foundation stone out in the morning of 12 June 1756. The work was completed in August 1759 at a cost of £40,000, many Cornish tin miners were employed in its construction. To avoid the possibility of press ganging, a practice which was common at the time, each worker was issued a medal to confirm he was a worker at the lighthouse. The lighthouse was 72 feet high, and had a diameter at the base of 26 feet, after the structure was completed, the lighthouses 24 candles were lit on 16 October 1759. Each candle weighed between 2 pounds and 5 pounds, a timepiece placed alongside the light was set to chime every half-hour, alerting the lighthouse keeper to the need to replace expired candles. The lighthouse candles were replaced by oil lamps and reflectors from 1810, further major renovations were carried out in 1841 by engineer Henry Norris, including the filling of a hole in the rock close to the towers foundation. The lighthouse remained in use until 1877, when it was discovered that rocks upon which it stood were becoming eroded, each time a large wave hit, the lighthouse shook from side to side. Smeatons Tower ceased operation in 1879 with the illumination of Douglasss Tower on an adjacent rock and it was opened to the public by the Mayor of Plymouth on 24 September 1884. The foundation and stub of the old tower remain on Eddystone Rocks, since the foundation proved too strong to be dismantled, the Victorians left it where it stood. The lighthouse was depicted on British penny coins from 1860 to 1894, an 1850 replica of Smeatons lighthouse, Hoad Monument, still stands above the town of Ulverston, Cumbria as a memorial to naval administrator Sir John Barrow. Smeatons Tower has been a Grade I-listed building since 1954 and it is open for visitors, who may climb 93 steps, including steep ladders, to the lantern room, and observe Plymouth Sound and the city. List of lighthouses in England Grade I listed buildings in Plymouth Smeatons Tower - official site
25.
Hydraulic lime
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Hydraulic lime is a general term for varieties of lime, or slaked lime, used to make lime mortar which set through hydration, thus they are called hydraulic. The other common types of lime mortar set through carbonation and are called air lime. Hydraulic lime provides an initial set and higher compressive strength than air lime. In the United States NHL may be called hydrated hydraulic lime per ASTM C-141 Standard Specification for Hydrated Hydraulic Lime for Structural Purposes, artificial hydraulic lime or artificial lime becomes hydraulic when hydraulic and/or pozzolan materials are added either before or after burning in a lime kiln. Formulated lime consists of. mainly of hydrated lime and or NHL with added hydraulic and/or pozzolanic material and it is identical to HL but its composition must be declared on the CE marking. Pozzolanic hydraulic lime is similar to HL or FL. Consists mainly of hydrated lime with one or more pozzolans with possible inclusion of inert filler, when Portland cement, even traces, is present, it has to be labeled as PHLc. Hydraulic lime is a building material for the following reasons. There is no need for expansion joints and it allows buildings to breathe, and does not trap moisture in the walls. It has a firing temperature than Portland cement, and is thus less polluting. Stone and brickwork bonded with lime is easier to re-use and it is less dense than cement, thus less cold bridging. Lime re-absorbs the carbon emitted by its calcination, thus partially offsetting the large amount emitted during its manufacture. The more hydraulic a lime, the less CO2 is reabsorbed during set, for example, 50% of CO2 is reabsorbed by NHL3.5 during the set and this meant that lime could be used in a wide variety of applications including floors and even vaults or domes. An example is the Pantheon in Rome, which has survived for two thousand years. The domes diameter is equal to its height from the floor and it is constructed from six different lime mixes, which change the properties and lightness of the material. Feebly hydraulic lime is used for work and external work in sheltered areas. Feebly hydraulic lime contains up to 10% clay/ clay mixed with other impurities and it might take one week or more to set after the addition of water. Setting is the process of taking the shape into which lime has been moulded
26.
Dovetail joint
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A dovetail joint or simply dovetail is a joinery technique most commonly used in woodworking joinery including furniture, cabinets, carcase construction, log buildings and traditional timber framing. Noted for its resistance to being pulled apart, the joint is commonly used to join the sides of a drawer to the front. A series of cut to extend from the end of one board interlock with a series of tails cut into the end of another board. The pins and tails have a trapezoidal shape, once glued, a wooden dovetail joint requires no mechanical fasteners. The dovetail joint probably pre-dates written history, some of the earliest known examples of the dovetail joint are in furniture entombed with mummies dating from First Dynasty of ancient Egypt, as well the tombs of Chinese emperors. The dovetail design is an important method of distinguishing various periods of furniture, in Europe the dovetail joint is also called a swallow-tail joint or a fantail joint. The dovetail joint is strong because of the way the ‘tails’ and ‘pins’ are shaped. This makes it difficult to pull the joint apart and virtually impossible when glue is added and this type of joint is used in box constructions such as drawers, jewellery boxes, cabinets and other pieces of furniture where strength is required. It is a joint to make manually, requiring skilled workmanship. There are different types of joints and when cut accurately they are very impressive and attractive. The joint is strong especially when used with a good quality glue such as PVA or cascamite, the marking out and cutting procedure is outlined below. The angle of slope varies according to the wood used, typically the slope is 1,6 for softwoods and a shallower 1,8 slope for hardwoods. Often a slope of 1,7 is used as a compromise, the photograph at the top of this page shows a through dovetail joint, where the end grain of both boards is visible when the joint is assembled. Through dovetails are common in carcass and box construction, traditionally, the dovetails would have often been covered by a veneer. However, dovetails have become a signature of craftsmanship and are considered a feature. When used in construction, a through dovetail joint is sometimes referred to as an English dovetail. Use for, Carcass and box construction A half-blind dovetail is used when the craftsman does not wish end grain to be visible from the front of the item. The tails are housed in sockets in the ends of the board that is to be the front of the item so that their ends cannot be seen, half-blind dovetails are commonly used to fasten drawer fronts to drawer sides
27.
Dowel
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A dowel is a solid cylindrical rod, usually made from wood, plastic, or metal. In its original manufactured form, a dowel is called a dowel rod, dowel rods are often cut into short lengths called dowel pins. Dowels are employed in numerous, diverse applications including axles in toys, detents, structural reinforcements in cabinet making, to make a dowel, a piece of wood is split or whittled to a size slightly bigger than desired and then driven through the hole in the dowel plate. The sharp edges of the hole shear off the excess wood, a second approach to cutting dowels is to rotate a piece of oversized stock past a fixed knife, or alternatively, to rotate the knife around the stock. Machines based on this principle emerged in the 19th century, frequently, these are small bench-mounted tools. For modest manufacturing volumes, wood dowels are typically manufactured on industrial dowel machines based on the principles as the rotary cutters described above. Such machines may employ interchangeable cutting heads of varying diameters, thus enabling the machines to be changed to manufacture different dowel diameters. Typically, the mechanism is open-ended, with material guides at the machines entry, since the 19th century, some of these dowel machines have had power feed mechanisms to move the stock past the cutting mechanism. High-volume dowel manufacturing is done on a shaper, which simultaneously forms multiple dowels from a single piece of rectangular stock. These machines employ two wide, rotating cutting heads, one above the stock and one below it, the heads have nearly identical cutting profiles so that each will form an array of adjoined, side-by-side half dowels. The wooden dowel rod used in woodworking applications is commonly cut into dowel pins, some woodworkers make their own dowel pins, while others purchase dowel pins precut to the required length and diameter. When dowels are glued into blind holes, a common case in dowel-based joinery, there must be a path for air. If no provision is made to relieve the pressure of air and glue. An old solution to this problem is to plane a flat on the side of the dowel, some dowel pins are Fluted with multiple parallel grooves along their length to serve the same purpose. When two pieces of wood are to be joined by dowels embedded in holes, there are numerous methods for aligning the holes. Dowel centers are simple and inexpensive tools for aligning opposing blind holes, various commercial systems, such as Dowelmax, have been devised to solve this problem. Alternative joinery methods may be used in place of conventional dowel pins, such as Miller dowels, biscuit joiners, spline joints, and proprietary tools such as the Domino jointer. The word dowel was used in Middle English, it appears in Wycliffes Bible translation in a list of the parts of a wheel. and the spokis, cognates with other Germanic languages suggest that the word is much older
28.
Robert Stevenson (civil engineer)
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Robert Stevenson FRSE, FGS, FRAS, FSA Scot, MWS, MInstCE was a Scottish civil engineer and famed designer and builder of lighthouses. One of his finest achievements was the construction of the Bell Rock Lighthouse, Stevenson was born in Glasgow, his father was Alan Stevenson, a partner in a West India trading house in the city. As a result, Stevenson was educated as an infant at a charity school and his mother intended Robert for the ministry and to this end sent him to the school of a famous linguist of the day, Mr. Macintyre. Stevenson served as Smiths assistant, and was so successful that, at age 19, study was interleaved with work - his next project was lighthouses on Orkney. He made use of months to attend lectures in philosophy, mathematics, chemistry and natural history, as well as moral philosophy, logic. He did not take a degree, however, having a poor knowledge of Latin, the most important work of Stevensons life is the Bell Rock Lighthouse, a scheme long in the gestation and then long and extremely hazardous in the construction. This structure was based upon the design of the earlier Eddystone Lighthouse by John Smeaton, samuel Smiles, the popular engineering author of the time, published an account taken from Rennie, which assisted in establishing his claim. History, and the Northern Lighthouse Board, give credit to Stevenson. Stevensons work on the Bell Rock and elsewhere provided a fund of anecdotes of the danger in which he placed himself, for this last innovation he was awarded a gold medal by King William I of the Netherlands. The period after Waterloo and the end of the wars was a time of much improvement of the fabric of the country. Projects included roads, bridges, harbours, canals and railways and he designed and oversaw the construction of the Hutcheson Bridge in Glasgow, and the Regent Bridge and approaches from the East to Edinburgh. He projected a number of canals and railways which were not built and he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1815. He devised and tested the hypothesis that freshwater and saltwater at river mouths exist as separate and he contributed to the Encyclopædia Britannica and the Edinburgh Encyclopædia, and published in a number of the scientific journals of the day. In 1799, Robert married Jean Smith, Thomas Smiths eldest daughter by his first wife, a number of their children died young including three who died of childhood diseases early in 1808 during the construction of Bell Rock. Three of Stevenson’s sons became engineers, David, Alan, roberts surviving children also include Joseph, who emigrated to Victoria, Australia in 1832, and Jane, who assisted in writing and illustrating an account of the Bell Rock Lighthouse construction. Robert Louis Stevenson was his grandson, via Thomas, and Katharine de Mattos was his granddaughter, Stevenson died on 12 July 1850 in Edinburgh. He is buried in the Stevenson family plot in New Calton Cemetery, Stevenson College, Edinburgh was founded in 1970, and was named after Robert Stevenson. For at least some of his life Robert Stevenson lived at 1 Baxters Place, Edinburgh, bella Bathurst wrote a biographical account of the professional accomplishments of Stevenson and his sons in The Lighthouse Stevensons
29.
Bell Rock Lighthouse
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The Bell Rock Lighthouse, off the coast of Angus, Scotland, is the worlds oldest surviving sea-washed lighthouse. It was built between 1807 and 1810 by Robert Stevenson on the Bell Rock in the North Sea,11 miles east of the Firth of Tay, standing 35 metres tall, its light is visible from 35 statute miles inland. The masonry work on which the lighthouse rests was constructed to such a standard that it has not been replaced or adapted in 200 years. The lamps and reflectors were replaced in 1843 and used in the lighthouse at Cape Bonavista, Newfoundland, the working of the lighthouse has been automated since 1988. The lighthouse operated in tandem with a station, the Bell Rock Signal Tower. Today this building houses the Signal Tower Museum, a visitor centre detailing the history of the lighthouse, the challenges faced in the building of the lighthouse have led to it being described as one of the Seven Wonders of the Industrial World. According to legend, the rock is called Bell Rock because of a 14th-century attempt by the Abbot of Arbroath to install a warning bell on it, the bell lasted only one year before it was stolen by a Dutch pirate. This story is immortalised in The Inchcape Rock, a poem by 19th-century poet Robert Southey, the rock was the scene of many shipwrecks as it lies just below the surface of the sea for all but a few hours at low tide. By the turn of the 18th century, it was estimated that the rocks were responsible for the wrecking of up to six ships every winter, in one storm alone, seventy ships were lost off the east coast of Scotland. The loss of the warship HMS York and all on board in 1804 resulted in a furore in Parliament, Stevenson sent his design to John Rennie who approved the design and costing. Rennies reputation led to legislation being passed in 1806 enabling construction to begin, the Northern Lighthouse Board awarded the contract to design and build to John Rennie, with Stevenson being appointed as chief assistant. The design was based on the earlier Eddystone Lighthouse designed by John Smeaton, which Stevenson had inspected in 1801, and it also contained newer features, such as rotating lights alternating between red and white designed by the carpenter Francis Watts. Stevenson was totally responsible for construction and his account of the work gave little or no credit to Rennie. In 1807 Stevenson hired 60 men, including a blacksmith so that the axes used to cut the foundations could be re-sharpened on site. Stevenson did not want to use black powder as it might have damaged the rock on which the lighthouse was to stand and they set sail on 17 August 1807, to be away for two months. For 20 hours each day, while the rock was covered by up to 12 feet of water, the beacon house had places for 15 men. The foundations and beacon legs were raised during the first season, during the winter, work on the lighthouse was paused as stonemasons cut rocks for the lighthouse out of Aberdeen granite. The beacon house barracks was completed and the first three courses of stone were laid, in the whole of the second season only 80 hours of building work took place on the rock
30.
Northern Lighthouse Board
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The Northern Lighthouse Board is the General Lighthouse Authority for Scotland and the Isle of Man. It is a public body responsible for marine navigation aids around coastal areas. None of the passages around Scotland, which led through dangerous narrows, were marked. The commissioners, whose first president was the Lord Provost of Edinburgh, Sir James Hunter-Blair, advertised for building estimates, smith soon returned and instructed an Edinburgh architect to prepare the plans for four lighthouses. By the end of 1787 the first light had been installed, at the Mull of Kintyre everything had to be transported by pack horse from Campbeltown,12 miles away, but it was lit by October 1788. The dues which had originally set at two shillings per ton of cargo in the seventeenth century were now reduced to one penny per ton. The Commissioners most famous engineer was Robert Stevenson, whose sons David, Alan, the Stevenson dynasty built the majority of the Northern lights, in some exceptionally challenging locations. Their lights were some of the masterpieces of their time, notably those at Bell Rock, Skerryvore. Between 1876 and 2005 the NLB also maintained foghorns at a number of locations, the last was sounded for the last time on 4 October 2005. The board is based at its Georgian headquarters building in George Street in the centre of Edinburgh, technical operations are carried out from a base in Oban, Argyll and Bute, where there are maintenance workshops and facilities for the construction of buoys and beacons. The NLBs vessels are based here. The Oban depot has recently modernised. Under the terms of the Scotland Act 1998, the NLB is not a devolved body, in practice, close co-operation is made with both the Scottish Government and the Isle of Man Government. The NLB is funded by pooled light dues administered by the UKs Department of Transport, and distributed to the NLB, Trinity House, NLV Pole Star has been in service since 2000 and NLV Pharos was delivered on 31 March 2007 to the Oban depot. This is the tenth Pharos, replacing the ninth Pharos which was sold in September 2006 for use as a Fishery Protection vessel for South Georgia, most of the Commissioners have always been ex officio appointments. Reform of local government and sheriffdoms have since resulted in changes, previous Commissioners include Richard Vary Campbell. The NLB uses two flags, an ensign and a Commissioners Flag, the ensign is a Blue Ensign defaced with a white lighthouse in the fly, and is for general use. The Commissioners flag, a plain White Ensign with a pre-1801 Union Flag in the canton and this flag is only flown from vessels with Commissioners aboard
31.
Fresnel lens
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A Fresnel lens is a type of compact lens originally developed by French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel for lighthouses. The design allows the construction of lenses of large aperture and short focal length without the mass, a Fresnel lens can be made much thinner than a comparable conventional lens, in some cases taking the form of a flat sheet. A Fresnel lens can capture more light from a light source. The idea of creating a thinner, lighter lens by making it with separate sections mounted in a frame is attributed to Georges-Louis Leclerc. The Marquis de Condorcet proposed grinding such a lens from a thin piece of glass. French physicist and engineer Augustin-Jean Fresnel is most often given credit for the development of the lens for use in lighthouses. According to Smithsonian magazine, the first Fresnel lens was used in 1823 in the Cordouan lighthouse at the mouth of the Gironde estuary, scottish physicist Sir David Brewster is credited with convincing the United Kingdom to adopt these lenses in their lighthouses. The Fresnel lens reduces the amount of material required compared to a lens by dividing the lens into a set of concentric annular sections. An ideal Fresnel lens would have many such sections. In each section, the thickness is decreased compared to an equivalent simple lens. This effectively divides the surface of a standard lens into a set of surfaces of the same curvature. In some lenses, the surfaces are replaced with flat surfaces. Such a lens can be regarded as an array of prisms arranged in a fashion, with steeper prisms on the edges. In the first Fresnel lenses, each section was actually a separate prism, single-piece Fresnel lenses were later produced, being used for automobile headlamps, brake, parking, and turn signal lenses, and so on. In modern times, computer-controlled milling equipment might be used to more complex lenses. Fresnel lenses are made of glass or plastic, their size varies from large to medium to small. In many cases they are thin and flat, almost flexible. Modern Fresnel lenses usually consist of all refractive elements, however many of the lighthouses have both refracting and reflecting elements, as shown in the photographs and diagram
32.
Alexander Mitchell (engineer)
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Alexander Mitchell, was an Irish engineer who from 1802 was blind. He is known as the inventor of the screw-pile lighthouse, born in Dublin, his family moved to Belfast while he was a child, and he received his formal education at Belfast Academy - where he excelled in mathematics. Originally working in brickmaking in Belfast, he invented machines used in trade, before patenting the screw-pile in 1833. The screw-pile was used for the erection of lighthouses and other structures on mudbanks and shifting sands, including bridges, mitchells designs and methods were employed all over the world from Portland breakwater to Bombay bridges. In 1848 he was elected member of the Institution of Civil Engineers and he became friendly with astronomer John Thomas Romney Robinson, and mathematician George Boole. He died at Glen Devis near Belfast on 25 June 1868 and his wife and daughter had predeceased him
33.
Screw-pile lighthouse
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A screw-pile lighthouse is a lighthouse which stands on piles that are screwed into sandy or muddy sea or river bottoms. The first screw-pile lighthouse to begin construction was built by blind Irish engineer Alexander Mitchell, construction began in 1838 at the mouth of the Thames and was known as the Maplin Sands lighthouse, and first lit in 1841. However, though its construction later, the Wyre Light in Fleetwood. In the United States, several screw-pile lighthouses were constructed in the Chesapeake Bay due to its estuarial soft bottom, North Carolinas sounds and river entrances were also once home to many screw-pile lights. The characteristic design is a 1 1⁄2-storey hexagonal wooden building with dormers, non-screwpile tubular skeletal tower lighthouses were built, usually of cast-iron but also of wrought-iron piles, both onshore and offshore, typically on soft bottoms such as mud, sand, and swamp. Alexander Mitchell invented the screwpile, an improvement over the standard straightpile construction type. With his son, he patented his wrought-iron screwpile design in England in 1833, the Walde Lighthouse in northern France, established in 1859, was based on Mitchells design. Although discontinued in 1998 and shorn of its lantern, it is the only remaining screwpile lighthouse in France. Major Hartman Bache, an engineer of the Army Corps of Topographical Engineers, began work in 1848 and completed the task in 1850. The screwpiles were turned by a 4-foot capstan worked by 30 men, subsequently, though, the use of caisson lighthouses proved more durable in locations subject to ice. Screwpile lighthouses were relatively inexpensive, easy to construct, and comparatively quick to build and they became especially popular after the Civil War when the Lighthouse Board adopted a policy to replace inside light vessels with screwpile lighthouses. Most screwpile lighthouses were made with iron piles, though a few were made with wooden piles covered with metal screw sleeves. The typical screwpile lighthouse was hexagonal or octagonal in plan consisting of a central pile which was set first, metal screwpiles were used to form the foundation of many lighthouses built on sandy or muddy bottoms. The helicoidal or screw-like cast-iron flange at the end of the pile was augured into the bottom increasing the bearing power of the pile as well as its anchoring properties. Yet lighthouses built with these foundations were found to be vulnerable to ice floes, in areas such as the Florida Keys, where the bottom is soft coral rock, diskpile foundation lighthouses were built. Wrought iron piles were driven through a cast-iron or semi-steel disk which rested on the sea floor until a shoulder on the pile prevented further penetration, the disk diffuses the weight of the tower more evenly over the bottom. In coral reef areas where sand is prevalent, a cast-steel screw was fitted to the end of the pile to give it more anchoring ability. Cofferdams were used generally in shallow waters where it was not necessary to penetrate the natural bottom
34.
Screw
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A screw is a type of fastener, sometimes similar to a bolt, typically made of metal, and characterized by a helical ridge, known as a male thread or just thread. A screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a nail, some screw threads are designed to mate with a complementary thread, known as a female thread, often in the form of a nut or an object that has the internal thread formed into it. Other screw threads are designed to cut a groove in a softer material as the screw is inserted. The most common uses of screws are to hold objects together, a screw will usually have a head on one end that contains a specially formed shape that allows it to be turned, or driven, with a tool. Common tools for driving screws include screwdrivers and wrenches, the head is usually larger than the body of the screw, which keeps the screw from being driven deeper than the length of the screw and to provide a bearing surface. The cylindrical portion of the screw from the underside of the head to the tip is known as the shank, the distance between each thread is called the pitch. Another rule is this, curl the fingers of right hand around the screw with your thumb pointing is the direction you want the screw to go. If the screw is right-handed and you turn the screw in the direction of your fingers the screw will move in the direction of your thumb, Screws with left-hand threads are used in exceptional cases. For example, when the screw will be subject to counterclockwise torque, the right side pedal of a bicycle has a left-hand thread. More generally, screw may mean any helical device, such as a clamp, a micrometer, there is no universally accepted distinction between a screw and a bolt. So, as a rule, when buying a packet of screws you would not expect nuts to be included. Part of the confusion over this is due to regional or dialectical differences. An externally threaded fastener which is prevented from being turned during assembly, an externally threaded fastener that has thread form which prohibits assembly with a nut having a straight thread of multiple pitch length is a screw. This distinction is consistent with ASME B18.2.1 and some dictionary definitions for screw, some of these issues are discussed below, ASME standards specify a variety of Machine Screws in diameters ranging up to 0.75 in. These fasteners are used with nuts but also often driven into tapped holes. They might be considered a screw or a bolt based on the Machinerys Handbook distinction, ASME standard B18.2. 1-1996 specifies Hex Cap Screws that range in size from 0. 25–3 in in diameter. These fasteners are very similar to hex bolts and they differ mostly in that they are manufactured to tighter tolerances than the corresponding bolts. Machinerys Handbook refers parenthetically to these fasteners as Finished Hex Bolts, in 1991 responding to an influx of counterfeit fasteners Congress passed PL 101-592 Fastener Quality Act This resulted in the rewriting of specifications by the ASME B18 committee
35.
River Thames
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The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river
36.
Maplin Sands
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They form a part of the Essex Estuaries Special Area of Conservation due to their value for nature conservation, with a large colony of dwarf eelgrass and associated animal communities. Maplin Sands is crossed by the ancient trackway known as The Broomway, a screw-pile lighthouse was built on the sands in 1838 by Messrs. Mitchel and Sons by the recommendation of James Walker of Trinity House and it was the first screwpile lighthouses ever to be designed. Although construction of the Maplin Sands Light had started before, the Wyre Light was completed in a shorter period of time. Excessive scouring of the Thames by the strength and direction of the streams caused the lighthouse to become undermined. In the later part of the 19th century John I, thornycroft & Company and Yarrow Shipbuilders used the sands for the measured mile speed trials of their destroyers. The shallow waters resulted in a flow of water that could add up to a knot to the ships speed, when the Admiralty found out they required that all future trials be carried out in deep water. The Maplin Sands were at time, and remain, a military testing ground belonging to the Ministry of Defence. Wyre Light Screw-pile lighthouse List of lighthouses in England Map sources for Maplin Sands
37.
Wyre Light (Fleetwood)
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The Wyre Light was a 40-foot tall iron screw-pile lighthouse marking the navigation channel to the town of Fleetwood, Lancashire, England. The lighthouse was designed by Alexander Mitchell an Irish engineer who developed the screwpile concept and it was the first screwpile lighthouses ever to be lit. Despite of construction of the Maplin Sands Light had started before Wyre Lights one and these lights inspired other similar constructions such as the and the Thomas Point Shoal Light in the United States. The Wyre Light stood 2 nautical miles offshore on the North Wharf Bank, sandbanks which mark the Lune Deep, the Wyre Light along with a pair of on shore lighthouses, the Beach Lighthouse and the Pharos provided a navigational guide to shipping entering the Wyre estuary. The Lights base consisted of seven wrought iron piles embedded in the sands, each was 16 ft long with cast-iron screw bases 3 ft in diameter. The six corner piles formed a platform of 50 ft diameter. The platform supported the lantern and a building to house the keeper. Construction began in 1839 and the lantern was lit on 6 June 1840, the building was destroyed by fire in 1948 and not replaced. After the fire, the beacon was made automatic and eventually replaced by a buoy in 1979. Maplin Sands Screw-pile lighthouse List of lighthouses in England H N Denham, mawdsley, Liverpool,1840 History of the type
38.
Argand lamp
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The Argand lamp, a kind of oil lamp, was invented and patented in 1780 by Aimé Argand. Its output is 6 to 10 candela, brighter than that of earlier lamps and its more complete combustion of the candle wick and oil than in other lamps required much less frequent trimming of the wick. In France, the lamp is called Quinquet, after Antoine-Arnoult Quinquet, a pharmacist in Paris, quintet sometimes is credited with the addition of the glass chimney to the lamp. Early models used ground glass which was sometimes tinted around the wick, an Argand lamp used whale oil, colza, olive oil or other vegetable oil as fuel which was supplied by a gravity feed from a reservoir mounted above the burner. A disadvantage of the original Argand arrangement was that the oil reservoir needed to be above the level of the burner because the heavy and this made the lamps top heavy and cast a shadow in one direction away from the lamps flame. The Carcel lamp of 1800, which used a pump to allow the reservoir to sit beneath the burner. The same principle was used for cooking and boiling water due to its affording much the strongest heat without smoke. The Argand lamp was introduced to Thomas Jefferson in Paris in 1784, Argand lamps were manufactured in a great variety of decorative forms and quickly became popular in America. It was the lamp of choice until about 1850 when kerosene lamps were introduced, bude-Light, a very bright vegetable oil lamp that works by introducing oxygen into the centre of an Argand burner. Lewis lamp A more technical explanation of the workings of an Argand lamp
39.
Thorium dioxide
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Thorium dioxide, also called thorium oxide, is a crystalline solid, often white or yellow in color. Also known as thoria, it is produced mainly as a by-product of lanthanide, thorianite is the name of the mineralogical form of thorium dioxide. It is moderately rare and crystallizes in an isometric system, the melting point of thorium oxide is 3300 °C – the highest of all known oxides. Only a few elements and a few compounds have higher melting points, thoria has the fluorite crystal structure. This is uncommon among binary dioxides, the band gap of thoria is about 6 eV. The tetragonal form of thoria is also known, at extremely high temperatures, it evolves oxygen, giving the black monooxide ThO. Thorium dioxide can be used in nuclear reactors as ceramic fuel pellets, thorium is not fissile, hence, it must be used as a nuclear reactor fuel in conjunction with fissile isotopes of either uranium or plutonium. This can be achieved by blending thorium with uranium or plutonium, thorium dioxide offers advantages over conventional uranium dioxide fuel pellets, because of its higher thermal conductivity, considerably higher melting point, and chemical stability. Thorium dioxide can be turned into a fuel by breeding it into uranium-233. The high thermal stability of thorium dioxide allows applications in flame spraying, thorium dioxide is used as a stabilizer in tungsten electrodes in TIG welding, electron tubes, and aircraft engines. It is the most popular oxide additive because of its low cost, thoria dispersed nickel finds its applications in various high temperature operations like combustion engines because it is a good creep resistant material. It can also be used for hydrogen trapping, thorium dioxide has almost no value as a commercial catalyst, but such applications have been well investigated. It is a catalyst in the Ruzicka large ring synthesis, other applications that have been explored include petroleum cracking, conversion of ammonia to nitric acid and preparation of sulfuric acid. Thorium dioxide was the primary ingredient in the once-common radiocontrast agent Thorotrast and its use was abandoned when it was found to be a carcinogen, sometimes causing cholangiocarcinoma. As many as 10 million patients were treated with Thorotrast, today, iodinated solutions or barium sulfate are the standard X-ray contrast agents. Another major use in the past was in gas mantle of lanterns, even as late as the 1980s it was estimated that about half of all ThO2 produced was used for this purpose. Some mantles still use thorium, but yttrium oxide is used increasingly as a replacement, thorium dioxide is a Welsbach material. It has been suggested that these chemicals could be sprayed into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight
40.
Whale oil
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Whale oil is oil obtained from the blubber of whales. Whale oil was known as train oil, which comes from the Dutch word traan. Sperm oil, a kind of oil obtained from the head cavities of sperm whales, differs chemically from ordinary whale oil. Its properties and applications differ from those of regular whale oil, early industrial societies used whale oil widely in oil lamps and to make soap and margarine. With the commercial development of such as kerosene and vegetable oils. With most countries having banned whaling, the sale and use of oil as of 2016 has practically ceased. Whale oil was obtained by boiling strips of blubber harvested from whales and this process was called trying out. The boiling was carried out on land in the case of whales close to shore or beached. On longer deep-sea whaling expeditions, the trying-out was carried out on the ship itself so that the carcass could be thrown away to make room for the next catch. Baleen whales were generally the source of whale oil. The oil of whales is exclusively composed of triglycerides, whereas that of toothed whales contains wax esters. The bowhead whale and right whale were considered the ideal whaling targets and they are slow and docile, and they float when killed. They yield plenty of high-quality oil and whalebone, and as a result and it has a strong fishy odor. When hydrogenated, it turns solid and white and its taste, the composition of whale oil varies with the species from which it was sourced and the method by which it was harvested and processed. Whale oil is composed of triglycerides. Oil sourced from toothed whales contains an amount of wax esters. Most of the fatty acids are unsaturated, the most common fatty acids are oleic acid and its isomers. The use of oil had a steady decline starting in the late 19th century due to the development of superior alternatives, and later
41.
Colza oil
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Colza oil or Rapeseed oil is a nondrying oil obtained from the seeds of Rapeseed Colza is extensively cultivated in France, Belgium, the United States, the Netherlands, Germany and Poland. In France, especially, the extraction of the oil is an important industry, in commerce, colza is a traditional rapeseed oil, to which they are very closely allied in both source and properties. It is a comparatively nonodoriferous oil of a colour, having a specific gravity varying between 0.912 and 0.920. The cake left after extraction of the oil is a feed ingredient for pigs. Colza oil is used as a lubricant for machinery. Colza oil was used extensively in European domestic lighting before the advent of gas or kerosene. It was the oil for train pot lamps, and was used for lighting railway coaches in the United Kingdom before gas lighting. Burned in a Carcel lamp, it was part of the definition of the French standard measure for illumination, in lighthouses, for example in early Canada, colza oil was used before the introduction of mineral oil. The colza oil was used with the Argand burner because it was cheaper than whale oil, Colza was burned to a limited extent in the Confederacy during the American Civil War. Colza oil was used in Gombaults Caustic Balsam, a popular horse, among the more unusual applications of colza oil is the calming of choppy seas, where the oil modifies the surface tension of the water and rapidly smooths the surface. For this purpose, colza oil was carried in ships lifeboats, rescue and recovery operations have been made far less risky in this way. More recently, colza has been cultivated in Europe as an ingredient for biodiesel fuels, toxic oil syndrome canola, a low erucic acid rapeseed oil This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Colza Oil
42.
Olive oil
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Olive oil is a liquid fat obtained from olives, a traditional tree crop of the Mediterranean Basin. The oil is produced by pressing whole olives and it is commonly used in cooking, whether for frying or as a salad dressing. It is also used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and soaps, and as a fuel for oil lamps. It is associated with the Mediterranean diet for its health benefits. The olive is one of three core food plants in Mediterranean cuisine, the two are wheat and grapes. Olive trees have grown around the Mediterranean since the 8th millennium BC. Spain is the largest producer of oil, followed by Italy. However, per capita consumption is highest in Greece, followed by Spain, Italy, consumption in North America and northern Europe is far less, but rising steadily. The composition of oil varies with the cultivar, altitude, time of harvest. It consists mainly of acid, with smaller amounts of other fatty acids including linoleic acid. The olive tree is native to the Mediterranean basin, wild olives were collected by Neolithic peoples as early as the 8th millennium BC, the wild olive tree originated in Asia Minor or in ancient Greece. It is not clear when and where trees were first domesticated, in Asia Minor, in the Levant. Archeological evidence shows that olives were turned into oil by 6000 BC and 4500 BC in present-day Palestine. Until 1500 BC, eastern areas of the Mediterranean were most heavily cultivated. Evidence also suggests that olives were being grown in Crete as long ago as 2,500 BC, the cultivation of olive trees in Crete became particularly intense in the post-palatial period and played an important role in the islands economy, as it did across the Mediterranean. Recent genetic studies suggest that species used by modern cultivators descend from multiple wild populations, Olive trees and oil production in the Eastern Mediterranean can be traced to archives of the ancient city-state Ebla, which were located on the outskirts of the Syrian city Aleppo. Here some dozen documents dated 2400 BC describe lands of the king and these belonged to a library of clay tablets perfectly preserved by having been baked in the fire that destroyed the palace. A later source is the frequent mentions of oil in the Tanakh, dynastic Egyptians before 2000 BC imported olive oil from Crete, Syria and Canaan and oil was an important item of commerce and wealth
43.
Vegetable oil
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A vegetable oil is a triglyceride extracted from a plant. For this reason, vegetable oils that are solid at room temperature are sometimes called vegetable fats, in contrast to these triglycerides, vegetable waxes lack glycerin in their structure. Although many plant parts may yield oil, in commercial practice, Oils extracted from plants have been used since ancient times and in many cultures. Archaeological evidence shows that olives were turned into oil by 6000 BC and 4500 BC in present-day Israel. Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food – a role that they share with some animal fats, including butter, ghee, lard, the oils serve a number of purposes in this role, Shortening – to give pastry a crumbly texture. Texture – oils can serve to make other ingredients stick together less, flavor – while less-flavorful oils command premium prices, some oils, such as olive, sesame, or almond oil, may be chosen specifically for the flavor they impart. Flavor base – oils can also carry flavors of other ingredients, secondly, oils can be heated and used to cook other foods. Oils suitable for this objective must have a flash point. Such oils include the major cooking oils – soybean, rapeseed, canola, sunflower, safflower, peanut, cottonseed, etc. Tropical oils, such as coconut, palm, and rice bran oils, are valued in Asian cultures for high-temperature cooking. Unsaturated vegetable oils can be transformed through partial or complete hydrogenation into oils of higher melting point, the hydrogenation process involves sparging the oil at high temperature and pressure with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst, typically a powdered nickel compound. As each carbon–carbon double-bond is chemically reduced to a single bond, the elimination of double bonds by adding hydrogen atoms is called saturation, as the degree of saturation increases, the oil progresses toward being fully hydrogenated. An oil may be hydrogenated to increase resistance to rancidity or to change its physical characteristics, as the degree of saturation increases, the oils viscosity and melting point increase. The use of hydrogenated oils in foods has never completely satisfactory. Because the center arm of the triglyceride is shielded somewhat by the end fatty acids, most of the hydrogenation occurs on the end fatty acids, a margarine made from naturally more saturated oils will be more plastic than a margarine made from hydrogenated soy oil. Partially hydrogenated oils and their trans fats have been linked to a risk of mortality from coronary heart disease. In the US, the Standard of Identity for a product labeled as vegetable oil margarine specifies only canola, safflower, sunflower, corn, soybean, products not labeled vegetable oil margarine do not have that restriction. Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many manufactured products, many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products, candles, perfumes and other personal care and cosmetic products
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Gravity feed
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Gravity feed is the use of earths gravity to move something from one place to another. It is a means of moving a liquid without the use of a pump. A common application is the supply of fuel to a combustion engine by placing the fuel tank above the engine, e. g. in motorcycles, lawn mowers. A non-liquid application is the carton flow shelving system, ancient Roman aqueducts were gravity-fed, as water supply systems to remote villages in developing countries often are
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