1.
Pretoria
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Pretoria is a city in the northern part of Gauteng Province, South Africa. It is one of the three capital cities, serving as the seat of the executive branch of government. Pretoria is the part of the Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality which was formed by the amalgamation of several former local authorities including Centurion. There have been proposals to change the name of Pretoria itself to Tshwane, the elder Pretorius had become a national hero of the Voortrekkers after his victory over Dingane and the Zulus in the Battle of Blood River. The elder Pretorius also negotiated the Sand River Convention, in which Britain acknowledged the independence of the Transvaal and it became the capital of the South African Republic on 1 May 1860. The founding of Pretoria as the capital of the South African Republic can be seen as marking the end of the Boers settlement movements of the Great Trek, during the First Boer War, the city was besieged by Republican forces in December 1880 and March 1881. The peace treaty ended the war was signed in Pretoria on 3 August 1881 at the Pretoria Convention. The Second Boer War resulted in the end of the Transvaal Republic, the city surrendered to British forces under Frederick Roberts on 5 June 1900 and the conflict was ended in Pretoria with the signing of the Peace of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902. The Pretoria Forts were built for the defence of the city just prior to the Second Boer War, though some of these forts are today in ruins, a number of them have been preserved as national monuments. The Boer Republics of the ZAR and the Orange River Colony were united with the Cape Colony, Pretoria then became the administrative capital of the whole of South Africa, with Cape Town the legislative capital and Bloemfontein served as the judicial capital. Between 1910 and 1994, the city was also the capital of the province of Transvaal, on 14 October 1931, Pretoria achieved official city status. When South Africa became a republic in 1961, Pretoria remained its administrative capital and it lies at an altitude of about 1,339 m above sea level, in a warm, sheltered, fertile valley, surrounded by the hills of the Magaliesberg range. Pretoria has a subtropical climate with long hot rainy summers and short cool to cold. The city experiences the typical winters of South Africa with cold, clear nights, although the average lows during winter are mild it can get bitterly cold due to the clear skies, with nighttime low temperatures in recent years in the range of 2 to −5 °C. The average annual temperature is 18.7 °C, rain is chiefly concentrated in the summer months, with drought conditions prevailing over the winter months, when frosts may be sharp. Snowfall is a rare event, snowflakes were spotted in 1959,1968 and 2012 in the city. During a nationwide heatwave in November 2011, Pretoria experienced temperatures that reached 39 °C, similar record-breaking extreme heat events also occurred in January 2013, when Pretoria experienced temperatures exceeding 37 °C on several days. The year 2014 was one of the wettest on record for the city, a total of 914 mm fell up to the end of December, with 220 mm recorded in this month alone
2.
Gauteng
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Gauteng, which means place of gold, is one of the nine provinces of South Africa. It was formed part of the old Transvaal Province after South Africas first all-race elections on 27 April 1994. It was initially named Pretoria–Witwatersrand–Vereeniging and was renamed Gauteng in December 1994, situated in the Highveld, Gauteng is the smallest province in South Africa, accounting for only 1. 5% of the land area. Nevertheless, it is highly urbanised, containing the countrys largest city, Johannesburg, its capital, Pretoria. As of 2015, it has a population of nearly 13.2 million, the name Gauteng is derived from the Sotho name, gauta meaning gold with the locative suffix -eng. There was a thriving industry in the province following the 1886 discovery of gold in Johannesburg. In Sesotho, the name Gauteng was used for Johannesburg and surrounding areas long before it was adopted in 1994 as the name of a province. Gauteng, formerly known as Pretoria–Witwatersrand–Vereeniging, was carved out of the old Transvaal province in 1994, although the terminology PWV, after the discovery of gold in 1886, the region proceeded to become the single largest gold producer in the world and the city of Johannesburg was founded. The older city Pretoria was not subject to the same attention, Pretoria grew at a slower rate and was highly regarded due to its role in the Second Boer War. The Cullinan Diamond which is the largest diamond ever mined was mined near Pretoria in a town called Cullinan in the year 1905. Gauteng has only been documented since the 1800s and as a result. At the Sterkfontein caves, some of the oldest fossils of hominids have been discovered, such as Mrs. Ples, today, the Apartheid Museum stands testament to these struggles in Johannesburg. Gauteng is governed by the Gauteng Provincial Legislature, a 73-person unicameral legislature elected by party-list proportional representation. The most recent election of the legislature was held on 7 May 2014, and the African National Congress won 53. 59% of the vote. The official opposition is the Democratic Alliance, which won 30. 78% of the vote and 23 seats, other parties represented are the Economic Freedom Fighters with eight seats and the Freedom Front Plus and the Inkatha Freedom Party with one seat each. Premier David Makhura of the ANC was elected on 21 May 2014, the Gauteng Division of the High Court of South Africa, which has seats in Pretoria and Johannesburg, is a superior court with general jurisdiction over the province. Johannesburg is also home to the Constitutional Court, South Africas highest court, Gautengs southern border is the Vaal River, which separates it from the Free State. It also borders on North West to the west, Limpopo to the north, Gauteng is the only landlocked province of South Africa without a foreign border
3.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
4.
Avalon Cemetery
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Avalon Cemetery is one of the largest graveyards in South Africa. It was opened in 1972, during the height of apartheid, more than 300,000 people are buried on its 430 acres, the graves less than two feet apart. By 2010 the cemetery is expected to be at capacity, largely because of due to HIV. The standard for large funerals in black South African culture was set in the 1970s and 1980s, thousands of students boycotted school, adopted the slogan liberation before education and took to the streets in protest. They inevitably clashed with police, and the death toll grew each week, the funerals for the victims became one of the most powerful expressions of defiance against the apartheid government. More than 10,000 people, some dressed in fatigues and armed with wooden rifles. When there were not enough buses to drive them to the cemetery, by the end of the day, the funerals often generated new victims of the struggle to be buried the next week. Avalon Cemetery is noted for a number of people interred on its grounds. Notables include Hector Pieterson, Joe Slovo, Lilian Ngoyi, Helen Joseph and Hastings Ndlovu
5.
African National Congress
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The African National Congress is the Republic of South Africas governing social democratic political party. It has been the party of post-apartheid South Africa on the national level, beginning with the election of Nelson Mandela in the 1994 election. Today, the ANC remains the dominant political party in South Africa and its leader Jacob Zuma is the incumbent head of state, with Atul Gupta being the official head of government. On 8 April 1960, the administration of Charles Robberts Swart, banned the ANC, after the ban, the ANC formed the Umkhonto we Sizwe to fight against apartheid utilizing guerrilla warfare and sabotage. On 3 February 1990, State President F. W. de Klerk lifted the ban on the ANC, on 17 March 1992, the apartheid referendum was passed by the voters removing apartheid and allowing the ANC to run in the 1994 election. Since the 1994 election the ANC has performed better than 60% in all general elections, the founding of the SANNC was in direct response to injustice against black South Africans at the hands of the government then in power. It can be said that the SANNC had its origins in a pronouncement by Pixley ka Isaka Seme who said in 1911, Forget all the past differences among Africans, the SANNC was founded the following year on 8 January 1912. The government of the newly formed Union of South Africa began a systematic oppression of people in South Africa. The Land Act was promulgated in 1913 forcing many non-whites from their farms into the cities and towns to work, by 1919, the SANNC was leading a campaign against passes. However, it became dormant in the mid-1920s. During that time, black people were represented by the ICU. In 1923, the became the African National Congress. By 1927, J. T. Gumede proposed co-operation with the Communists in a bid to revitalise the organisation and this led to the ANC becoming largely ineffectual and inactive, until the mid-1940s when the ANC was remodelled as a mass movement. The ANC responded to attacks on the rights of black South Africans, as well as calling for strikes, boycotts and this led to a later Defiance Campaign in the 1950s, a mass movement of resistance to apartheid. The government tried to stop the ANC by banning party leaders and enacting new laws to stop the ANC, the government claimed that this was a communist document, and consequently leaders of the ANC and Congress were arrested. 1960 saw the Sharpeville massacre, in which 69 people were killed when police opened fire on anti-apartheid protesters, in 1961, partly in response to the Sharpeville massacre, Umkhonto we Sizwe was established as the military wing to launch bomb attacks. It was considered as terrorist group by South African government, later the United States government, MK commenced the military struggle against apartheid with acts of sabotage aimed at the installations of the state, and in the early stages was reluctant to target civilian targets. MK was responsible for the deaths of civilians and members of the military
6.
Textile manufacturing
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Textile manufacturing is a major industry. It is based on the conversion of fibre into yarn, yarn into fabric and these are then dyed or printed, fabricated into clothes. Different types of fibre are used to produce yarn, Cotton remains the most important natural fibre, so is treated in depth. There remains an industry that uses hand techniques to achieve the same results. Cotton is the worlds most important natural fibre, in the year 2007, the global yield was 25 million tons from 35 million hectares cultivated in more than 50 countries. Indian cotton, gossypium arboreum, is finer but the staple is only suitable for hand processing, American cotton, gossypium hirsutum, produces the longer staple needed for machine production. Planting is from September to mid November and the crop is harvested between March and June, the cotton bolls are harvested by stripper harvesters and spindle pickers, that remove the entire boll from the plant. The cotton boll is the seed pod of the cotton plant, ginning The seed cotton goes in to a Cotton gin. The cotton gin separates seeds and removes the trash from the fibre, in a saw gin, circular saws grab the fibre and pull it through a grating that is too narrow for the seeds to pass. A roller gin is used with longer staple cotton, here a leather roller captures the cotton. A knife blade, set close to the roller, detaches the seeds by drawing them through teeth in circular saws, the ginned cotton fibre, known as lint, is then compressed into bales which are about 1.5 m tall and weigh almost 220 kg. Only 33% of the crop is usable lint, commercial cotton is priced by quality, and that broadly relates to the average length of the staple, and the variety of the plant. Longer staple cotton is called Egyptian, medium staple is called American upland, the cotton seed is pressed into a cooking oil. The husks and meal are processed into animal feed, and the stems into paper, ginning, bale-making and transportation is done in the country of origin. Opening and cleaning Cotton mills get the cotton shipped to them in large,500 pound bales, when the cotton comes out of a bale, it is all packed together and still contains vegetable matter. The bale is broken using a machine with large spikes. In order to fluff up the cotton and remove the vegetable matter, the cotton is fed into a machine known as a picker, and gets beaten with a beater bar in order to loosen it up. It is fed through rollers, which serve to remove the vegetable matter
7.
Helen Joseph
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Helen Beatrice Joseph was a South African anti-apartheid activist. Helen graduated with a degree in English from the University of London in 1927, in about 1930 she left India for South Africa. She settled in Durban where she met and married dentist Billie Joseph, Helen Joseph was born Helen Beatrice May Fennell in 1905 in Easebourne near Midhurst, West Sussex, England, the daughter of a government Customs and Excise officer, Samuel Fennell. In 1923 she was admitted to the University of London to study English, after working as a teacher in India for three years, Helen came to South Africa in 1931, where she met and married a dentist, Billie Joseph. She served in the Womens Auxiliary Air Force during World War II as an information, after the war and her divorce she trained as a social worker and started working in a community centre in a Coloured area of Cape Town. In 1951 Helen first met Solly Sachs, when she applied for the job of Secretary-Director of the Medical Aid Society of the Transvaal Clothing Society, at the time Solly Sachs was the head of the Garment Workers Union. She was a member of the Congress of Democrats. This day is celebrated as South Africas Womens Day. Joseph’s opposition to the State had not gone unnoticed, she was a defendant at the 1956 Treason Trial, although Joseph was arrested on a charge of high treason in December 1956, then banned in 1957. The treason trial dragged on for four years and she was acquitted in 1961, in spite of her acquittal, on 13 October 1962, Helen became the first person to be placed under house arrest under the Sabotage Act that had just been introduced by the apartheid government. She narrowly escaped death more than once, surviving bullets shot through her bedroom and her last banning order was lifted when she was 80 years old. The apartheid state’s fear of her was puzzling, “How a weary old girl and those involved in the anti-apartheid struggle had an open invitation to visit her home. All comrades brought food, and at 12 noon everyone raised their glasses to those on Robben Island, on December 25,1992, Joseph was in hospital and the venue moved to 11 Plantation Road, The Gardens. Robben Island’s prisoners had been released, and those present raised their glasses to Helen, who would die shortly thereafter. “On 31 December 1956 I moved into my little cottage with the tall trees, whatever the reason for her choice of home, she would conduct her struggle against injustice from this address until her death in 1992. Banned four times, jailed four times, she saw her become a long saga of police persecution. Helen had no children of her own, but frequently stood in loco parentis for the children of comrades in prison or in exile, among the children who spent time in her care were Winnie and Nelson Mandelas daughters Zinzi and Zenani and Bram Fischers daughter, Ilsa. The Road Name Change Act was initiated by the South African government in 2007 to rename streets, such as Davenport Road, Helen Joseph died on the 25 December 1992 at the age of 87
8.
Rahima Moosa
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Rahima Moosa was a member of the Transvaal Indian Congress and later the African National Congress. She is well known for the role she played in the uprising of women on 9 August 1956. Moosa was also a steward for the Cape Town Food. Rahima Moosa was one of identical sisters born in the Strand and she was brought up in a liberated Islamic environment and she attended Trafalgar High School in District Six. She dropped out of school with formal education. Annoyed by the policies of the Apartheid government she and her twin sister Fatima campaigned for change, rahima was a shop steward and in 1951 she married her comrade activist Dr. Hassen “Ike” Mohamed Moosa who had already stood trial for treason. They moved to Johannesburg and had four children, both of them were very active in the South African Indian Congress and later the African National Congress. Together they played a role organising the 1955 Congress of the People, rahima, Sophia Williams-De Bruyn, Helen Joseph and Lillian Ngoyi led 20,000 womens march on 9 August 1956 to demonstrate against the further strengthening of Pass Laws. This day is now celebrated annually as National Womens Day, rahima Moosa was listed by the Apartheid regime despite becoming ill after a heart attack in the 1960s. She died on 26 May 1993, a year before South Africas ninth democratic elections in 1994 and her husband and her children remained active in the African National Congress after her death
9.
Albertina Sisulu
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Nontsikelelo Albertina Sisulu was a South African anti–apartheid activist, and the wife of fellow activist Walter Sisulu. She was affectionately known as Ma Sisulu throughout her lifetime by the South African public, in 2004 she was voted 57th in the SABC3s Great South Africans. She died on 2 June 2011 in her home in Linden, Johannesburg, South Africa, born Nontsikelelo Thethiwe in the Tsomo district of the Transkei on 21 October 1918, she was the second of five children of Bonilizwe and Monikazi Thethiwe. Sisulus mother survived the Spanish Flu, but was constantly ill and it fell upon Sisulu, as the eldest girl, to take on a motherly role for her younger siblings. She had to stay out of school for periods of time. She adopted the name Albertina when she started her schooling at a Presbyterian mission school in Xolobe and her leadership qualities and maternal instincts underlined the respect she earned during the struggle when she was referred to as the ‘Mother of the Nation’. Sisulu excelled at school in cultural and sporting activities and she showed leadership skills at an age when she was chosen as head girl in standard five. Angered by the unfair treatment Sisulu’s teachers wrote to the local Xhosa language newspaper, Imvo Zabantsundu, the article caught the attention of the priests at the local Roman Catholic Mission who then communicated with Father Bernard Huss at Mariazell. Father Huss arranged for a high school scholarship for Sisulu at Mariazell College. The Mnyila family was happy and celebrated Sisulus achievement with the entire village. In 1936 Sisulu left for Mariazell College in Matatiele in the Eastern Cape, the schools routine was rigid and strict, pupils were woken up at 4am to bath and clean their dormitories, they would then proceed to the chapel for morning prayers. Although Sisulu’s scholarship covered her board and lodging, she had to pay it back during the school holidays by ploughing the fields, Sisulu only went home during the December holidays but she found this a small price to pay for the opportunity to attend high school. With high school ending in 1939 Sisulu had to decide what she would do after school and she decided that she would not marry but rather become a working professional so that she could support her family back in Xolobe. However, Father Huss advised Sisulu against this, as nuns did not earn a salary nor did they leave the mission post, instead he advised her to consider nursing, as trainee nurses were paid to study. Attracted by the practical solution nursing offered Sisulu took his advice and she was accepted as a trainee nurse at a Johannesburg Non-European hospital called Johannesburg General. After spending Christmas with her family in Xolobe she left for Johannesburg in January 1940, after being orphaned as a teenager, she was obliged to help provide for her younger brothers and sisters. Abandoning her ambition to train as a teacher, she left the Transkei to train as a nurse at Johannesburg′s Non-European Hospital in 1940 and she graduated from Mariazell College in 1939, and chose a career in nursing. Sisulu started work in Johannesburg as a midwife in 1946, often walking to visit patients in townships and you know what it means to be a midwife
10.
Union Buildings
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The Union Buildings form the official seat of the South African government and also house the offices of the president of South Africa. The imposing buildings are located in Pretoria, atop Meintjieskop at the end of Arcadia, close to historic Church Square. The large gardens of the Buildings are nestled between Government Avenue, Vermeulen Street East, Church Street, the R104 and Blackwood Street, fairview Avenue is a closed road where only officials can enter to the Union Buildings. Though not in the center of Pretoria the Union Buildings occupy the highest point of Pretoria, the Buildings are one of the centres of political life in South Africa, The Buildings and Arcadia have become metonyms for the South African government. It has become a landmark of Pretoria and South Africa in general, and is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the city. The Buildings are the location of presidential inaugurations and these buildings, built from light sandstone, were designed by the architect Sir Herbert Baker in the English monumental style and are 285 m long. They have a shape, with the two wings at the sides, this serves to represent the union of a formerly divided people. The clock chimes are identical to those of Big Ben in London, the east and west wings, as well as the twin-domed towers, represent two languages, English and Afrikaans, and the inner court symbolises the Union of South Africa. These buildings are considered by many to be the architects greatest achievement, the Nelson Mandela statue in Sandton Citys Nelson Mandela Square was commissioned originally to stand on the spot where Nelson Mandela gave his inaugural address. The building was sited on a quarry, which now makes up the amphitheatre. The matching statues on top of the towers are Atlas, holding up the world. The statue on the rostrum in the amphitheatre between the wings is Mercury, a mythic Roman messenger and a god of trade, sculpted by George Ness. The closest suburb to the Union Buildings is Arcadia, which means Playground of Gods, Pretoria has the second largest number of embassies in the world, after Washington, D. C. most of which are located in or near Arcadia. The design of each level differs, and therefore each stone had to be individually cut, the Architectural styles of the building ranges from the lower levels Edwardian style to the top levels Cape Dutch design with shutters on the windows. The windows from bottom to top are elongated and become shorter towards the top floor and this is to give the illusion of height. The Union Buildings are the site of presidential inaugurations, the official offices of the president are on the left-hand side of the Union Buildings, and the South African national flag is flown on the left-hand side if the president is in office. The Buildings are divided into three sections, the offices, amphitheatre, and right offices. All are 95 metres in length, each offices block contains three inner courtyards providing light and air to the offices
11.
Apartheid
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Apartheid was a system of institutionalised racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa between 1948 and 1991, when it was abolished. The countrys first multiracial elections under a universal franchise were held three years later in 1994, Apartheid as a policy was embraced by the South African government shortly after the ascension of the National Party during the countrys 1948 general elections. Apartheid was also enforced in South West Africa until it gained independence as Namibia in 1990, with the rapid growth and industrialisation of the British Cape Colony in the nineteenth century, racial policies and laws became increasingly rigid. Cape legislation that discriminated specifically against black Africans began appearing shortly before 1900, the policies of the Boer republics were also racially exclusive, for instance, the Transvaal constitution barred nonwhite participation in church and state. Places of residence were determined by racial classification, from 1960 to 1983,3.5 million nonwhite South Africans were removed from their homes, and forced into segregated neighbourhoods, in one of the largest mass removals in modern history. Most of these targeted removals were intended to restrict the population to ten designated tribal homelands, also known as bantustans. The government announced that relocated persons would lose their South African citizenship as they were absorbed into the bantustans, Apartheid sparked significant international and domestic opposition, resulting in some of the most influential global social movements of the twentieth century. It was the target of frequent condemnation in the United Nations, some reforms of the apartheid system were undertaken, including allowing for Indian and coloured political representation in parliament, but these measures failed in appeasing most activist groups. In 1990, prominent ANC leaders such as Nelson Mandela were released from detention, Apartheid legislation was abolished in mid-1991, pending multiracial elections set for April 1994. Apartheid is an Afrikaans word meaning separateness, or the state of being apart and its first recorded use was in 1929. The governors and assemblies that governed the process in the various colonies of South Africa were launched on a different and independent legislative path from the rest of the British Empire. In the days of slavery, slaves required passes to travel away from their masters, in 1797 the Landdrost and Heemraden of Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet extended pass laws beyond slaves and ordained that all Khoikhoi moving about the country for any purpose should carry passes. Ordinance No.49 of 1828 decreed that prospective black immigrants were to be granted passes for the purpose of seeking work. These passes were to be issued for Coloureds and Khoikhoi, but not for other Africans, the United Kingdoms Slavery Abolition Act 1833 abolished slavery throughout the British Empire and overrode the Cape Articles of Capitulation. To comply with the act the South African legislation was expanded to include Ordinance 1 in 1835 and this was followed by Ordinance 3 in 1848, which introduced an indenture system for Xhosa that was little different from slavery. The Glen Grey Act of 1894, instigated by the government of Prime Minister Cecil John Rhodes limited the amount of land Africans could hold, in 1905 the General Pass Regulations Act denied blacks the vote, limited them to fixed areas and inaugurated the infamous Pass System. The Asiatic Registration Act required all Indians to register and carry passes, one of the first pieces of segregating legislation enacted by Jan Smuts United Party government was the Asiatic Land Tenure Bill, which banned land sales to Indians. The United Party government began to move away from the enforcement of segregationist laws during World War II
12.
Lausanne
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Lausanne is a city in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, and the capital and biggest city of the canton of Vaud. The city is situated on the shores of Lake Geneva and it faces the French town of Évian-les-Bains, with the Jura Mountains to its north-west. Lausanne is located 62 kilometres northeast of Geneva, Lausanne has a population of 146,372, making it the fourth largest city in Switzerland, with the entire agglomeration area having 420,000 inhabitants. The metropolitan area of Lausanne-Geneva was over 1.2 million inhabitants in 2000, Lausanne is a focus of international sport, hosting the International Olympic Committee, the Court of Arbitration for Sport and some 55 international sport associations. It lies in a noted wine-growing region, the city has a 28-station metro system, making it the smallest city in the world to have a rapid transit system. Lausanne will host the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics, by the 2nd century AD it was known as vikanor Lousonnensium and in 280 as lacu Lausonio. By 400 it was civitas Lausanna and in 990 it was mentioned as Losanna, after the fall of the Roman Empire, insecurity forced the transfer of Lausanne to its current centre, a hilly site that is easier to defend. The city which emerged from the camp was ruled by the Dukes of Savoy, then it came under Bern from 1536 to 1798 and a number of its cultural treasures, including the hanging tapestries in the Cathedral, were permanently removed. Lausanne has made a number of requests to recover them, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, Lausanne became a place of refuge for French Huguenots. In 1729 a seminary was opened by Antoine Court and Benjamin Duplan, by 1750 ninety pastors had been sent back to France to work clandestinely, this number would rise to four hundred. Official persecution ended in 1787, a faculty of Protestant theology was established at Montauban in 1808, during the Napoleonic Wars, the citys status changed. In 1803, it became the capital of a newly formed Swiss canton, in 1964 the city hosted the Swiss National Exhibition, displaying its newly found confidence to host major international events. From the 1950s to 1970s a large number of Italians, Spaniards and Portuguese immigrated, settling mostly in the district of Renens. The city has served as a refuge for European artists, while under the care of a psychiatrist at Lausanne, T. S. Eliot composed most of his 1922 poem The Wasteland. Hemingway also visited from Paris with his wife during the 1920s, in fact, many creative people - such as Edward Gibbon, an historian, and Romantic era poets Shelley and Byron - have sojourned, lived, and worked in Lausanne or nearby. The city has been quiet, but in the late 1960s. Later demonstrations took place to protest against the high cinema prices, the most important geographical feature of the area surrounding Lausanne is Lake Geneva. Lausanne boasts a dramatic panorama over the lake and the Alps, in addition to its generally southward-sloping layout, the centre of the city is the site of an ancient river, the Flon, which has been covered since the 19th century
13.
Women's International Democratic Federation
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Womens International Democratic Federation is an international organization working for womens rights. WIDF was founded in Paris in 1945 and its first president was Eugenie Cotton, and its founding members included Tsola Dragoycheva and Ana Pauker. Later leaders included the Australian Freda Brown, the WIDF was one of the largest and probably most influential international womens organizations of the post-1945 era. At various points in its history, the WIDF enjoyed consultative status with the Economic and it was at the initiation of representatives of the WIDF in the Commission on the Status of Women at the United Nations that the UN declared the International Womens Year in 1975. The main areas of concern identified by WIDF were anti-fascism, world peace, child welfare. During the Cold War years, it was described as Communist-leaning, the WIDF published a monthly magazine, Women of the Whole World, in English, French, Spanish, German, and Russian, with occasional issues in Arabic. The secretariat of the current WIDF is based in São Paulo, philippine Congresswoman, Liza Maza, is the regional coordinator of WIDF in Asia. During the Cold War, the Congress of American Women was the organization of the WIDF in the United States. In 1949, members of the Congress of American Women were targeted by the Committee on Un-American Activities of the House of Representatives, in HUACs report, the WIDF was named as a communist front organization, less interested in advanced womens rights than supporting Soviet foreign policy. The anti-communist smear campaign against the WIDF forced the organization to relocate from Paris to East Berlin, despite the Cold War context, the WIDF played an important role in supporting womens anti-colonial struggles in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Signs, Journal of Women in Culture & Society, winter2016, Vol.41 Issue 2, p305-331 Katherine McGregor, “Indonesian Women, The Womens International Democratic Federation and the Struggle for ‘Womens Rights’, 1946–1965. ”Jul2012, Vol.40 Issue 117, p193-208. Celia Donert, “Womens Rights in Cold War Europe, Disentangling Feminist Histories. ”May2013 Supplement, p178-202 Francisca de Haan, “A Brief Survey of Womens Rights from 1945 to 2009. ”2010, Vol.47 Issue 1, p56-59 Full text of the HUAC report on the Congress of American Women, including information about the founding of the WIDF in Paris in 1945
14.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
15.
Orlando, Soweto
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Orlando is a township in the urban area of Soweto, in the city of Johannesburg. The township was founded in 1931 and named after Edwin Orlando Leake and it is divided in two main areas, Orlando West and Orlando East. The township of Orlando was directly involved in some of the most important events of the fight against the apartheid system, some of the most dramatic clashes between the South African police and anti-apartheid demonstrators occurred in Orlando West. This includes the Soweto uprising where 12-year-old Hector Pieterson was killed, the Hector Pieterson Memorial Museum was established in Orlando West to commemorate those events. In the surroundings of the museum is the house where Nelson Mandela lived for years while practicing law. Orlando East was also involved in a dramatic shoot-out in the era the same day that Pieterson was killed in West Orlando. It occurred at the Regina Mundi church, which is the main Roman Catholic church in South Africa, the façade of the church and the interior still show bullet holes. After the apartheid system was dismantled, several meetings of the Truth, Orlando Stadium is the home of the soccer team Orlando Pirates of the South African Premier Division. They have won nine total top-flight league titles, and nine national cup championships
16.
Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital
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The hospital is in the Soweto area south of Johannesburg, South Africa. It is one of the 40 Gauteng provincial hospitals, and is financed and managed by the Gauteng Provincial Department of Health, the Imperial Military Hospital, Baragwanath, was built in what today is Diepkloof in 1942 for convalescing British and Commonwealth soldiers. Field Marshal Jan Smuts noted during the ceremonies that the facility would be used for the areas black population after the war. In 1947 King George VI visited and presented medals to the troops there, from this start grew Baragwanath Hospital, reputedly the largest hospital in the southern hemisphere. In 1997 another name change followed, with the facility now known as Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital in honour of the South African Communist Party leader who was assassinated in 1993. More than two thousand patients check into the hospitals specialised clinics and out-patient departments daily, from catchment areas as far as Klerksdorp, list of hospitals in South Africa Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital Website University of Witwatersrand. Just Another Day at the Worlds Biggest Hospital on NPRs All Things Considered,1 December 2003, includes an audio report and a flash presentation. Baragwanath History in South Africa, The Baragwanath family history in South Africa,24 hours of trauma TV documentary on the trauma unit by Aljazeera English
17.
Lead ship
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The lead ship, name ship, or class leader is the first of a series or class of ships all constructed according to the same general design. The term is applicable to ships and larger civilian craft. Large ships are complicated internally and may take as much as five to ten years to construct, any changes or advances that are available when building a ship are likely to be included, so it is rare to have two that are identical. Constructing one ship is likely to reveal better ways of doing things. The second and later ships are often started before the first one is completed, launched and tested, the improvements will sometimes be retrofitted to the lead ship. Larger civilian craft, such as Sun Princess, the ship of the Sun-class cruise ships. The same custom is followed in fiction, the Constitution-class cruiser is the basis for the Enterprise of Star Trek. Example of a lead ship announcement from US Navy USS Pennsylvania BB-38
18.
National Women's Day
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National Womens Day is a South African public holiday celebrated annually on 9 August. The first National Womens Day was celebrated on 9 August 1994, in 2006, a reenactment of the march was staged for its 50th anniversary, with many of the 1956 march veterans. The march was led by Lilian Ngoyi, Helen Joseph, Rahima Moosa, the women stood silently for 30 minutes and then started singing a protest song that was composed in honour of the occasion, WathintAbafazi Wathintimbokodo. In the years since, the phrase has come to represent womens courage and it can be used as a day to fight for or protest these ideas. Due to this holiday, there have been many significant advances. Before 1994, women had low representation in the parliament, only at 2. 7%, women in the national assembly were at 27. 7%. This number has doubled, being at 48% representation throughout the countrys government. National womens day is based much of the same principles as International Womens Day. International Womens Day Urban Areas Act Public holidays in South Africa Womens Day March -9 August 1956 National Womens Day Being Amazing 8th march One In Nine Campaign
19.
Rhodes University
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Rhodes University is a public research university located in Grahamstown in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. It is one of four universities in the province, Rhodes was founded in 1904 as Rhodes University College, named after Cecil Rhodes, through a grant from the Rhodes Trust. It became a constituent college of the University of South Africa in 1918 before becoming an independent university in 1951, in 1904 Leander Starr Jameson issued £50000 preferred stock to the university from the Rhodes Trust. With this funding Rhodes University College was founded by an act of parliament on 31 May 1904, the four St Andrews College professors, Arthur Matthews, George Cory, Stanley Kidd and G. F Dingemans became founding professors of Rhodes University College. At the beginning of 1905, Rhodes moved from cramped quarters at St Andrews to the Drostdy building, Rhodes became a constituent college of the new University of South Africa in 1918 and it continued to expand in size. When the future of the University of South Africa came under review in 1947, Rhodes University was inaugurated on 10 March 1951. Sir Basil Schonland, son of Selmar Schonland, became the first Chancellor of his alma mater, in terms of the Rhodes University Private Act, the University College of Fort Hare was affiliated to Rhodes University. This mutually beneficial arrangement continued until the government decided to disaffiliate Fort Hare from Rhodes. The Rhodes Senate and Council objected strongly to this, and to the Separate University Education Bill, however, the two bills were passed, and Fort Hares affiliation to Rhodes came to an end in 1959. Nevertheless, in 1962 an honorary doctorate was conferred on the State President C. R. Swart, the award caused the resignation of the Chancellor, Sir Basil Schonland, although his reasons were not made public at the time. James Hyslop succeeded Alty in 1963, during 2008 work began on construction of a new library building at a cost of R85 million, one of the largest infrastructure projects undertaken by the university, and was completed in 2010. The humanities faculty, being the largest in the university, consists of 40% of the student intake of undergraduate and postgraduate studies, Rhodes University operates a Law Clinic, which operates as a firm of attorneys providing training to law students and free legal services for indigent people. The Law Clinic operates from two offices, one in Grahamstown and one in Queenstown, Rhodes is a small, highly residential university. For most undergraduates, first and second years of study are done while living in campus residences, Rhodes academic program operates on a semester calendar, beginning in early-February to early-June, and the second semester beginning in late-July and ending late-November. Rhodes admitted 1592 students in 2012, the tables below show the racial and gender composition of the university for that year. Rhodes holds fourteen of the national research chairs appointed under the South African Research Chairs Initiative and this accounts for approximately 7% of the total awarded nationally in South Africa, a significant proportion given the Universitys small size. Activate celebrated its 65th birthday in 2012, while The Oppidan Press was only first published in 2007 with its target readership being mainly Oppidans, the journal Philosophical Papers is edited in the department of philosophy. In 2011, the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities ranked the Rhodes 5th in South Africa, in academia, Old Rhodian Max Theiler was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research in virology in 1951
20.
Cape Town
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Cape Town is a coastal city in South Africa. It is the second-most populous urban area in South Africa after Johannesburg and it is also the capital and primate city of the Western Cape province. As the seat of the Parliament of South Africa, it is also the capital of the country. It forms part of the City of Cape Town metropolitan municipality, the city is famous for its harbour, for its natural setting in the Cape Floristic Region, and for such well-known landmarks as Table Mountain and Cape Point. As of 2014, it is the 10th most populous city in Africa and it is one of the most multicultural cities in the world, reflecting its role as a major destination for immigrants and expatriates to South Africa. The city was named the World Design Capital for 2014 by the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design, in 2014, Cape Town was named the best place in the world to visit by both the American New York Times and the British Daily Telegraph. Located on the shore of Table Bay, Cape Town was first developed by the Dutch East India Company as a station for Dutch ships sailing to East Africa, India. Jan van Riebeecks arrival on 6 April 1652 established the first permanent European settlement in South Africa, Cape Town quickly outgrew its original purpose as the first European outpost at the Castle of Good Hope, becoming the economic and cultural hub of the Cape Colony. Until the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the development of Johannesburg, Cape Town was the largest city in South Africa, the earliest known remnants in the region were found at Peers Cave in Fish Hoek and date to between 15,000 and 12,000 years ago. It was later renamed by John II of Portugal as Cape of Good Hope because of the optimism engendered by the opening of a sea route to India. Vasco da Gama recorded a sighting of the Cape of Good Hope in 1497, in the late 16th century, Portuguese, French, Danish, Dutch and English but mainly Portuguese ships regularly stopped over in Table Bay en route to the Indies. They traded tobacco, copper and iron with the Khoikhoi in exchange for fresh meat, the settlement grew slowly during this period, as it was hard to find adequate labour. This labour shortage prompted the authorities to import slaves from Indonesia, many of these became ancestors of the first Cape Coloured communities. Some of these, including grapes, cereals, ground nuts, potatoes, apples and citrus, had an important, the Dutch Republic being transformed in Revolutionary Frances vassal Batavian Republic, Great Britain moved to take control of its colonies. Britain captured Cape Town in 1795, but the Cape was returned to the Dutch by treaty in 1803, British forces occupied the Cape again in 1806 following the Battle of Blaauwberg. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, Cape Town was permanently ceded to Britain and it became the capital of the newly formed Cape Colony, whose territory expanded very substantially through the 1800s. With expansion came calls for independence from Britain, with the Cape attaining its own parliament. Suffrage was established according to the non-racial, but sexist Cape Qualified Franchise, the discovery of diamonds in Griqualand West in 1867, and the Witwatersrand Gold Rush in 1886, prompted a flood of immigrants to South Africa
21.
Berea, Durban
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The Berea is a ridge above the city of Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa on the northern side which overlooks the city centre and the Indian Ocean. Berea is also used as a designation for the suburbs in the area. It has been described as the area between the Howard College Campus of the University of KwaZulu-Natal, and the Burman Bush Nature Reserve, some of the oldest mansions in Durban were built in this once forested area. Today, many of these have converted into offices or made way for apartment buildings. The Berea was once the most expensive real estate area in the province but is now third to Umhlanga, the two main areas of the Berea are Musgrave and upper Glenwood which are separated by the N3 Western Freeway highway which leads into the city centre. A related neighbouring area designation is Overport, the Berea borders the orange-roofed Durban suburb of Morningside
22.
City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality
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The City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality is a metropolitan municipality that manages the local governance of Johannesburg, South Africa. It is divided into branches and departments in order to expedite services for the city. Johannesburg is a city, the poor mostly live in the southern suburbs or on the peripheries of the far north. As of 2012, unemployment is near 25% and most young people are out of work, around 20% of the city lives in abject poverty in informal settlements that lack proper roads, electricity, or any other kind of direct municipal service. Another 40% live in housing with insufficient municipal housing. During the apartheid era, Johannesburg was divided into 11 local authorities, seven of which were white, the first post-apartheid City Council was created in 1995. The council adopted the slogan One City, One Taxpayer in order to highlight its primary goal of addressing inequal tax revenue distribution, to this end, revenue from wealthy, traditionally white areas would help pay for services needed in poorer, black areas. The City Council was divided into four regions, each with an autonomous local regional authority that was to be overseen by a central metropolitan council. The four councils or Metropolitan Local Councils were the Northern MLCl, Southern MLC, Eastern MLC and Western MLC, in 1999, Johannesburg appointed a city manager in order to reshape the citys ailing financial situation. The manager, together with the Municipal Council, drew up a blueprint called Igoli 2002 and this was a three-year plan that called upon the government to sell non-core assets, restructure certain utilities, and required that all others become self-sufficient. The plan took the city from near insolvency to a surplus of Rand 153 million. The plan was contested by trade unions, who argued that it would result in job losses. The core of Igoli 2002 was to restructure Metro Gas, Rand Airport, the city bus service, the Johannesburg Zoo, the Civic Theatre, the Fresh Produce Market, and the citys property holdings were turned into corporations with the city as the single shareholder. Each was run as a business, with management hired on performance contracts, in 2010/11 the municipality faced a qualified audit from the Auditor-General following a large number of billing issues, as the result of the flawed implementation of a SAP system. The citys call centre also experienced a crisis at the same time, the municipality covers an area of 1,645 square kilometres, stretching from Orange Farm in the south to Midrand in the north. The 2011 census divided the municipality into the main places. In the election of 3 August 2016 the African National Congress won the largest share of the seats on the council with 121 but did not achieve a majority. On 22 August 2016, minority parties voted with the DA to elect its candidate, Herman Mashaba
23.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
24.
Independent Online
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The Independent is a British online newspaper. The printed edition of the paper ceased in March 2016, nicknamed the Indy, it began as a broadsheet newspaper, but changed to tabloid format in 2003. Until September 2011, the paper described itself on the banner at the top of every newspaper as free from party political bias and it tends to take a pro-market stance on economic issues. The daily edition was named National Newspaper of the Year at the 2004 British Press Awards. In June 2015, it had a daily circulation of just below 58,000,85 per cent down from its 1990 peak. On 12 February 2016, it was announced that The Independent, the last print edition of The Independent on Sunday was published on 20 March 2016, with the main paper ceasing print publication the following Saturday. Launched in 1986, the first issue of The Independent was published on 7 October in broadsheet format and it was produced by Newspaper Publishing plc and created by Andreas Whittam Smith, Stephen Glover and Matthew Symonds. All three partners were former journalists at The Daily Telegraph who had left the paper towards the end of Lord Hartwells ownership, marcus Sieff was the first chairman of Newspaper Publishing, and Whittam Smith took control of the paper. The paper was created at a time of a change in British newspaper publishing. Rupert Murdoch was challenging long-accepted practices of the print unions and ultimately defeated them in the Wapping dispute, consequently, production costs could be reduced which, it was said at the time, created openings for more competition. As a result of controversy around Murdochs move to Wapping, the plant was effectively having to function under siege from sacked print workers picketing outside, the Independent attracted some of the staff from the two Murdoch broadsheets who had chosen not to move to his companys new headquarters. Launched with the advertising slogan It is, and challenging both The Guardian for centre-left readers and The Times as the newspaper of record, The Independent reached a circulation of over 400,000 by 1989. Competing in a market, The Independent sparked a general freshening of newspaper design as well as, within a few years. Some aspects of production merged with the paper, although the Sunday paper retained a largely distinct editorial staff. It featured spoofs of the other papers mastheads with the words The Rupert Murdoch or The Conrad Black, a number of other media companies were interested in the paper. Tony OReillys media group and Mirror Group Newspapers had bought a stake of about a third each by mid-1994, in March 1995, Newspaper Publishing was restructured with a rights issue, splitting the shareholding into OReillys Independent News & Media, MGN, and Prisa. In April 1996, there was another refinancing, and in March 1998, OReilly bought the other 54% of the company for £30 million, brendan Hopkins headed Independent News, Andrew Marr was appointed editor of The Independent, and Rosie Boycott became editor of The Independent on Sunday. Marr introduced a dramatic if short-lived redesign which won critical favour but was a commercial failure, Marr admitted his changes had been a mistake in his book, My Trade
25.
Georgia State University
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Georgia State University is a public research university in downtown Atlanta, Georgia, United States. Founded in 1913, it is one of the University System of Georgias four research universities, Georgia State University offers more than 250 undergraduate and graduate degree programs spread across eight academic colleges with around 3,500 faculty members. It is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, approximately 27% of the student population is considered part-time while 73% of the population is considered full-time. The university is one of only four Georgia universities classified as a Research University/Very High Activity, the university has a full-time faculty count of 1,142, with 69 percent of those faculty members either tenured or on tenure track. GSU has two libraries, University library and Law library, which hold over 4.3 million volumes combined, the university has an economic impact on the Atlanta economy of more than $1.4 billion annually. Initially intended as a school, Georgia State University was established in 1913 as the Georgia School of Technologys Evening School of Commerce. During this time, the school was divided into two divisions, Georgia Evening College, and Atlanta Junior College, in September 1947, the school became affiliated with the University of Georgia and was named the Atlanta Division of the University of Georgia. The school was removed from the University of Georgia in 1955. In 1961, other programs at the school had grown enough that the name was shortened to Georgia State College. It became Georgia State University in 1969, in 1995, the Georgia Board of Regents accorded Georgia State research university status, joining the Georgia Institute of Technology, the University of Georgia, and Augusta University. The first African-American student enrolled at Georgia State in 1962, a year after the integration of the University of Georgia and Georgia Tech. Annette Lucille Hall was a Lithonia social studies teacher who enrolled in the course of the Institute on Americanism and Communism, a course required for all Georgia social studies teachers. The Peachtree Road Race, was started in 1970 by Georgia State cross country coach and dean of men Tim Singleton, the second year, he created the first valuable collectible T-shirt. Over its 100-plus year history, Georgia States growth has required the acquisition and construction of space to suit its needs. In addition, a plaza and walkway system was constructed to connect these buildings with each other over Decatur Street. Georgia States first move into the Fairlie-Poplar district was the acquisition and renovation of the Standard Building, the Haas-Howell Building, and the Rialto Theater in 1996. The Standard and Haas-Howell buildings house classrooms, offices, and practice spaces for the School of Music, and the Rialto is home to GSUs Jazz Studies program and an 833-seat theater. In 1998, the Student Center was expanded toward Gilmer Street and provided a new 400-seat auditorium and space for exhibitions, a new Student Recreation Center opened on the corner of Piedmont Avenue and Gilmer Street in 2001
26.
Toronto Star
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The Toronto Star is a Canadian broadsheet daily newspaper. It is owned by Toronto Star Newspapers Ltd. a division of Star Media Group, the Star was first printed on Toronto World presses, and at its formation The World owned a 51% interest in it as a silent partner. That arrangement only lasted for two months, during time it was rumoured that William Findlay Billy Maclean, the Worlds proprietor, was considering selling the Star to the Riordon family. After an extensive fundraising campaign among the Star staff, Maclean agreed to sell his interest to Hocken, the paper did poorly in its first few years. Hocken sold out within the year, and several owners followed in succession until Sir William Mackenzie bought it in 1896 and its new editors, Edmund E. Sheppard and Frederic Nicholls, moved the entire Star operation into the same building used by the magazine Saturday Night. This would continue until Joseph E, holy Joe Atkinson, backed by funds raised by supporters of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, bought the paper. The supporters included Senator George Cox, William Mulock, Peter Charles Larkin, Atkinson was the Stars editor from 1899 until his death in 1948. Its early opposition and criticism of the Nazi regime saw the paper one of the first North American papers to be banned in Germany. He championed many causes that would come to be associated with the welfare state, old age pensions, unemployment insurance. The Government of Canada Digital Collections website describes Atkinson as a radical in the best sense of that term, the Star was unique among North American newspapers in its consistent, ongoing advocacy of the interests of ordinary people. The friendship of Atkinson, the publisher, with Mackenzie King, Atkinson became the controlling shareholder of the Star. The Star was frequently criticized for practising the yellow journalism of its era, for decades, the paper included heavy doses of crime and sensationalism, along with advocating social change. From 1910 to 1973, the Star published a weekend supplement, shortly before his death in 1948, Joseph E. Atkinson transferred ownership of the paper to a charitable organization given the mandate of continuing the papers liberal tradition. In 1949, the Province of Ontario passed the Charitable Gifts Act, barring charitable organizations from owning parts of profit-making businesses. It would continue to supply sponsored content to the CRBCs station CRCT, in 1971, the newspaper was renamed The Toronto Star and moved to a modern office tower at One Yonge Street by Queens Quay. The original Star Building at 80 King Street West was demolished to make room for First Canadian Place, the new building originally housed the papers presses. In 1992, the plant was moved to the Toronto Star Press Centre at the Highway 407 &400 interchange in Vaughan. In September 2002, the logo was changed, and The was dropped from the papers, during the 2003 blackout, the Star printed the paper at a press in Welland, Ontario
27.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
28.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
