1.
SRGB
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SRGB is the standard RGB color space created cooperatively by HP and Microsoft in 1996 for use on monitors, printers and the Internet, and subsequently standardized by the IEC as IEC 61966-2-1,1999. It is often used as the color space for images that do not contain any color space information. This specification allowed sRGB to be displayed on typical CRT monitors of the time. SRGB defines the chromaticities of the red, green, and blue primaries, the gamut of chromaticities that can be represented in sRGB is the color triangle defined by these primaries. SRGB also defines a transformation between the intensity of these primaries and the actual number stored. The curve is similar to the response of a CRT display. It is more important to replicate this curve than the primaries to get correct display of an sRGB image and this nonlinear conversion means that sRGB is a reasonably efficient use of the values in an integer-based image file to display human-discernible light levels. Unlike most other RGB color spaces, the sRGB gamma cannot be expressed as a numerical value. The overall gamma is approximately 2.2, consisting of a section near black, and a non-linear section elsewhere involving a 2.4 exponent. The purpose of the section is so the curve does not have an infinite slope at zero. The CIE XYZ values must be scaled so that the Y of D65 is 1.0 and this is usually true but some color spaces use 100 or other values. The first step in the calculation of sRGB from CIE XYZ is a linear transformation, = It is important to note that these linear RGB values are not the final result as they have not been adjusted for the gamma correction. SRGB was designed to reflect a typical real-world monitor with a gamma of 2.2, and the following formula transforms the linear RGB values into sRGB. If values in the range 0 to 255 are required, e. g. for video display or 8-bit graphics, the values are usually clipped to the 0 to 1 range. This clipping can be done before or after this gamma calculation, again the sRGB component values R s r g b, G s r g b, B s r g b are in the range 0 to 1. Followed by a multiplication of the linear values to get XYZ, = It is often casually stated that the decoding gamma for sRGB data is 2.2. The transformation was designed to approximate a gamma of about 2.2, but with a portion near zero to avoid having an infinite slope at K =0. The continuity condition for the curve C l i n e a r which is defined above as a function of C s r g b, is γ = K0 ϕ
2.
Red
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Red is the color at the longer-wavelengths end of the spectrum of visible light next to orange, at the opposite end from violet. Red color has a predominant light wavelength of roughly 620–740 nanometers, light with a longer wavelength than red but shorter than terahertz radiation and microwave is called infrared. Red is one of the secondary colors, resulting from the combination of yellow. Traditionally, it was viewed as a primary colour, along with yellow and blue, in the RYB color space and traditional color wheel formerly used by painters. Reds can vary in shade from light pink to very dark maroon or burgundy. Red is the color of cyan. In nature, the red color of blood comes from hemoglobin, the red color of the Grand Canyon and other geological features is caused by hematite or red ochre, both forms of iron oxide. It also causes the red color of the planet Mars, the color of autumn leaves is caused by pigments called anthocyanins, which are produced towards the end of summer, when the green chlorophyll is no longer produced. One to two percent of the population has red hair, the color is produced by high levels of the reddish pigment pheomelanin. Since red is the color of blood, it has historically been associated with sacrifice, danger, modern surveys in the United States and Europe show red is also the color most commonly associated with heat, activity, passion, sexuality, anger, love and joy. In China, India and many other Asian countries it is the color of symbolizing happiness, since the 19th century, red has also been associated with socialism and communism. The word red is derived from the Old English rēad, the word can be further traced to the Proto-Germanic rauthaz and the Proto-Indo European root rewdʰ-. In Sanskrit, the word means red or blood. In the Akkadian language of Ancient Mesopotamia and in the modern Inuit language of Inuit, the words for colored in Latin and Spanish both also mean red. In Portuguese the word for red is vermelho, which comes from Latin vermiculus, in the Russian language, the word for red, Кра́сный, comes from the same old Slavic root as the words for beautiful—красивый and excellent—прекрасный. Thus Red Square in Moscow, named long before the Russian Revolution, in heraldry, the word gules is used for red. Red can vary in hue from orange-red to violet-red, and for each hue there is a variety of shades and tints. Red hematite powder was found scattered around the remains at a grave site in a Zhoukoudian cave complex near Beijing
3.
Green
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Green is the color between blue and yellow on the spectrum of visible light. It is evoked by light with a predominant wavelength of roughly 495–570 nm, the modern English word green comes from the Middle English and Anglo-Saxon word grene, from the same Germanic root as the words grass and grow. It is the color of living grass and leaves and as a result is the color most associated with springtime, growth, by far the largest contributor to green in nature is chlorophyll, the chemical by which plants photosynthesize and convert sunlight into chemical energy. Many creatures have adapted to their environments by taking on a green hue themselves as camouflage. Several minerals have a color, including the emerald, which is colored green by its chromium content. In surveys made in Europe and the United States, green is the color most commonly associated with nature, life, health, youth, spring, hope and envy. In Europe and the U. S. green is associated with death, sickness, or the devil. In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, when the color of clothing showed the social status, green was worn by merchants, bankers. The Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci wears green, showing she is not from a noble family, Green is also the traditional color of safety and permission, a green light means go ahead, a green card permits permanent residence in the United States. It is the most important color in Islam and it was the color of the banner of Muhammad, and is found in the flags of nearly all Islamic countries, and represents the lush vegetation of Paradise. It is also associated with the culture of Gaelic Ireland. Because of its association with nature, it is the color of the environmental movement, political groups advocating environmental protection and social justice describe themselves as part of the Green movement, some naming themselves Green parties. This has led to campaigns in advertising, as companies have sold green, or environmentally friendly. The word green comes from the Middle English and Old English word grene, which, like the German word grün, has the same root as the words grass and grow. It is from a Common Germanic *gronja-, which is reflected in Old Norse grænn, Old High German gruoni, ultimately from a PIE root *ghre- to grow. The first recorded use of the word as a term in Old English dates to ca. Latin with viridis also has a genuine and widely used term for green, related to virere to grow and ver spring, it gave rise to words in several Romance languages, French vert, Italian verde. Likewise the Slavic languages with zelenъ, Ancient Greek also had a term for yellowish, pale green – χλωρός, chloros, cognate with χλοερός verdant and χλόη the green of new growth
4.
Blue
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Blue is the colour between violet and green on the optical spectrum of visible light. Human eyes perceive blue when observing light with a wavelength between 450 and 495 nanometres, which is between 4500 and 4950 ångströms. Blues with a frequency and thus a shorter wavelength gradually look more violet, while those with a lower frequency. Pure blue, in the middle, has a wavelength of 470 nanometers, in painting and traditional colour theory, blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments, along with red and yellow, which can be mixed to form a wide gamut of colours. Red and blue mixed together form violet, blue and yellow together form green, Blue is also a primary colour in the RGB colour model, used to create all the colours on the screen of a television or computer monitor. The clear sky and the sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. When sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the wavelengths are scattered more widely by the oxygen and nitrogen molecules. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering, similar to Rayleigh scattering, explains blue eyes, distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called atmospheric perspective. Blue has been used for art and decoration since ancient times and it is the most important color in Judaism. In the Middle Ages, cobalt blue was used to colour the stained glass windows of cathedrals, beginning in the 9th century, Chinese artists used cobalt to make fine blue and white porcelain. Blue dyes for clothing were made from woad in Europe and indigo in Asia, in 1828 a synthetic ultramarine pigment was developed, and synthetic blue dyes and pigments gradually replaced mineral pigments and vegetable dyes. Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Vincent van Gogh and other late 19th century painters used ultramarine and cobalt blue not just to depict nature, in the late 18th century and 19th century, blue became a popular colour for military uniforms and police uniforms. In the 20th century, because blue was associated with harmony, it was chosen as the colour of the flags of the United Nations. Surveys in the US and Europe show that blue is the colour most commonly associated with harmony, faithfulness, confidence, distance, infinity, the imagination, cold, and sometimes with sadness. In US and European public opinion polls it is the most popular colour, Blue is the colour of light between violet and green on the visible spectrum. Blues also vary in shade or tint, darker shades of blue contain black or grey, darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and Prussian blue, while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and Egyptian blue. Today most blue pigments and dyes are made by a chemical process, the modern English word blue comes from Middle English bleu or blewe, from the Old French bleu, a word of Germanic origin, related to the Old High German word blao. In heraldry, the azure is used for blue
5.
CMYK color model
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The CMYK color model is a subtractive color model, used in color printing, and is also used to describe the printing process itself. CMYK refers to the four used in some color printing, cyan, magenta, yellow. Though it varies by print house, press operator, press manufacturer, the K in CMYK stands for key because in four-color printing, cyan, magenta and yellow printing plates are carefully keyed, or aligned, with the key of the black key plate. Some sources suggest that the K in CMYK comes from the last letter in black and was chosen because B already means blue. Some sources claim this explanation, although useful as a mnemonic, is incorrect, the CMYK model works by partially or entirely masking colors on a lighter, usually white, background. The ink reduces the light that would otherwise be reflected, such a model is called subtractive because inks subtract brightness from white. In additive color models such as RGB, white is the combination of all primary colored lights. In the CMYK model, it is the opposite, white is the color of the paper or other background. To save cost on ink, and to produce deeper black tones, unsaturated and dark colors are produced by using black ink instead of the combination of cyan, magenta, with halftoning, a full continuous range of colors can be produced. To improve print quality and reduce moiré patterns, the screen for each color is set at a different angle. Common reasons for using black ink include, In traditional preparation of color separations, in some cases a black keyline was used when it served as both a color indicator and an outline to be printed in black. Because usually the black plate contained the keyline, the K in CMYK represents the keyline or black plate, also sometimes called the key plate. A combination of 100% cyan, magenta, and yellow inks soaks the paper with ink, making it slower to dry, causing bleeding, adding black ink absorbs more light and yields much better blacks. Using black ink is less expensive than using the corresponding amounts of colored inks. When a very dark area is desirable, a colored or gray CMY bedding is applied first, then a black layer is applied on top, making a rich, deep black. A black made with just CMY inks is sometimes called a composite black, the amount of black to use to replace amounts of the other ink is variable, and the choice depends on the technology, paper and ink in use. Processes called under color removal, under addition, and gray component replacement are used to decide on the final mix. CMYK or process color printing is contrasted with spot color printing, some printing presses are capable of printing with both four-color process inks and additional spot color inks at the same time
6.
Cyan
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It is evoked by light with a predominant wavelength of between 490–520 nm, between the wavelengths of blue and green. In the subtractive color system, or CMYK, which can be overlaid to produce all colors in paint and color printing, cyan is one of the colors, along with magenta, yellow. In the additive color system, or RGB color model, used to all the colors on a computer or television display, cyan is made by mixing equal amounts of green. Cyan is the complement of red, it can be made by the removal of red from white light, mixing red light and cyan light at the right intensity will make white light. The web color cyan is synonymous with aqua, other colors in the cyan color range are teal, turquoise, electric blue, aquamarine, and others described as blue-green. Its name is derived from the Ancient Greek κύανος, transliterated kyanos, meaning blue, dark blue enamel. It was formerly known as blue or cyan-blue, and its first recorded use as a color name in English was in 1879. Further origins of the name can be traced back to a dye produced from the cornflower. In most languages, cyan is not a color term. Reasons for why cyan is not linguistically acknowledged as a color term can be found in the frequent lack of distinction between blue and green in many languages. The web color cyan shown at right is a color in the RGB color model. In X11 colors, this color is called both cyan and aqua, in the HTML color list, this same color is called aqua. The web colors are more vivid than the used in the CMYK color system. To reproduce the web color cyan in inks, it is necessary to add some white ink to the printers cyan below, so when it is reproduced in printing, it is not a primary subtractive color. It is called aqua because it is a commonly associated with water. Cyan is also one of the inks used in four-color printing, along with magenta, yellow, and black. While both the secondary and the subtractive primary are called cyan, they can be substantially different from one another. Cyan printing ink can be saturated or less saturated than the RGB secondary cyan, depending on what RGB color space
7.
Magenta
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Magenta is a color that is variously defined as purplish-red, reddish-purple, or mauvish-crimson. On computer screens, it is made by mixing equal amounts of blue, on color wheels of the RGB and CMY color models, it is located midway between red and blue. It is the color of green. It is one of the four colors of ink used in printing and by an inkjet printer, along with cyan, yellow. The tone of magenta used in printing is called printers magenta, Magenta was first introduced as the color of a new aniline dye called fuchsine, patented in 1859 by the French chemist François-Emmanuel Verguin. Its name was changed the year to magenta, to celebrate a victory of the French and Sardinian army at the Battle of Magenta on June 4,1859. The web color magenta is called fuchsia. Magenta is a color, meaning that it is not found in the visible spectrum of light. Rather, it is physiologically and psychologically perceived as the mixture of red and violet/blue light, with the absence of green. In the RGB color system, used to all the colors on a television or computer display, magenta is a secondary color, made by combining equal amounts of red. In this system, magenta is the color of green. In the CMYK color model, used in printing, it is one of the three primary colors, along with cyan and yellow, used to print all the rest of the colors. If magenta, cyan, and yellow are printed on top of each other on a page, in this model, magenta is the complementary color of green, and these two colors have the highest contrast and the greatest harmony. If combined, green and magenta ink will look dark gray or black, the magenta used in color printing, sometimes called process magenta, is a darker shade than the color used on computer screens. A purple hue in terms of theory, magenta is evoked by light having less power in green wavelengths than in blue/violet. In the Munsell color system, magenta is called red–purple, if the spectrum is wrapped to form a color wheel, magenta appears midway between red and violet. Violet and red, the two components of magenta, are at opposite ends of the spectrum and have very different wavelengths. The additive secondary color magenta, as noted above, is made by combining violet and red light at equal intensity, in optics, fuchsia and magenta are essentially the same color
8.
Yellow
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Yellow is the color between green and orange on the spectrum of visible light. It is evoked by light with a predominant wavelength of roughly 570–590 nm, in traditional color theory, used in painting, and in the subtractive color system, used in color printing, yellow is a primary color. In the RGB color model, used to create colors on television and computer screens, yellow is made by combining red, the word yellow comes from the Old English geolu, geolwe, meaning yellow, yellowish, derived from the Proto-Germanic word gelwaz yellow. It has the same Indo-European base, gʰel-, as the gold and yell. In Iran it has connotations of pallor/sickness, but also wisdom and it plays an important role in Asian culture, particularly in China, where it is seen as the color of happiness, glory, wisdom, harmony, and culture. The word yellow comes from the Old English geolu, geolwe, meaning yellow, yellowish and it has the same Indo-European base, gʰel-, as the words gold and yell, gʰel- means both bright and gleaming, and to cry out. The English term is related to other Germanic words for yellow, namely Scots yella, East Frisian jeel, West Frisian giel, Dutch geel, German gelb, and Swedish and Norwegian gul. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the oldest known use of word in English is from The Epinal Glossary in 700. Yellow, in the form of yellow pigment made from clay, was one of the first colors used in prehistoric cave art. The cave of Lascaux has an image of a horse colored with yellow estimated to be 17,300 years old, in Ancient Egypt, yellow was associated with gold, which was considered to be imperishable, eternal and indestructible. The skin and bones of the gods were believed to be made of gold, the Egyptians used yellow extensively in tomb paintings, they usually used either yellow ochre or the brilliant orpiment, though it was made of arsenic and was highly toxic. A small paintbox with orpiment pigment was found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun, men were always shown with brown faces, women with yellow ochre or gold faces. The ancient Romans used yellow in their paintings to represent gold and it is found frequently in the murals of Pompeii. During the Post-Classical period, yellow became firmly established as the color of Judas Iscariot, from this connection, yellow also took on associations with envy, jealousy and duplicity. The tradition started in the Renaissance of marking non-Christian outsiders, such as Jews, in 16th century Spain, those accused of heresy and who refused to renounce their views were compelled to come before the Spanish Inquisition dressed in a yellow cape. The color yellow has been associated with moneylenders and finance. The National Pawnbrokers Associations logo depicts three golden spheres hanging from a bar, referencing the three bags of gold that the saint of pawnbroking, St. Nicholas, holds in his hands. Additionally, the symbol of three golden orbs is found in the coat of arms of the House of Medici, a fifteenth century Italian dynasty of bankers and lenders
9.
Black
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Black is the darkest color resulting from the absence or complete absorption of light. Like white and grey, it is a color, literally a color without hue. It is one of the four colors in the CMYK color model, along with cyan, yellow. Black is often used to represent darkness, it is the symbolic opposite of white, Black was one of the first colors used by artists in neolithic cave paintings. In the 14th century, it began to be worn by royalty and it became the color worn by English romantic poets, businessmen and statesmen in the 19th century, and a high fashion color in the 20th century. In the Roman Empire, it became the color of mourning, according to surveys in Europe and North America, it is the color most commonly associated with mourning, the end, secrets, magic, force, violence, evil, and elegance. More distant cognates include Latin flagrare, and Ancient Greek phlegein, the Ancient Greeks sometimes used the same word to name different colors, if they had the same intensity. Kuanos could mean both dark blue and black, the Ancient Romans had two words for black, ater was a flat, dull black, while niger was a brilliant, saturated black. Ater has vanished from the vocabulary, but niger was the source of the country name Nigeria the English word Negro, old High German also had two words for black, swartz for dull black and blach for a luminous black. These are parallelled in Middle English by the terms swart for dull black, swart still survives as the word swarthy, while blaek became the modern English black. In heraldry, the used for the black color is sable, named for the black fur of the sable. Black was one of the first colors used in art, the Lascaux Cave in France contains drawings of bulls and other animals drawn by paleolithic artists between 18,000 and 17,000 years ago. They began by using charcoal, and then made more vivid black pigments by burning bones or grinding a powder of manganese oxide, for the ancient Egyptians, black had positive associations, being the color of fertility and the rich black soil flooded by the Nile. It was the color of Anubis, the god of the underworld, who took the form of a black jackal, and offered protection against evil to the dead. For the ancient Greeks, black was also the color of the underworld, separated from the world of the living by the river Acheron and those who had committed the worst sins were sent to Tartarus, the deepest and darkest level. In the center was the palace of Hades, the king of the underworld, Black was one of the most important colors used by ancient Greek artists. In the 6th century BC, they began making pottery and later red figure pottery. In black-figure pottery, the artist would paint figures with a clay slip on a red clay pot
10.
HSL and HSV
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HSL and HSV are the two most common cylindrical-coordinate representations of points in an RGB color model. The two representations rearrange the geometry of RGB in an attempt to be intuitive and perceptually relevant than the cartesian representation. Developed in the 1970s for computer applications, HSL and HSV are used today in color pickers, in image editing software. HSL stands for hue, saturation, and lightness, and is often called HLS. HSV stands for hue, saturation, and value, and is often called HSB. A third model, common in computer applications, is HSI. However, while typically consistent, these definitions are not standardized, note that while hue in HSL and HSV refers to the same attribute, their definitions of saturation differ dramatically. As a result, each unique RGB device has unique HSL and HSV absolute color spaces to accompany it, other more computationally intensive models, such as CIELAB or CIECAM02, are said to better achieve these goals. In each geometry, the vertical axis comprises the neutral, achromatic, or gray colors, ranging from black at lightness 0 or value 0, the bottom, to white at lightness 1 or value 1. These saturated colors have lightness ½ in HSL, while in HSV they have value 1, mixing these pure colors with black—producing so-called shades—leaves saturation unchanged. In HSL, saturation is also unchanged by tinting with white, in HSV, tinting alone reduces saturation. Confusingly, such diagrams usually label this radial dimension saturation, blurring or erasing the distinction between saturation and chroma, as described below, computing chroma is a helpful step in the derivation of each model. Most televisions, computer displays, and projectors produce colors by combining red, green, furthermore, neither additive nor subtractive color models define color relationships the same way the human eye does. For example, imagine we have an RGB display whose color is controlled by three sliders ranging from 0–255, one controlling the intensity of each of the red, green, consequently, these models and similar ones have become ubiquitous throughout image editing and graphics software since then. Some of their uses are described below, nonetheless, it is worth reviewing those definitions before leaping into the derivation of our models. Hue The attribute of a visual sensation according to which an area appears to be similar to one of the colors, red, yellow, green. Radiance The radiant power of passing through a particular surface per unit solid angle per unit projected area. Luminance The radiance weighted by the effect of each wavelength on a human observer
11.
Hue
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Orange and violet are the other hues, for a total of six, as in the rainbow, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet. The other color appearance parameters are colorfulness, chroma, saturation, lightness, usually, colors with the same hue are distinguished with adjectives referring to their lightness and/or colorfulness, such as with light blue, pastel blue, vivid blue. Exceptions include brown, which is a dark orange, in painting color theory, a hue refers to a pure color—one without tint or shade. A hue is an element of the color wheel, hues are first processed in the brain in areas in the extended V4 called globs. Hue is the component of the polar representation, while chroma is the radial component. Specifically, in CIELAB h a b = a t a n 2, while, analogously, in CIELUV h u v = a t a n 2 = a t a n 2, where, atan2 is a two-argument inverse tangent. Preucil describes a color hexagon, similar to a trilinear plot described by Evans, Hanson, and Brewer, to place red at 0°, green at 120°, and blue at 240°, h r g b = a t a n 2. Equivalently, one may solve tan =3 ⋅2 ⋅ R − G − B, Preucil used a polar plot, which he termed a color circle. Using R, G, and B, one may compute hue angle using the scheme, determine which of the six possible orderings of R, G. Note that in case the formula contains the fraction M − L H − L, where H is the highest of R, G, and B, L is the lowest. This is referred to as the Preucil hue error and was used in the computation of mask strength in photomechanical color reproduction, the formulae used are those in the table above. The hues exhibited by caramel colorings and beers are fairly limited in range, the Linner hue index is used to quantify the hue of such products. Replacements are often used for chromium, cadmium and alizarin, dominant wavelength is a physical analog to the perceptual attribute hue. On a chromaticity diagram, a line is drawn from a point through the coordinates of the color in question. There are two ways in which hue difference is quantified. The first is the difference between the two hue angles. The symbol for expression of hue difference is Δ h a b in CIELAB. The other is computed as the total color difference after Lightness and Chroma differences have been accounted for, its symbol is Δ H a b ∗ in CIELAB
12.
Colorfulness
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Colorfulness or saturation in colorimetry and color theory refers to the perceived intensity of a specific color. Colorfulness is the visual sensation according to which the color of an area appears to be more or less chromatic. Chroma is the relative to the brightness of a similarly illuminated area that appears to be white or highly transmitting. Therefore, chroma should not be confused with colorfulness, saturation is the colorfulness of a color relative to its own brightness. A highly colorful stimulus is vivid and intense, while a less colorful stimulus appears more muted, with no colorfulness at all, a color is a “neutral” gray. Any color can be described using three color appearance parameters — colorfulness, lightness, and hue, saturation is one of three coordinates in the HSL and HSV color spaces. The saturation of a color is determined by a combination of light intensity, the purest color is achieved by using just one wavelength at a high intensity, such as in laser light. If the intensity drops, then as a result the saturation drops, to desaturate a color of given intensity in a subtractive system, one can add white, black, gray, or the hues complement. CIELUV The chroma normalized by the lightness, s u v = C u v ∗ L ∗ =132 +2 where is the chromaticity of the white point, and chroma is defined below. Nevertheless, this provides a reasonable predictor of saturation. S a b = C a b ∗ C a b ∗2 + L ∗2100 % where Sab is the saturation, L* the lightness and C*ab is the chroma of the color. CIECAM02 The square root of the colorfulness divided by the brightness, M is proportional to the chroma C, thus the CIECAM02 definition bears some similarity to the CIELUV definition. An important difference is that the CIECAM02 model accounts for the conditions through the parameter FL. Different color spaces, such as CIELAB or CIELUV may be used, the naïve definition of saturation does not specify its response function. However, both color spaces are nonlinear in terms of perceived color differences. It is also possible—and sometimes desirable—to define a quantity that is linearized in term of the psychovisual perception. The transformation of to is given by, C a b ∗ = a ∗2 + b ∗2 h a b = arctan b ∗ a ∗ and analogously for CIE L*C*h. The chroma in the CIE L*C*h and CIE L*C*h coordinates has the advantage of being more psychovisually linear, and therefore, chroma in CIE1976 L*a*b* and L*u*v* color spaces is very much different from the traditional sense of saturation
13.
Brightness
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Brightness is an attribute of visual perception in which a source appears to be radiating or reflecting light. In other words, brightness is the perception elicited by the luminance of a visual target and it is not necessarily proportional to luminance. This is a subjective attribute/property of an object being observed and one of the color appearance parameters of color appearance models, brightness refers to an absolute term and should not be confused with Lightness. The adjective bright derives from an Old English beorht with the same meaning via metathesis giving Middle English briht, the word is from a Common Germanic *berhtaz, ultimately from a PIE root with a closely related meaning, *bhereg- white, bright. Brightness was formerly used as a synonym for the term luminance. As defined by the US Federal Glossary of Telecommunication Terms, brightness should now be used only for non-quantitative references to physiological sensations and perceptions of light, a given target luminance can elicit different perceptions of brightness in different contexts, see, for example, Whites illusion. With regard to stars, brightness is quantified as apparent magnitude, brightness is, at least in some respects, the antonym of darkness. The United States Federal Trade Commission has assigned a meaning to brightness when applied to lamps. When appearing on light bulb packages, brightness means Luminous flux, Luminous flux is the total amount of light coming from a source, such as a lighting device. Luminance, the meaning of brightness, is the amount of light per solid angle coming from an area. The table below shows the ways of indicating the amount of light. The term brightness is used in discussions of sound timbres. Luma Luminance Luminosity Media related to brightness at Wikimedia Commons Poyntons Color FAQ
14.
Color
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Color or colour is the characteristic of human visual perception described through color categories, with names such as red, yellow, purple, or blue. This perception of color derives from the stimulation of cells in the human eye by electromagnetic radiation in the spectrum of light. Color categories and physical specifications of color are associated with objects through the wavelength of the light that is reflected from them and this reflection is governed by the objects physical properties such as light absorption, emission spectra, etc. By defining a color space, colors can be identified numerically by coordinates, there may also be more than three color dimensions in other color spaces, such as in the CMYK color model, wherein one of the dimensions relates to a colours colorfulness). The photo-receptivity of the eyes of species also varies considerably from our own. Honeybees and bumblebees for instance have trichromatic color vision sensitive to ultraviolet but is insensitive to red, papilio butterflies possess six types of photoreceptors and may have pentachromatic vision. The most complex color vision system in the kingdom has been found in stomatopods with up to 12 spectral receptor types thought to work as multiple dichromatic units. The science of color is sometimes called chromatics, colorimetry, or simply color science and it includes the perception of color by the human eye and brain, the origin of color in materials, color theory in art, and the physics of electromagnetic radiation in the visible range. Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by its wavelength and its intensity, when the wavelength is within the visible spectrum, it is known as visible light. Most light sources emit light at different wavelengths, a sources spectrum is a distribution giving its intensity at each wavelength. Although the spectrum of light arriving at the eye from a given direction determines the color sensation in that direction, in each such class the members are called metamers of the color in question. The table at right shows approximate frequencies and wavelengths for various pure spectral colors, the wavelengths listed are as measured in air or vacuum. A common list identifies six main bands, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, Newtons conception included a seventh color, indigo, between blue and violet. It is possible that what Newton referred to as blue is nearer to what today is known as cyan, the color of an object depends on both the physics of the object in its environment and the characteristics of the perceiving eye and brain. Some objects not only light, but also transmit light or emit light themselves. This effect is known as color constancy, opaque objects that do not reflect specularly have their color determined by which wavelengths of light they scatter strongly. If objects scatter all wavelengths with roughly equal strength, they appear white, if they absorb all wavelengths, they appear black. Opaque objects that reflect light of different wavelengths with different efficiencies look like mirrors tinted with colors determined by those differences
15.
Lime (fruit)
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A lime is a hybrid citrus fruit, which is typically round, lime green, 3–6 centimetres in diameter, and containing acidic juice vesicles. There are several species of trees whose fruits are called limes, including the Key lime, Persian lime, kaffir lime. Limes are an excellent source of vitamin C, and are used to accent the flavours of foods. Plants with fruit called limes have diverse origins, limes do not form a monophyletic group. Species of this genus hybridise readily, and it is only recently that genetic studies have started to light on the structure of the genus. The majority of cultivated species are in reality hybrids, produced from the citron, the mandarin, Australian limes Australian desert lime Australian finger lime Australian lime Blood lime Kaffir lime, also called a kieffer lime, makrut, or magrood, a papeda relative. This is one of three most widely produced limes globally, Key lime, also called Mexican, West Indian, or bartenders lime. This is also one of three most widely produced limes globally, musk lime, a kumquat hybrid Persian lime, with cultivars including the Tahiti and Bearss limes. This is the single most widely produced lime globally, with Mexico being the largest producer, rangpur lime, a mandarin orange – rough lemon hybrid Spanish lime, also called mamoncillo, mamón, ginep, quenepa, or limoncillo), not a citrus. Sweet lime etc. assorted citrus hybrids) including varieties called sweet lemon, sweet limetta or Mediterranean sweet lemon, lumia, Indian or Palestinian sweet lime. Limequat Note that the species known in Britain as lime trees. To prevent scurvy during the 19th century, British sailors were issued a daily allowance of citrus, such as lemon, the British sailor thus acquired the nickname, Limey because of their usage of limes. In 2013, the world production of lemons and limes was 15.42 million tonnes. Limes have higher contents of sugars and acids than do lemons, lime juice may be squeezed from fresh limes, or purchased in bottles in both unsweetened and sweetened varieties. Lime juice is used to make limeade, and as an ingredient in many cocktails, lime pickles are an integral part of Indian cuisine. South Indian cuisine is based on lime, having either lemon pickle or lime pickle is considered an essential of Onam Sadhya. In cooking, lime is valued both for the acidity of its juice and the aroma of its zest. It is an ingredient in authentic Mexican, Vietnamese and Thai dishes
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Chartreuse (color)
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Chartreuse is a color between yellow and green that was named because of its resemblance to the green color of one of the French liqueurs called green chartreuse, introduced in 1764. Yellow is perceived when the receptor is stimulated slightly more than the blue-green receptor. The eye is most sensitive to light because green stimulates two of the three kinds of cones, L and M, almost equally. The French word chartreuse means charterhouse, philip the Bolds elaborately decorated tomb was initially installed at a Carthusian charterhouse when he died in 1404. At right is displayed the web color chartreuse, the term chartreuse is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as, A shade of colour, a pale apple-green. The dictionary gives a quotation in the British publication Western Daily Press Vol.7 No.5 as being the earliest occurrence found in print of the term used as the name of a color. However the source does not define or describe the color referred to, some of the corded silks have fancy stripes in a combination of colors such as. Mousse and Chartreuse, which is the yellow green. In The Millinery Trade Review is written, From Madame Catlin of Paris, in The Mineral Industry is written, The characteristic twin colors of a few doubly refractive gems will prove of interest. In Dry Goods Reporter, it is noted under Choosing an Easter Hat — Chartreuse greens are among the colors hardest of all to combine artistically, in Pure Products is written, The following colors can be bought in powder form. Chartreuse Green is also listed in Plochere Color System, in a 1956 edition of Billboard, a juke box is advertised as being available in Delft blue, cherry red, embered charcoal, chartreuse green, bright sand, canary yellow, atoll coral and night-sky black. In Color, Universal Language and Dictionary of Names, Chartreuse Green is listed under 116, Chartreuse green was codified to refer to this brighter color when the X11 colors were formulated in 1987, by the early 1990s, they became known as the X11 web colors. The web color chartreuse is the color halfway between green and yellow, so it is 50% green and 50% yellow. It is one of the colors of the HSV color wheel. Another name for this color is chartreuse green, in 1988, Margaret Walch, director of the Color Association of the United States is reported to have said, The hottest color out there now is an ugly chartreuse green. It suggests what we dont have, nature, youth, energy, the first recorded use of chartreuse in American English was in 1892. In the book Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, Chartreuse Yellow is listed and illustrated, also, MotoGPs Valentino Rossi also uses a variation of chartreuse yellow to highlight his bike and racing leathers/helmet. The color nyanza is displayed at right, the first recorded use of nyanza as a color name in English was in 1892
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Color wheel
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A color wheel or colour circle is an abstract illustrative organization of color hues around a circle, which shows the relationships between primary colors, secondary colors, tertiary colors etc. Some sources use the color wheel and color circle interchangeably, however. For instance, some reserve the term color wheel for mechanical rotating devices, others classify various color wheels as color disc, color chart, and color scale varieties. As an illustrative model, artists typically use red, yellow, printers and others who use modern subtractive color methods and terminology use magenta, yellow, and cyan as subtractive primaries. Intermediate and interior points of color wheels and circles represent color mixtures, modern color circles include the purples, however, between red and violet. Color scientists and psychologists use the additive primaries, red, green and blue. The typical artists paint or pigment color wheel includes the blue, red, the corresponding secondary colors are green, orange, and violet or purple. The tertiary colors are green-yellow, yellow–orange, orange-red, red–violet, violet-blue, a color wheel based on RGB or RGV additive primaries has cyan, magenta, and yellow secondaries. Alternatively, the arrangement of colors around a circle can be described as based on cyan, magenta, and yellow subtractive primaries, with red, green. Other color wheels, however, are based on the four opponent colors, goethes Theory of Colours provided the first systematic study of the physiological effects of color. Are those that reciprocally evoke each other in the eye, a color circle based on spectral wavelengths appears with red at one end of the spectrum and violet at the other. A wedge-shaped gap represents colors that have no unique spectral frequency and these extra-spectral colors, the purples, form from additive mixture of colors from the ends of the spectrum. In normal human vision, wavelengths of between about 400 nm and 700 nm are represented by this circle, with the longer wavelengths equating to the red end of the spectrum. Complement colors are located directly opposite each other on this wheel and these complement colors are not identical to colors in pigment mixing, but when lights are additively mixed in the correct proportions appear as a neutral grey or white. For example, the reason that the Wimbledon tennis tournament uses purple on the Wimbledon official logo is that purple is located almost opposite of green on the color wheel, purple against green provides good contrast. The color circle is used for, among other purposes, illustrating additive color mixture and this type of color matching is known as metameric matching. Thus a combination of green and red light might produce a close to yellow in apparent hue. The combination of any two colors in this way are always less saturated than the two pure spectral colors individually, objects may be viewed under a variety of different lighting conditions
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Spectral color
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A spectral color is a color that is evoked by a single wavelength of light in the visible spectrum, or by a relatively narrow band of wavelengths, also known as monochromatic light. Every wavelength of light is perceived as a spectral color, in a continuous spectrum. The spectrum is divided into named colors, though any division is somewhat arbitrary. Traditional colors include, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. The division used by Isaac Newton, in his wheel, was, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. In modern divisions of the spectrum, indigo is often omitted, if luminance is counted, then spectral colors form a surface, otherwise their locus is a curve in a two-dimensional chromaticity space. Theoretically, only RGB-implemented colors which might be really spectral are its primaries, red, green, some samples in the table below provide only rough approximations of spectral and near-spectral colors. Ranges of wavelengths and frequencies are only approximate, among some of the colors that are not spectral colors are, Grayscale colors, such as white, gray, and black. Any color obtained by mixing a gray-scale color and another color, violet-red colors, which in color theory include line of purples colors, and other variations of purple and red. Impossible colors, which can not be seen under normal viewing of light, such as over-saturated colors or colors that are seemingly brighter than white
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Visible spectrum
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The visible spectrum is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye. Electromagnetic radiation in this range of wavelengths is called light or simply light. A typical human eye will respond to wavelengths from about 390 to 700 nm, in terms of frequency, this corresponds to a band in the vicinity of 430–770 THz. The spectrum does not, however, contain all the colors that the human eyes, unsaturated colors such as pink, or purple variations such as magenta, are absent, for example, because they can be made only by a mix of multiple wavelengths. Colors containing only one wavelength are called pure colors or spectral colors. Visible wavelengths pass through the window, the region of the electromagnetic spectrum that allows wavelengths to pass largely unattenuated through the Earths atmosphere. An example of this phenomenon is that clean air scatters blue light more than red wavelengths, the optical window is also referred to as the visible window because it overlaps the human visible response spectrum. The near infrared window lies just out of the vision, as well as the Medium Wavelength IR window. In the 13th century, Roger Bacon theorized that rainbows were produced by a process to the passage of light through glass or crystal. In the 17th century, Isaac Newton discovered that prisms could disassemble and reassemble white light and he was the first to use the word spectrum in this sense in print in 1671 in describing his experiments in optics. The result is red light is bent less sharply than violet as it passes through the prism. Newton divided the spectrum into seven named colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, the human eye is relatively insensitive to indigos frequencies, and some people who have otherwise-good vision cannot distinguish indigo from blue and violet. For this reason, some commentators, including Isaac Asimov, have suggested that indigo should not be regarded as a color in its own right. However, the evidence indicates that what Newton meant by indigo, comparing Newtons observation of prismatic colors to a color image of the visible light spectrum shows that indigo corresponds to what is today called blue, whereas blue corresponds to cyan. In the 18th century, Goethe wrote about optical spectra in his Theory of Colours, Goethe used the word spectrum to designate a ghostly optical afterimage, as did Schopenhauer in On Vision and Colors. Goethe argued that the spectrum was a compound phenomenon. Where Newton narrowed the beam of light to isolate the phenomenon, Goethe observed that a wider aperture produces not a spectrum but rather reddish-yellow, the spectrum appears only when these edges are close enough to overlap. Young was the first to measure the wavelengths of different colors of light, the connection between the visible spectrum and color vision was explored by Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz in the early 19th century
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CIE 1931 color space
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The CIE1931 color spaces were the first defined quantitative links between physical pure colors in the electromagnetic visible spectrum, and physiological perceived colors in human color vision. The CIE1931 RGB color space and CIE1931 XYZ color space were created by the International Commission on Illumination in 1931 and they resulted from a series of experiments done in the late 1920s by William David Wright and John Guild. The experimental results were combined into the specification of the CIE RGB color space, the CIE1931 color spaces are still widely used, as is the 1976 CIELUV color space. The human eye with normal vision has three kinds of cells, which sense light, with spectral sensitivity peaks in short, middle. These cone cells underlie human color perception under medium- and high-brightness conditions, thus, three parameters, corresponding to levels of stimulus of the three types of cone cells, can in principle describe any color sensation. The tristimulus values associated with a space can be conceptualized as amounts of three primary colors in a tri-chromatic additive color model. In some color spaces, including LMS and XYZ spaces, the colors used are not real colors. The CIE XYZ color space encompasses all color sensations that a person can experience. That is why CIE XYZ is a device invariant color representation and it serves as a standard reference against which many other color spaces are defined. Consider two light sources made up of different mixtures of various wavelengths, such light sources may appear to be the same color, this effect is called metamerism. Such light sources have the apparent color to an observer when they produce the same tristimulus values. Most wavelengths stimulate two or all three types of cell, because the spectral sensitivity curves of the three types of cone cells overlap. Certain tristimulus values are thus physically impossible, to avoid these negative RGB values, and to have one component that describes the perceived brightness, imaginary primary colors and corresponding color-matching functions have been formulated. The resulting tristimulus values are defined by the CIE1931 color space, in which they are denoted X, Y, and Z. When judging the relative luminance of different colors in well-lit situations, humans tend to perceive light within the green parts of the spectrum as brighter than red or blue light of equal power. The luminosity function that describes the perceived brightnesses of different wavelengths is thus analogous to the spectral sensitivity of M cones. The CIE model capitalises on this fact by defining Y as luminance, Z is quasi-equal to blue stimulation, or the S cone response, and X is a mix of cone response curves chosen to be nonnegative. The XYZ tristimulus values are thus analogous to, but different from, defining Y as luminance has the useful result that for any given Y value, the XZ plane will contain all possible chromaticities at that luminance
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Fluorescence
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Fluorescence is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation. It is a form of luminescence, in most cases, the emitted light has a longer wavelength, and therefore lower energy, than the absorbed radiation. Fluorescent materials cease to glow immediately when the radiation source stops, unlike phosphorescence, Fluorescence also occurs frequently in nature in some minerals and in various biological states in many branches of the animal kingdom. An early observation of fluorescence was described in 1560 by Bernardino de Sahagún and it was derived from the wood of two tree species, Pterocarpus indicus and Eysenhardtia polystachya. The chemical compound responsible for this fluorescence is matlaline, which is the product of one of the flavonoids found in this wood. The name was derived from the fluorite, some examples of which contain traces of divalent europium. In a key experiment he used a prism to isolate ultraviolet radiation from sunlight, the specific frequencies of exciting and emitted light are dependent on the particular system. S0 is called the state of the fluorophore, and S1 is its first excited singlet state. A molecule in S1 can relax by various competing pathways and it can undergo non-radiative relaxation in which the excitation energy is dissipated as heat to the solvent. Excited organic molecules can also relax via conversion to a triplet state, relaxation from S1 can also occur through interaction with a second molecule through fluorescence quenching. Molecular oxygen is an extremely efficient quencher of fluorescence just because of its unusual triplet ground state, in most cases, the emitted light has a longer wavelength, and therefore lower energy, than the absorbed radiation, this phenomenon is known as the Stokes shift. The emitted radiation may also be of the wavelength as the absorbed radiation. Molecules that are excited through light absorption or via a different process can transfer energy to a second sensitized molecule, the fluorescence quantum yield gives the efficiency of the fluorescence process. It is defined as the ratio of the number of photons emitted to the number of photons absorbed, Φ = Number of photons emitted Number of photons absorbed The maximum fluorescence quantum yield is 1.0, each photon absorbed results in a photon emitted. Compounds with quantum yields of 0.10 are still considered quite fluorescent, thus, if the rate of any pathway changes, both the excited state lifetime and the fluorescence quantum yield will be affected. Fluorescence quantum yields are measured by comparison to a standard, the quinine salt quinine sulfate in a sulfuric acid solution is a common fluorescence standard. The fluorescence lifetime refers to the time the molecule stays in its excited state before emitting a photon. This is an instance of exponential decay, various radiative and non-radiative processes can de-populate the excited state
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Sprite (drink)
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Sprite is a colourless, caffeine-free, lemon and lime-flavoured soft drink created by The Coca-Cola Company. It was first developed in West Germany in 1959 as Fanta Klare Zitrone and was introduced in the United States under the current brand name Sprite in 1961 as a competitor to 7 Up. Bottles of Sprite are usually a transparent green colour with a green and yellow label whereas cans are coloured silver, green, though often confused with Lemonade, Sprite stands in separate class of carbonated soft drink. Sprite advertising often makes use of the portmanteau word lymon, a combination of the words lemon, by the 1980s, Sprite had developed a large following among teenagers. In response, Sprite began to cater to this demographic in their advertisements in 1987, “I Like the Sprite In You” was the brand’s first long-running slogan, and many jingles were produced around it before its discontinuation in 1994. In 1994, Sprite updated their logo and this newer, more outgoing logo stood out more on packaging, and featured a blue-to-green gradient with silver “splashes” and subtle white “bubbles” in the background. The word “Sprite” had a blue backdrop shadow on the logo, and this logo was used in the United States until 2006, and similar variants were used in other countries until this year as well. Also in 1994, the slogan was changed to “Obey Your Thirst” and jingles including it became urban-oriented. One of the first lyrics for the new slogan were, Never forget yourself cause first things first, grab a cold, cold can, Sprite expanded its urban connections in the late 1990s by featuring both amateur and accomplished basketball players in their advertisements. To this day, NBA players and hip-hop artists such as Lebron James and Lil Yachty frequently appear in Sprite ads. In 1998, one commercial poked fun at products with cartoon mascots, in which a mascot for a drink called Sun Fizz comes to life, terrifying the kids and mother. This commercial is also notorious for ending on a Cliffhanger that remains unresolved to this day, also in the 1990s, Sprite launched the short-lived Jooky advert campaign. The tagline for these spots was Image is nothing, for a time, Sprite in the UK had a mascot in the form of a sickly-looking goblin that would cause trouble for those unlucky enough to acquire it rather than the expected Sprite. The commercials not only used the Obey Your Thirst tagline, in 2000, Sprite commissioned graffiti artist Temper to design limited edition art, which appeared on 100 million cans across Europe. In 2004, Coke created Miles Thirst, a vinyl doll voiced by Reno Wilson, in 2006, a new Sprite logo, consisting of two yellow and green halves forming an S lemon/lime design, made its debut on Sprite bottles and cans. The slogan was changed from its long running Obey Your Thirst to just Obey in the United States and was replaced with Freedom From Thirst in many countries. This was the decades first major shift in advertising themes, the Sublymonal campaign was also used as part of the alternate reality game the Lost Experience. This also resurrected the lymon word, Sprite redesigned their label in 2009, removing the S logo
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7 Up
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7 Up is a brand of lemon-lime flavored, non-caffeinated soft drink. The rights to the brand are held by Dr Pepper Snapple Group in the United States, and PepsiCo in the rest of the world. The U. S. version of the 7 Up logo includes a red cherry between the 7 and Up, this red cherry has been animated and used as a mascot for the brand as Cool Spot. 7 Up was created by Charles Leiper Grigg, who launched his St. Louis–based company The Howdy Corporation in 1920, Grigg came up with the formula for a lemon-lime soft drink in 1929. The product, originally named Bib-Label Lithiated Lemon-Lime Soda, was launched two weeks before the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and it contained lithium citrate, a mood-stabilizing drug, until 1948. It was one of a number of patent medicine products popular in the late-19th and early-20th centuries and its name was later shortened to 7 Up Lithiated Lemon Soda before being further shortened to just 7 Up by 1936. Westinghouse bought 7 Up in 1969 and sold it in 1978 to Philip Morris,7 Up merged with Dr Pepper in 1988, Cadbury Schweppes bought the combined company in 1995. The Dr Pepper Snapple Group was spun off from Cadbury Schweppes in 2008,7 Up has been reformulated several times since its launch in 1929. In 2006, the version of the product sold in the U. S. was re-formulated so that it could be marketed as being 100% natural. This was achieved by eliminating the chelating-agent calcium disodium EDTA, and this re-formulation contains no fruit juice and, in the U. S. is sweetened with high-fructose corn syrup. The manufacturing process used in the production of HFCS has led some public health, in 2007, after the Center for Science in the Public Interest threatened to sue 7 Up, it was announced that 7 Up would stop being marketed as 100% natural. Instead, it is now promoted as having 100% Natural Flavors, the controversy does not extend to other countries, such as the United Kingdom, where HFCS is not generally used in foods, including 7 Up. In 2011,7 Up began test-marketing a formula, called 7 Up Retro, container labels sport the caption, Made With Real Sugar. There exists a myth that the 7 Up name comes from the drink having a pH over 7. That would make it neutral or basic on the scale, however, coca-Cola and most other soft drinks were bottled in 6 ounce bottles, 7-Up was bottled in 7 ounce bottles. 7 Up Ten, Introduced in 2013, along with Ten variations for most of the major Dr. Pepper/Seven-Up brands and it is a blend using high fructose corn syrup along with aspartame and Acesulfame potassium to sweeten it. Tropical 7 Up, Introduced in 2014 for a time, as well as a return in 2015 with newer branding. 7 Up Retro, This 2011 formulation uses sugar rather than corn syrup as its sweetener
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Mist Twst
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Mist Twst is a lemon-lime flavored soft drink. Introduced in 2016, it follows Sierra Mist, a similar lemon-lime soda PepsiCo introduced in 1999, Mist Twst and its predecessor Sierra Mist have competed with The Coca-Cola Companys Sprite brand and Dr Pepper Snapple Groups 7 Up. PepsiCo began test-marketing potential lemon-lime sodas in 1998, introducing a formulation known as Storm that never made it past the test-marketing stage, the company introduced Sierra Mist in 1999. Prior to this, PepsiCos only lemon-lime soda was in its Slice line of fruit-flavored sodas, the selection of the name Sierra Mist was based on favorable market research involving 2,000 people. Sierra Mist was selected from over 1,000 possible names and it is worth noting that Sierra had previously been a proposed name for what became the original Slice in 1984. Diet Sierra Mist was also introduced in 2000, and sales of both diet and original Sierra Mist totaled $100 million in its first year of production. The PepsiCo bottlers continued to bottle 7 Up until existing agreements with Cadbury Schweppes expired in January 2003, in 2004 the beverage had surpassed 7 Up on the basis of annual retail sales, placing it as the 2nd most-purchased lemon-lime soft drink in the U. S. In 2005, Diet Sierra Mist was renamed Sierra Mist Free, intended as a descriptor of the beverage being free of sugar, calories, carbohydrates and this name change was reverted to the original name, Diet Sierra Mist, in November 2008. In late 2006, PepsiCo introduced Sierra Mist Cranberry Splash and it was available only during the Winter holiday season. Cranberry Splash returned in the fall and winter of 2007,2008,2009,2010 along with Diet Sierra Mist Cranberry Splash, in May 2007, Sierra Mist Lemon Squeeze was introduced. This limited edition featured a concentration of lemon flavor and was only available through September 2007. The Sierra Mist logo was redesigned again in March 2010 with a typeface similar to that of the current Pepsi design. On August 29,2010, Sierra Mist was replaced with Sierra Mist Natural, updated logos, bottle labeling and can designs were also implemented at the same time. At this time, the Sierra Mist drink was reformulated, which is sweetened with sucrose, in 2013, Sierra Mist Natural became Sierra Mist. As of Fall 2014, Stevia was added as an adjunctive sweetener, the name change was officially made in late March 2016. Diet Sierra Mist is sweetened with aspartame and acesulfame potassium, in August 2010 PepsiCo replaced the original Sierra Mist namesake product with Sierra Mist Natural, which is sweetened with sucrose instead of high-fructose corn syrup. The new formulation contains four other ingredients, carbonated water, citric acid, natural flavor, potassium citrate, as of 2013, Sierra Mist Natural is now known as simply Sierra Mist, although was still sweetened with real sugar prior to becoming Mist Twst. Stevia was also used prior to the change, in December 2015, PepsiCo announced that they were changing the name of Sierra Mist to Mist Twst in Spring 2016
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Nike, Inc.
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The company is headquartered near Beaverton, Oregon, in the Portland metropolitan area. It is one of the worlds largest suppliers of athletic shoes and apparel, as of 2012, it employed more than 44,000 people worldwide. In 2014 the brand alone was valued at $19 billion, making it the most valuable brand among sports businesses. The company was founded on January 25,1964, as Blue Ribbon Sports, by Bill Bowerman and Phil Knight, the company takes its name from Nike, the Greek goddess of victory. Nike also owned Bauer Hockey between 1995 and 2008, and previously owned Cole Haan and Umbro, in addition to manufacturing sportswear and equipment, the company operates retail stores under the Niketown name. Nike sponsors many high-profile athletes and sports teams around the world, with the highly recognized trademarks of Just Do It, Nike, originally known as Blue Ribbon Sports, was founded by University of Oregon track athlete Phil Knight and his coach Bill Bowerman in January 1964. The company initially operated as a distributor for Japanese shoe maker Onitsuka Tiger, says Davis, I told Tom Brokaw that I was the first. I dont care all the billionaires say. Bill Bowerman made the first pair of shoes for me, in fact, I didnt like the way they felt on my feet. There was no support and they were too tight, but I saw Bowerman make them from the waffle iron, and they were mine. In 1964, in its first year in business, BRS sold 1,300 pairs of Japanese running shoes grossing $8,000, by 1965 the fledgling company had acquired a full-time employee, and sales had reached $20,000. In 1967, due to increasing sales, BRS expanded retail and distribution operations on the East Coast, in Wellesley. By 1971, the relationship between BRS and Onitsuka Tiger was nearing an end, BRS prepared to launch its own line of footwear, which would bear the Swoosh newly designed by Carolyn Davidson. The Swoosh was first used by Nike on June 18,1971, patent and Trademark Office on January 22,1974. In 1976, the company hired John Brown and Partners, based in Seattle, the following year, the agency created the first brand ad for Nike, called There is no finish line, in which no Nike product was shown. By 1980, Nike had attained a 50% market share in the U. S. athletic shoe market, together, Nike and Wieden+Kennedy have created many print and television advertisements, and Wieden+Kennedy remains Nikes primary ad agency. Walt Stack was featured in Nikes first Just Do It advertisement, wieden credits the inspiration for the slogan to Lets do it, the last words spoken by Gary Gilmore before he was executed. Throughout the 1980s, Nike expanded its line to encompass many sports
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Crayola
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Crayola is a brand of artists supplies manufactured by Crayola, LLC and best known for its crayons. The company is based in Forks Township, Northampton County, Pennsylvania, since 1984, Crayola has been a wholly owned subsidiary of Hallmark Cards. All Crayola-branded products are marketed as nontoxic and safe for use by children, most Crayola crayons are made in the United States. The company also produces Silly Putty and a line of professional art products under the Portfolio Series brand, Crayola, LLC claims the Crayola brand has 99% name recognition in U. S. consumer households, and says its products are sold in over 80 countries. The company was founded by cousins Edwin Binney and C, harold Smith in New York City on March 31,1885 as Binney & Smith. Initial products were colorants for industrial use, including red iron oxide used in barn paint and carbon black chemicals used for making tires black. Also in 1900, the company added production of slate school pencils, initially formed as a partnership, Binney & Smith incorporated in 1902. In 1902, Binney & Smith developed and introduced the Staonal marking crayon, then Edwin Binney, working with his wife, Alice Stead Binney, developed his own famous product line of wax crayons beginning on 10 June 1903, which it sold under the brand name Crayola. The Crayola name was coined by Alice Binney, wife of company founder Edwin and it comes from craie, French for chalk, and ola for oleaginous, or oily. The suffix -ola was also popular in use at the time. Crayola introduced its crayons not with one box, but with a product line. By 1905, the line had expanded to offering 18 different-sized crayon boxes with five different-sized crayons, the product line offered crayon boxes containing 6,7,8,12,14,16,18,24,28, or 30 different color crayons. The Rubens Crayola line, started in 1903, was targeted at artists. In April 1904 at the St. Louis Worlds Fair, Binney & Smith won the Gold Medal for their An-Du-Septic dustless chalk. Subsequently, Crayola used the opportunity to develop a new packaging strategy by emphasizing their gold medal on the front of many of their products and crayon boxes. In 1905, the offering of their new No.8 crayon box featured a copy from the side of the medal with an eagle on it. This was changed to the side of the medal with the 1904 date on it in Roman numerals. Binney & Smith purchased the Munsell Color Company crayon product line in 1926 and they retained the Munsell name on products such as “Munsell-Crayola” and “Munsell-Perma” until 1934, and then incorporated their colors into their own Crayola Gold Medal line of boxes
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Tints and shades
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In color theory, a tint is the mixture of a color with white, which increases lightness, and a shade is the mixture of a color with black, which reduces lightness. A tone is produced either by the mixture of a color with gray, mixing a color with any neutral color reduces the chroma, or colorfulness, while the hue remains unchanged. When mixing colored light, the mixture of spectrally balanced red, green and blue is always white. When we mix colorants, such as the pigments in paint mixtures and this moves the mixed color toward a neutral color—a gray or near-black. Lights are made brighter or dimmer by adjusting their brightness, or energy level, in painting, lightness is adjusted through mixture with white, black or a colors complement. It is common among some painters to darken a paint color by adding black paint—producing colors called shades—or to lighten a color by adding white—producing colors called tints. However, this is not always the best way for representational painting, for instance, darkening a color by adding black can cause colors such as yellows, reds and oranges, to shift toward the greenish or bluish part of the spectrum. Lightening a color by adding white can cause a shift towards blue when mixed with reds and oranges. When lightening a color this hue shift can be corrected with the addition of an amount of an adjacent color to bring the hue of the mixture back in line with the parent color
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Psychedelic art
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Psychedelic art is any art or visual displays inspired by psychedelic experiences and hallucinations known to follow the ingestion of psychoactive drugs such as LSD and psilocybin. The word psychedelic means mind manifesting, by that definition, all artistic efforts to depict the inner world of the psyche may be considered psychedelic. In common parlance psychedelic art refers above all to the art movement of the late 1960s counterculture, psychedelic visual arts were a counterpart to psychedelic rock music. Fantastic, metaphysical and surrealistic subject matter Kaleidoscopic, fractal or paisley patterns Bright and/or highly contrasting colors Extreme depth of detail or stylization of detail, also so called Horror vacui style. The psychedelic art movement is similar to the surrealist movement in that it prescribes a mechanism for obtaining inspiration, whereas the mechanism for surrealism is the observance of dreams, a psychedelic artist turns to drug induced hallucinations. Both movements have strong ties to important developments in science, whereas the surrealist was fascinated by Freuds theory of the unconscious, the psychedelic artist has been literally turned on by Albert Hofmanns discovery of LSD. The early examples of art are literary rather than visual, although there are some examples in the Surrealist art movement, such as Remedios Varo. It should also be noted that these came from writers involved in the Surrealist movement, antonin Artaud writes of his peyote experience in Voyage to the Land of the Tarahumara. Henri Michaux wrote Misérable Miracle, to describe his experiments with mescaline, aldous Huxleys The Doors of Perception and Heaven and Hell remain definitive statements on the psychedelic experience. Albert Hofmann and his colleagues at Sandoz Laboratories were convinced immediately after its discovery in 1943 of the power, for two decades following its discovery LSD was marketed by Sandoz as an important drug for psychological and neurological research. Hofmann saw the potential for poets and artists as well. Early artistic experimentation with LSD was conducted in a clinical context by Los Angeles–based psychiatrist Oscar Janiger, Janiger asked a group of 50 different artists to each do a painting from life of a subject of the artists choosing. They were subsequently asked to do the painting while under the influence of LSD. The two paintings were compared by Janiger and also the artist, the artists almost unanimously reported LSD to be an enhancement to their creativity. Ultimately it seems that psychedelics would be most warmly embraced by the American counterculture, beatnik poets Allen Ginsberg and William S. Burroughs became fascinated by psychedelic drugs as early as the 1950s as evidenced by The Yage Letters. They knew that altered states of consciousness played a role in Eastern Mysticism and they were hip to psychedelics as psychiatric medicine. LSD was the perfect catalyst to electrify the eclectic mix of ideas assembled by the Beats into a cathartic, mass-distributed panacea for the soul of the succeeding generation. Leading proponents of the 1960s psychedelic art movement were San Francisco poster artists such as, Rick Griffin, Victor Moscoso, Bonnie MacLean, Stanley Mouse & Alton Kelley and their psychedelic rock concert posters were inspired by Art Nouveau, Victoriana, Dada, and Pop Art
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