1.
Linkin Park
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Linkin Park is an American rock band from Agoura Hills, California. Formed in 1996, the rose to international fame with their debut album Hybrid Theory. Their following studio album Meteora continued the success, topping the Billboard 200 album chart in 2003. In 2003, MTV2 named Linkin Park the sixth-greatest band of the video era. Billboard ranked Linkin Park No.19 on the Best Artists of the Decade chart, in 2012, the band was voted as the greatest artist of the 2000s in a Bracket Madness poll on VH1. In 2014, the band was declared as the Biggest Rock Band in the World Right Now by Kerrang. Having adapted nu metal and rap metal to a radio-friendly yet densely layered style in Hybrid Theory and Meteora, the album topped the Billboard charts and had the third-best debut week of any album that year. The band continued to explore a wider variation of musical types in their album, A Thousand Suns, layering their music with more electronic sounds. Their fifth album, Living Things, combines elements from all of their previous records. Their sixth album, The Hunting Party, returned to a rock sound. Their upcoming album One More Light is expected to be released May 19,2017, the band has collaborated with several other artists, most notably with rapper Jay Z in their mashup EP Collision Course, and many others on the remix albums Reanimation and Recharged. Linkin Park has sold over 70 million albums worldwide and has won two Grammy Awards, Linkin Park was founded by three high school friends, Mike Shinoda, Rob Bourdon, and Brad Delson. The three attended Agoura High School in Agoura Hills, California, a suburb of Los Angeles. After graduating from school, the three began to take their musical interests more seriously, recruiting Joe Hahn, Dave Phoenix Farrell. Though limited in resources, the began recording and producing songs within Shinodas makeshift bedroom studio in 1996, resulting in a four-track demo tape. Tensions and frustration within the band grew however after they failed to land a record deal, the lack of success and stalemate in progress prompted Wakefield, at that time the bands vocalist, to leave the band in search of other projects. Farrell also left to tour with Tasty Snax, a Christian punk, Bennington, formerly of a post-grunge band by the name of Grey Daze, became a standout among applicants because of the dynamic in his singing style. The band then agreed on changing its name from Xero to Hybrid Theory, in 1999 the band released a self-titled extended play, which they circulated across internet chat-rooms and forums with the help of an online street team
2.
Lincoln Park, Chicago
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Lincoln Park is a designated community area in North Side, Chicago, Illinois. In 1824, the United States Army built a small post near todays Clybourn Avenue, indian settlements existed along Green Bay Trail, now called Clark Street, at the current intersection of Halsted Street and Fullerton Avenue. Before Green Bay Trail became Clark Street, it stretched as far as Green Bay, Wisconsin, including Sheridan Road, in 1836, land from North to Fullerton and from the lake to Halsted was relatively inexpensive, costing $150 per acre. Because the area was considered remote, a hospital and the city cemetery were located in Lincoln Park until the 1860s. In 1837, Chicago was incorporated as a city, and North Avenue was established as the northern boundary. Settlements increased along Green Bay Trail when the government offered land claims, the area north of Chicago, including todays Lincoln Park, was eventually incorporated as Lake View Township. The city, nonetheless, owned tracts of land north of North Avenue. The Township was annexed to Chicago in 1889,1874, the Lincoln Park Zoo was opened. In the period following the Civil War, the area around Southport, in 1882, St. Josaphats Roman Catholic parish was established specifically for the Kashubian community. The resulting nicknames of Jozafatowo as well as Kaszubowo made the one of Chicagos Polish Patches. The current Romanesque Revival church building was completed in 1902, a Pomeranian Griffin Crest visible on the school south of the church is a nod to the parish that once anchored one of the communities in Chicago dubbed Little Cassubia. From 1896 to 1903, the original Ferris Wheel was located at an amusement park near Clark St. The site was from 2619 to 2665 N. Clark St. which is now the location of a McDonalds, on February 14,1929, seven mob associates and a mechanic were shot to death in an automobile garage at 2122 N. Clark St. During the Great Depression, many buildings in Lincoln Park fell into disrepair, in 1968, a violent confrontation between demonstrators and police in Lincoln Park occurred during the week of the 1968 Democratic National Convention. I pointed out that it was in the best interests of the City to have us in Lincoln Park ten miles away from the Convention hall. −Abbie Hoffman from the Chicago 7 trial In the 1950s, 1960s, jose Cha Cha Jimenez transformed the local Young Lords gang into human rights activists for Latinos and the poor. They published newspapers, mounted sit-ins and takeovers of institutions and churches at Grant Hospital, Armitage Ave. Methodist Church, and McCormick Theological Seminary. There were civil rights arrests and martyrs including the murders of United Methodist Rev. Bruce Johnson
3.
Urban park
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The design, operation and maintenance is usually done by government, typically on the local level, but may occasionally be contracted out to a private sector company. A park is an area of space provided for recreational use. Grass is typically kept short to discourage insect pests and to allow for the enjoyment of picnics, trees are chosen for their beauty and to provide shade. An early purpose-built public park, although financed privately, was Princes Park in the Liverpool suburb of Toxteth and this was laid out to the designs of Joseph Paxton from 1842 and opened in 1843. The land on which the park was built was purchased by Richard Vaughan Yates, the creation of Princes Park showed great foresight and introduced a number of highly influential ideas. First and foremost was the provision of space for the benefit of townspeople. Nashs remodelling of St Jamess Park from 1827 and the sequence of processional routes he created to link The Mall with Regents Park completely transformed the appearance of Londons West End. Liverpool had a presence on the scene of global maritime trade before 1800. The latter was commenced in 1843 with the help of public finance, frederick Law Olmsted visited Birkenhead Park in 1850 and praised its qualities. Indeed, Paxton is widely credited as having one of the principal influences on Olmsted. Another early public park is the Peel Park, Salford, England opened on 22 August 1846, in The Politics of Park Design, A History of Urban Parks in America, Professor Galen Cranz identifies four phases of park design in the U. S. As time passed and the area grew around the parks, land in these parks was used for other purposes, such as zoos, golf courses. These parks continue to draw visitors from around the region and are considered regional parks, because they require a higher level of management than smaller local parks. According to the Trust for Public Land, the three most visited parks in the United States are Central Park in New York, Lincoln Park in Chicago. In the early 1900s, according to Cranz, U. S. cities built neighborhood parks with swimming pools, playgrounds and civic buildings and these smaller parks were built in residential neighborhoods, and tried to serve all residents with programs for seniors, adults, teens and children. Green space was of secondary importance, as urban land prices climbed, new urban parks in the 1960s and after have been mainly pocket parks. One such example of a park is Chess Park in Glendale. This award-winning park was given an award by the American Society of Landscape Architects and these small parks provide greenery, a place to sit outdoors, and often a playground for children
4.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Chicago Park District
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The Chicago Park District is the oldest and one of the largest park districts in the United States. As of 2016, there are over 580 parks included in the Chicago Park District as well as 31 beaches, several boat harbors, the parks also have multiple field houses, public pools, and sports and recreational facilities, and host programs throughout the year. The district is an independent taxing authority as defined by Illinois State Statute and is considered an agency of the City of Chicago. The districts general superintendent and CEO – currently Michael P. Kelly – is appointed by the Mayor of Chicago, the districts headquarters are located in the Time-Life Building in the Streeterville neighborhood. A number of these are tourist destinations, most notably Lincoln Park, Chicagos largest park which has over 20 million visitors each year, second only to Central Park in New York City. Thanks to 10 lakefront harbors located within a number of parks along the lakefront, a number of Chicago Park District parks are located in the vicinity of or even adjacent to a number of Chicago Public Schools. This design was done in order to make it easier for school students. Additionally, a number of Chicago Public Library locations are located within Chicago Park District facilities, in the 1860s, Chicago already had about 40 small parks, but no central plan, and it fell far short when compared to other major cities in the country. Lincoln Park was Chicagos first large park, created in 1860 and his influence was key in setting up Chicagos modern park system. The current Chicago Park District was created in 1934 by the Illinois Legislature under the Park Consolidation Act. The agency was long considered a ground for political appointees, most famously, it was run by Ed Kelly. The size and personnel of the district was dramatically pared down during the reform administration of Mayor Richard M. Daley-appointed CEO Forrest Claypool in the mid-1990s. In 2014, the won the National Gold Medal Award for Excellence in Parks. Park District land hosts 11 museums in locations around the city, in addition, there is the free admission Lincoln Park zoological park. Friends of the Parks Parkways Foundation Chicago Park District
7.
Lake Michigan
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Lake Michigan is one of the five Great Lakes of North America and the only one located entirely within the United States. The other four Great Lakes are shared by the U. S. and it is the second-largest of the Great Lakes by volume and the third-largest by surface area, after Lake Superior and Lake Huron. Lake Michigan is shared, from west to east, by the U. S. states of Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, ports along its shores include Chicago, Milwaukee, Green Bay, Wisconsin, Gary, Indiana, and Benton Harbor, Michigan. The word Michigan originally referred to the lake itself, and is believed to come from the Ojibwa word mishigami meaning great water, some of the earliest human inhabitants of the Lake Michigan region were the Hopewell Indians. Their culture declined after 800 AD, and for the few hundred years. The French explorer Jean Nicolet is believed to have been the first European to reach Lake Michigan, in the earliest European maps of the region, the name of Lake Illinois has been found in addition to that of Michigan, named for the Illinois Confederation of tribes. Lake Michigan is joined via the narrow, open-water Straits of Mackinac with Lake Huron, the Straits of Mackinac were an important Native American and fur trade route. The eastern end of the Straits was controlled by Fort Mackinac on Mackinac Island, French coureurs des bois and voyageurs established small ports and trading communities, such as Green Bay, on the lake during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. In the 19th century, Lake Michigan played a role in the development of Chicago. The first person to reach the bottom of Lake Michigan was J. Val Klump. Klump reached the bottom via submersible as part of a 1985 research expedition, in 2007, a row of stones paralleling an ancient shoreline was discovered by Mark Holley, professor of underwater archeology at Northwestern Michigan College. This formation lies 40 feet below the surface of the lake, One of the stones is said to have a carving resembling a mastodon. So far the formation has not been authenticated, Lake Michigan is the only one of the Great Lakes wholly within the borders of the United States, the others are shared with Canada. It lies in the known as the American Midwest. Lake Michigan has an area of 22,404 sq. mi, making it the largest lake entirely within one country by surface area. It is the half of Lake Michigan–Huron, which is the largest body of fresh water in the world. It is 307 miles long by 118 miles wide with a shoreline 1,640 miles long, the lakes average depth is 46 fathoms 3 feet, while its greatest depth is 153 fathoms 5 feet. It contains a volume of 1,180 cubic miles of water, Green Bay in the northwest is its largest bay
8.
Illinois
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Illinois is a state in the midwestern region of the United States, achieving statehood in 1818. It is the 6th most populous state and 25th largest state in terms of land area, the word Illinois comes from a French rendering of a native Algonquin word. For decades, OHare International Airport has been ranked as one of the worlds busiest airports, Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics. With the War of 1812 Illinois growth slowed as both Native Americans and Canadian forces often raided the American Frontier, mineral finds and timber stands also had spurred immigration—by the 1810s, the Eastern U. S. Railroads arose and matured in the 1840s, and soon carried immigrants to new homes in Illinois, as well as being a resource to ship their commodity crops out to markets. Railroads freed most of the land of Illinois and other states from the tyranny of water transport. By 1900, the growth of jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted a new group of immigrants. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars, the Great Migration from the South established a large community of African Americans in Chicago, who created the citys famous jazz and blues cultures. Three U. S. presidents have been elected while living in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, additionally, Ronald Reagan, whose political career was based in California, was the only U. S. president born and raised in Illinois. Today, Illinois honors Lincoln with its official slogan, Land of Lincoln. The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum is located in the capital of Springfield. Illinois is the spelling for the early French Catholic missionaries and explorers name for the Illinois Native Americans. American scholars previously thought the name Illinois meant man or men in the Miami-Illinois language and this etymology is not supported by the Illinois language, as the word for man is ireniwa and plural men is ireniwaki. The name Illiniwek has also said to mean tribe of superior men. The name Illinois derives from the Miami-Illinois verb irenwe·wa he speaks the regular way and this was taken into the Ojibwe language, perhaps in the Ottawa dialect, and modified into ilinwe·. The French borrowed these forms, changing the ending to spell it as -ois. The current spelling form, Illinois, began to appear in the early 1670s, the Illinois name for themselves, as attested in all three of the French missionary-period dictionaries of Illinois, was Inoka, of unknown meaning and unrelated to the other terms. American Indians of successive cultures lived along the waterways of the Illinois area for thousands of years before the arrival of Europeans, the Koster Site has been excavated and demonstrates 7,000 years of continuous habitation
9.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
10.
Lake Shore Drive
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Lake Shore Drive is an expressway running parallel with and alongside the shoreline of Lake Michigan through Chicago, Illinois, USA. Except for the north of Foster Avenue, Lake Shore Drive is designated as part of U. S. Highway 41. From the Chicago River south to 57th Street was named Leif Ericson Drive in 1927, the roadway was nicknamed Field Boulevard. The entire road was named Lake Shore Drive in 1946, Lake Shore Drives origins date back to Potter Palmer, who coerced the city to build the street adjacent to his lakefront property to enhance its value. Palmer built his castle at 1350 N, the drive was originally intended for leisurely strolls for the wealthy in their carriages, but as the auto age dawned it took on a different role completely. In 1937, the double-decker Link Bridge over the Chicago River opened, along with viaducts over rail yards, the lower level was intended for a railroad connection, but it was never used until LSD was rebuilt in 1986. At the time the bridge was built, it was the longest and widest bascule bridge in the world, the Lake Shore Drive and Link Bridge Photograph Album, c1937, documents the bridges construction. The album is held by the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago, North of the river, LSD intersected Ohio Street at grade, and then passed over Grand Avenue and Illinois Street on its way to the bridge South of the river. LSD came from the south on its current alignment, but continued straight at the north of Monroe Street. It intersected Randolph Street at grade and then continued north above the Illinois Central Railroads yard, at the river, it made a sharp turn to the right, and another sharp turn to the left onto the bridge. This reverse curve was known locally as the S-Curve or the S-Turn, the landfill used for the 1930s extension was mostly dirt, but the 1950s extension included rubble and debris from the destruction of homes razed for the construction of the Congress Expressway. Portions of the drive between Irving Park Road and Foster Avenue still contain the original concrete from the 1930s, Sheridan Road south of Foster narrows to 2 lanes of traffic with street parking on each side as well. In the 1950s and 1960s, Illinois and Cook County presented plans for an Interstate 494 to run part of LSD. After I-494 was moved to the Crosstown Expressway, a new I-694 designation was formed for the LSD upgrade that never came to be, when Wacker Drive was extended east to LSD in the 1970s, its upper level ended at LSD at the west curve. A new development at the northeast corner of the Randolph Street intersection resulted in an extension of Randolph across LSD, construction began in 1982 on a realignment of LSD south of the river. A whole new alignment was built, greatly smoothing the S-curve, the northbound side opened in October 1985, and the southbound side opened in November 1986. A new lower level was built, using the level of the bridge, and providing access to the new Wacker Drive. The old road south of Randolph became a Cancer Survivors Plaza, the rest, between Randolph and Wacker, was kept for several years as Field Boulevard, but was demolished in 1994
11.
Chicago beaches
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The beaches in Chicago are an extensive network of waterfront recreational areas operated by the Chicago Park District. The Chicago metropolitan waterfront includes parts of the Lake Michigan shores as well as parts of the banks of the Chicago, Des Plaines, Calumet, Fox, the waterfront also includes the Illinois and Michigan Canal and the Sanitary and Ship Canal. Historically, the waterfront has been used for commerce, industry, by midcentury, much leisure shifted to Lake Michigan as a result of industrial influence. The first City of Chicago Public Beach opened in Lincoln Park in 1895, today, the entire 28 miles Chicago lakefront shoreline is man-made, and primarily used as parkland. There are twenty-four beaches in Chicago along the shores of freshwater Lake Michigan, typically, Chicago beaches take the name of the east-west street that runs perpendicular to the lake at each beachs location. Chicagos earliest sand beaches resulted naturally from capturing sand as it moved south along the shoreline toward the Indiana Dunes but these were dynamic, when Chicago began building peers and other structures into the lake large sandy beaches formed. Early beaches were generally funded by private entities such as hotels, late 19th century city ordinances prohibited public bathing, but popular norms created demand for public beaches. Proponents saw public beaches as an opportunity to demand for public baths. The city responded by opening the first public bathing beach in 1895 in Lincoln Park primarily as a response to the efforts of the Free Bath, spaces were designated for public use and the city accepted responsibility for maintaining the beaches. By 1900 the lakefront was divided into zones of recreational, residential, agricultural and industrial uses, the 1909 Burnham Plan led to development of the lakefront. Recreational development on the city lakefront became a priority due to the influence of Aaron Montgomery Ward and his belief that the publics access to the Lake left its impression on the development of Jackson, Burnham, Grant and Lincoln Parks. Continued popular support, led to the opening of several beaches in the second decade of the 20th century. In 2013, Cisco, Everywhere Wireless and the Chicago Park District began Free Wi-Fi service at North Avenue Beach, Rainbow Beach, Montrose Beach, Foster Beach and this accounts for the seemingly large number of beaches in this one neighborhood. Juneway Terrace Beach is the northernmost beach in Chicago and it is located at 7800 north and Lake Michigan. It lies within Rogers Avenue Beach and Park and it is separated from Rogers Beach by a stretch of rip rap protecting three apartment buildings. Rogers Beach lies in Rogers Avenue Beach and Park at 7705 north, barely one block long, the park also has tennis courts. Howard Beach lies in Howard Street Beach and Park at 7600 north and it is perhaps 213 feet long. Jarvis beach located at 7400 north and Fargo beach is located at 7432 north, offshore stretches of riprap act to reduce erosion of this beach, which is about three blocks long
12.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
13.
Lincoln Park Zoo
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Lincoln Park Zoo is a free 35-acre zoo located in Lincoln Park in Chicago, Illinois. The zoo was founded in 1868, making it among the oldest of zoos in North America and it is also one of a few free admission zoos in the United States. The zoo is a member of the Association of Zoos. Lincoln Park Zoo is home to a variety of animals. The zoos exhibits include big cats, polar bears, penguins, gorillas, reptiles, monkeys, also located in Lincoln Park Zoo is a burr oak tree which dates to 1830, three years before the city was founded. The zoo was founded in 1868, when the Lincoln Park Commissioners were given a gift of a pair of swans by Central Parks Board of Commissioners in New York City. In 1874, the swans were joined by a bear cub from the Philadelphia Zoo, the bear became quite adept at escaping from its home and could frequently be found roaming Lincoln Park at night. The first bison ever born in captivity was born in the Lincoln Park Zoo, a new Lion House opened in 1912. It was later renovated and reopened in 1990, the Primate House opened in 1927, and was known for housing a popular gorilla named Bushman, one of the only gorillas in a U. S. zoo at the time. The zoos great apes were moved to the Lester E. Marlin Perkins and he created and recruited a citizens group to support the Zoos mission, the Lincoln Park Zoological Society. The facility underwent a transformation in the 1970s and 1980s, with the additions of many new. In 1995, the Zoological Society assumed management of the zoo from the Chicago Park District, Zoo administration is currently housed in the nearby building previously used by the Chicago Academy of Sciences, which moved to a new facility in 1999. The Kovler Sea Lion Pool opened the year after an extensive renovation. In 2010, Lincoln Park Zoo transformed the adjacent South Pond to create Nature Boardwalk at Lincoln Park Zoo and it was announced in March 2014 that the zoos Robert R. This exhibit would also be fully outdoors and equipped for over a dozen penguins with a breeding area. Construction will begin after the opening of Regenstein Macaque Forest in fall 2014, the zoo together with technological help from the Adler Planetarium is aiming to expand its survey of Chicago area wildlife with public assistance at an interactive website, Zooniverse. The zoo has positioned motion sensing cameras in the Chicago area to catch images of wildlife, the zoos exhibits include big cats, polar bears, penguins, gorillas, reptiles, monkeys, and other species totalling nearly 1,100 animals. These upcoming exhibits will replace the Robert R, both exhibits began construction in winter 2014 and are set to open in 2016
14.
Lincoln Park Conservatory
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Positioned near the shore of Lake Michigan, the Lincoln Park Conservatory is a conservatory and botanical garden in Lincoln Park in Chicago, Illinois. The conservatory is located at 2391 North Stockton Drive just south of Fullerton Avenue, west of Lake Shore Drive, the Alfred Caldwell Lily Pool and the North Pond Nature Sanctuary are further to the north along Stockton Drive. Along with the Garfield Park Conservatory on Chicagos west side, the Lincoln Park Conservatory provides significant horticultural collections, educational programs, Lincoln Park Conservatory is a Victorian Era glass house, built in late nineteenth century. It contains four rooms displaying exotic plants from around the world, rare orchids, like the Moth orchid, can be found in the Orchid room. A formal garden is situated in front of the Conservatory, one of the oldest public gardens in Chicago, since its foundation, the formal garden has been the home of many sculptors and works of art. The most famous are the Bates fountains, the Schiller monument, the formal garden is planted between May and June. Though the peak viewing time is between July and August, the display lasts till mid-October, conservatories were originally benevolent establishments attached to hospitals or other charitable or religious institutions. They provided plants and organisms for use and research. Chicago had become overcrowded as its population had increased rapidly, with a growing concern about the ill effect of industrialization, interest in collecting and classifying plant life became very popular. The city leaders decided to build a new and more substantial conservatory to replace a small greenhouse built in the 1870s, architects Joseph Lyman Silsbee and M. E. Bell designed and built a glass conservatory which was described as “a paradise under glass. Originally, the plants were placed in a heated pond outside. They were later moved into tanks inside the conservatory, the Conservatorys exotic plans were so popular that in 1897, the Egyptian government asked the Conservatory for seeds of water lilies flowers. The Lincoln Park Conservatory was built between 1890 and 1895 by Lincoln Park’s Commission, the Lincoln Park Commission established a greenhouse at the Lincoln Park site in 1877 and planted an adjacent formal garden in 1880. Due to the fascination of horticulture among the city dwellers, Lincoln Park’s small greenhouse was no sufficient for all the plants. Large conservatories with different plants and exhibit rooms were gaining popularity, nationally renowned architect Joseph Lyman Silsbee designed the Victorian conservatory in collaboration with another Chicago architect, Mifflin E. Bell. Between 1890 and 1895 they created a building that would support a luxuriant tropical growth. Silsbee gave the conservatory an exotic form by creating a series of trusses in the shape of ogee arches, the conservatory consists of a vestibule, four display halls and fifteen propagating and growing houses
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Chicago History Museum
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Chicago History Museum was founded in 1856 to study and interpret Chicagos history. It is located in Lincoln Park at 1601 North Clark Street at the intersection of North Avenue in the Old Town Triangle neighborhood and it was renamed the Chicago History Museum in September 2006. Much of the collection of the Chicago Historical Society was destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire in 1871, but like the city. Among its many documents which were lost in the fire was a copy of the Emancipation Proclamation, after the fire, the Society began collecting new materials, which were stored in a building owned by J. Young Scammon, a prominent lawyer and member of the society. However, the building and new collection were destroyed by fire in 1874. The Chicago Historical Society built a building on the site of its pre-1871 building at 632 North Dearborn Street. This impressively massive Richardsonian Romanesque building remained a nightclub for years until closing in 2014, in 1920, the Society purchased the large history collection of Charles F. Gunther with the intention of changing its focus from only a research institution into a public museum. Many of the items in Gunthers collection, in addition to Chicago, were related to Abraham Lincoln and these include Lincolns deathbed and several furniture pieces from the room where he died in Petersen House and clothing he and wife Mary Todd Lincoln allegedly wore the evening of his assassination. In 2010 the museum was inducted into the Chicago Gay and Lesbian Hall of Fame, after 36 years in the Henry Ives Cobb structure on North Dearborn Street, the museum and library moved to the current structure in Lincoln Park. The current home of the museum was designed by Graham, Anderson, Probst & White and constructed in 1932 by the WPA, the 1932 Federal-style structure has been expanded twice. The first addition, clad in limestone, opened in 1972 and was designed by Alfred Shaw and Associates. The second addition, designed by Holabird and Root, was made in 1988, both expansions occurred on the west side of the 1932 structure, leaving intact its original porticoed entrance facing Lincoln Park. The main entrance and reception hall, however, was moved to the new western addition facing Clark street, the 1988 extension, in addition to expanded exhibition galleries, also contains the museums store and public cafe. The museum explores both Chicago and American history, exhibitions draw primarily on the museums own collection, which numbers approximately 22 million holdings. Chicago, Crossroads of America is a 16, 000-square-foot space that explores the development and its relationship to. Nearly 600 objects document the people and events of the past 200 years, facing Freedom focuses on eight American conflicts over freedom from the 1850s to the 1970s. The Abraham Lincoln alcoves highlight the sixteenth presidents election, his leadership during the Civil War, the adjoining Portrait Gallery features an installation on Chicago during the time of Lincoln. The Sensing Chicago exhibition invites children to use their senses to discover the past, the Lobby displays museum treasures, including a 1978 Chevrolet Monte Carlo lowrider
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Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum
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The Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum is a nature museum located in Chicago, Illinois. The museum focuses on the history of the Chicago region, child and adult education. The Museum is operated by the Chicago Academy of Sciences, which had previously located at Lincoln Parks century old Matthew Laflin Memorial Building. The Academy was founded in 1857 by young prominent American naturalists, such as Robert Kennicott, the museum was rebuilt but lost its home again in the financial turmoil of the 1880s. The museum then built a building in Lincoln Park in 1898, the old museum attracted many visitors with its naturalistic dioramas of area ecological settings. In the 1990s, a new home for the museum was constructed nearby and its old building is currently used for Lincoln Park Zoo administration. Heltne, Kevin Coffee and Douglas Taron, and designed by Lee H, the butterfly house features more than 200 species of native and exotic butterflies. One of the museums ongoing scientific efforts is the study, care, the museum also offers more than 100 educational programs in the natural sciences for adults and children. The museum is named in honor of Peggy Notebaert, wife of then Qwest Communications chairman, the building was designed by Perkins and Will
17.
Alfred Caldwell Lily Pool
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It was designated a Chicago Landmark on November 6,2002. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and as a National Historic Landmark on February 17,2006, a Victorian-style artificially heated lily pool had originally been built in 1889 at the behest of Lincoln Park Commission Superintendent John Pettigrew to cultivate tropical water lilies. The lilies proved hard to cultivate and maintain in the climate of Illinois. By the 1930s the hour-glass shaped pond and its environs had fallen into ruin, Landscape architect Alfred Caldwell was hired by the Works Progress Administration to completely redesign this area of Lincoln Park. Caldwell realized that the Lily Pool presented him with the opportunity to realize his poetic symbolism. In 1938 the project was nearing completion and the district decide to cut a major expenditure for wildflower plantings. Caldwell had worked for landscape artist Jens Jensen from 1926 to 1931, frank Lloyd Wrights influence is represented in the organic architecture of the shelter and the Fullerton Parkway Gate, a prairie-style entryway into the property. In the early 1950s, under Zoo Director Marlin Perkins, the pool was transformed into an exhibit featuring exotic birds and water fowl. Overgrazing by zoo birds had an effect on the lily pond. From 1998 to 2002, the 2.7 acre Lily Pool underwent a restoration by the Chicago Park District. The Friends of Lincoln Park raised $1.2 million toward the restoration of the lily pools, a similar sum was obtained from a grant from the USDA Forest Service. Wolff Landscape Architecture was hired to complete the project, the Chicago Park District and the Lincoln Park Conservancy manage a docent program at the Caldwell Lily Pool. The Lily Pools main gate is on the side of Fullerton Parkway between Stockton and Cannon Drives. The Lily Pool is open seasonally from mid-April to mid-November from 7,30 a. m. to the earlier of dusk or 7,30 p. m and it is maintained by the Chicago Park District and Lincoln Park Conservancy. Free docent tours are available to the public on Fridays, Saturdays or Sundays from the Spring through Fall, National Register of Historic Places listings in Chicago
18.
Harper's Weekly
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Harpers Weekly, A Journal of Civilization was an American political magazine based in New York City. Published by Harper & Brothers from 1857 until 1916, it featured foreign and domestic news, fiction, essays on many subjects and it carried extensive coverage of the American Civil War, including many illustrations of events from the war. During its most influential period, it was the forum of the political cartoonist Thomas Nast, along with his brothers James, John, and Wesley, Fletcher Harper began the publishing company Harper & Brothers in 1825. Following the successful example of the Illustrated London News, Harper started publishing Harpers Magazine in 1850, in 1857, his company began publishing Harpers Weekly in New York City. By 1860 the circulation of the Weekly had reached 200,000, among the recurring features were the political cartoons of Thomas Nast, who was recruited in 1862 and worked with the Weekly for more than 20 years. Nast was a feared caricaturist, and is called the father of American political cartooning. He was the first to use an elephant as the symbol of the Republican Party and he also drew the legendary character of Santa Claus, his version became strongly associated with the figure, who was popularized as part of Christmas customs in the late nineteenth century. Harpers Weekly was the most widely read journal in the United States throughout the period of the Civil War, so as not to upset its wide readership in the South, Harpers took a moderate editorial position on the issue of slavery. Publications that supported abolition referred to it as Harpers Weakly, the Weekly had supported the Stephen A. Douglas presidential campaign against Abraham Lincoln, but as the American Civil War broke out, it fully supported Lincoln and the Union. The photograph inspired many free blacks in the North to enlist, some of the most important articles and illustrations of the time were Harpers reporting on the war. Besides renderings by Homer and Nast, the magazine also published illustrations by Theodore R. Davis, Henry Mosler, and the brothers Alfred and William Waud. In 1863, George William Curtis, one of the founders of the Republican Party, became the editor of the magazine. His editorials advocated civil service reform, low tariffs, and adherence to the gold standard, after the war, Harpers Weekly more openly supported the Republican Party in its editorial positions, and contributed to the election of Ulysses S. Grant in 1868 and 1872. It supported the Radical Republican position on Reconstruction, in the 1870s, the cartoonist Thomas Nast began an aggressive campaign in the journal against the corrupt New York political leader William Boss Tweed. Nast turned down a $500,000 bribe to end his attack, Tweed was arrested in 1873 and convicted of fraud. Nast and Harpers also played an important part in securing Rutherford B. Hayes 1876 presidential election, later on Hayes remarked that Nast was the most powerful, single-handed aid had. After the election, Nasts role in the magazine diminished considerably, since the late 1860s, Nast and George W. Curtis had frequently differed on political matters and particularly on the role of cartoons in political discourse. Harpers publisher Fletcher Harper strongly supported Nast in his disputes with Curtis, in 1877, Harper died, and his nephews, Joseph W. Harper Jr. and John Henry Harper, assumed control of the magazine
19.
Great Chicago Fire
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The Great Chicago Fire was a conflagration that burned from Sunday, October 8, to early Tuesday, October 10,1871. The fire killed up to 300 people, destroyed roughly 3.3 square miles of Chicago, Illinois, and left more than 100,000 residents homeless. The fire started at about 9,00 p. m. on October 8, the shed next to the barn was the first building to be consumed by the fire, but city officials never determined the exact cause of the blaze. There has, however, been much speculation over the years, the most popular tale blames Mrs. OLearys cow, who allegedly knocked over a lantern, others state that a group of men were gambling inside the barn and knocked over a lantern. Still other speculation suggests that the blaze was related to fires in the Midwest that day. The fires spread was aided by the use of wood as the predominant building material in a style called balloon frame. More than two thirds of the structures in Chicago at the time of the fire were made entirely of wood, with most of the houses, all of the citys sidewalks and many roads were also made of wood. In 1871, the Chicago Fire Department had 185 firefighters with just 17 horse-drawn steam engines to protect the entire city. The initial response by the department was quick, but due to an error by the watchman, Matthias Schaffer. These factors combined to turn a small barn fire into a conflagration, when firefighters finally arrived at DeKoven Street, the fire had grown and spread to neighboring buildings and was progressing towards the central business district. Firefighters had hoped that the South Branch of the Chicago River, all along the river, however, were lumber yards, warehouses, and coal yards, and barges and numerous bridges across the river. As the fire grew, the southwest wind intensified and became superheated, causing structures to catch fire from the heat, around 11,30 p. m. flaming debris blew across the river and landed on roofs and the South Side Gas Works. With the fire across the river and moving rapidly towards the heart of the city, about this time, Mayor Roswell B. Mason sent messages to nearby towns asking for help. When the courthouse caught fire, he ordered the building to be evacuated, at 2,30 a. m. on the 9th, the cupola of the courthouse collapsed, sending the great bell crashing down. Some witnesses reported hearing the sound from a mile away, as more buildings succumbed to the flames, a major contributing factor to the fire’s spread was a meteorological phenomenon known as a fire whirl. As overheated air rises, it comes into contact with cooler air and these fire whirls are likely what drove flaming debris so high and so far. Such debris was blown across the branch of the Chicago River to a railroad car carrying kerosene. The fire had jumped the river a second time and was now raging across the north side
20.
Concert
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A concert is a live music performance in front of an audience. A recital is a concert by a soloist or small group which follows a program, a recitalist is a musician who gives frequent recitals. The invention of the piano recital has been attributed to Franz Liszt. The performance may be by a musician, sometimes then called a recital, or by a musical ensemble, such as an orchestra, choir. Indoor concerts held in the largest venues are sometimes called arena concerts or amphitheatre concerts, informal names for a concert include show and gig. Regardless of the venue, musicians perform on a stage. Concerts often require live event support with professional audio equipment, before recorded music, concerts provided the main opportunity to hear musicians play. The nature of a concert varies by musical genre, individual performers, concerts by a small jazz combo or small bluegrass band may have the same order of program, mood, and volume—but vary in music and dress. In a similar way, a musician, band, or genre of music might attract concert attendees with similar dress, hairstyle. For example, concert goers in the 1960s often had hair, sandals. Regular attendees to a concert venue might also have a style that comprises that venues scene. Other Types of concerts, To plan or arrange by mutual agreement, some performers or groups put on very elaborate and expensive shows. To create a memorable and exciting atmosphere and increase the spectacle, some singers, especially popular music, augment concert sound with pre-recorded accompaniment, back-up dancers, and even broadcast vocal tracks of the singers own voice. Activities during these concerts can include dancing, sing-alongs, and moshing, concerts involving a greater number of artists, especially those that last for multiple days, are known as festivals. Unlike other concerts, which remain in a single genre of music or work of a particular artist, festivals often cover a broad scope of music. Due to their size, festivals are almost exclusively held outdoors, new platforms for festivals are becoming increasingly popular such as Jam Cruise, which is a festival held on a cruise ship, as well as Mayan Holidaze, which is a destination festival held in Tulum. Often concert tours are named, to differentiate different tours by the same artist, different segments of longer concert tours are known as legs. In the largest concert tours it is becoming common for different legs to employ separate touring production crews and equipment
21.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
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Potter's field
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A potters field, paupers grave or common grave is a term for a place for the burial of unknown or indigent people. The term is of Biblical origin, referring to a ground where clay was dug for pottery, later bought by the priests of Jerusalem for the burial of strangers, criminals. But they said, What is that to us, and casting down the pieces of silver in the temple, he departed, and went and hanged himself with a halter. But the chief priests, having taken the pieces of silver, said, It is not lawful to put them into the corbona, and after they had consulted together, they bought with them the potters field, to be a burying place for strangers. For this the field was called Haceldama, that is, the field of blood, the site referred to in these verses is traditionally known as Akeldama, in the valley of Hinnom, which was a source of potters clay. After the clay was removed, such a site would be unusable for agriculture. This may be the origin of the name, a field where potters dug for clay would also be conveniently already full of trenches and holes. The author of Matthew was drawing on earlier Biblical references to potters fields and this is a free quotation from Zechariah 11, 12-13. However, Matthew attributes the quote to Jeremiah, the author of Matthew may have been mistaken. There are two possible reasons for the reference. First, Jeremiah also speaks of buying a field, in Jeremiah 32 and that field is a symbol of hope, not despair as mentioned in Matthew, and the price is 17 pieces of silver. The author of Matthew could have combined the words of Zechariah and Jeremiah, secondly, Jeremiah was sometimes used to refer to the Books of the Prophets in toto as The Law is sometimes used to refer to Moses five books – Genesis through Deuteronomy, the Pentateuch. Other scholars do not read the verse as referring to Gentiles, cast her into the Potters field. Lincoln Park, on Chicagos North Side, found its origin in the 1840s as Chicago City Cemetery, the southernmost portion of the cemetery, where one may now find a number of baseball fields, was the location of the City Cemetery potters field from 1843 to 1871. More than 15,000 people, including 4,000 Confederate soldiers, were buried here on land near the waters edge. The baseball fields have occupied these grounds since 1877, madison Square Park, Washington Square Park and Bryant Park in New York City originated as potters fields. The citys current potters field, and one of the largest cemeteries in the United States, the fluid dynamics of the East River causes a collection of these bodies every year off the docks of Potters Field. Hudson County Burial Grounds Washington Square Washington Park was the site of the State Street Burying Grounds, some maps identify the section as the Strangers burial ground
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Catholic
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The use of terms catholicism and catholicity is closely related to the use of term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term Catholic Christian exclusively to those who followed the faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine of Hippo further developed the use of the term catholic in relation to Christianity. In Christian theology, and specially in ecclesiology, terms Catholicism, when used with small c, terms catholicism and catholicity generally designate theological doctrine of the catholicity of the Church without denominational connotations. A common belief in Catholicism is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ, many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils, when the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Romes influence was sometimes challenged. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council and they are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon and this Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation and thus is both fully God and fully human, the next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism, several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches, in all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. However, in Roman Catholicism, the term catholic is understood as to cover those who recognize and are in standing with the Magisterium. The sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs, the Roman Catholic Church includes the 23 rites who recognize the Magisterium. Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that Christ is made manifest in the elements of Holy Communion, possession of the threefold ordained ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and this teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments, liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship
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Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
25.
James Curtiss
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James Curtiss was an American politician who twice served as Mayor of Chicago, Illinois for the Democratic Party. Born in Wethersfield, Connecticut, he became an apprentice at an early age in Philadelphia. He worked for a time at the Portland Argus, then was printer, and eventually editor and publisher of the Eastport Northern Light and he married Mary Kimball on May 18,1830. From 1830 through 1935, he served as a postmaster in Eastport, in 1834, Curtiss was under investigation by the Postmaster General for his management of the office. Curtiss arrived in Chicago from Eastport, Maine in 1835 and became editor of the Chicago Democrat, shortly after his arrival in Chicago, he was appointed States Attorney for the district north of the Kankakee River. He opened a law practice with William Stuart in 1836. Stuart and Curtiss was dissolved in 1837, the Panic of 1837 left a large number of land investors unable to meet their obligations. Curtiss and others made an attempt to delay the opening of the Municipal Court that winter. Almost immediately on arrival into Chicago, Curtiss began a career of public service and he was appointed to Chicagos first Board of Health in June of that year, and succeeded Ebeneezer Peck as Town Clerk in September 1836. He was elected alderman of the 2nd Ward in 1838, of the 3rd Ward in 1846 and he ran in Chicagos third mayoral election, losing to Benjamin Wright Raymond, 353-212. In 1843, he was Corresponding Secretary of the Chicago chapter of the Washington Temperance Society, in 1845, the Illinois Legislature created the Court of Cook County, Curtiss was appointed its first clerk. In 1847, Curtiss ran a campaign against Philo Carpenter. In 1848, he lost to James Hutchinson Woodworth, running again in 1850, he defeated Levi Day Boone & Lewis C. He ran unsuccessful campaigns for Mayor in 1851 and 1852, losing both times to Walter S. Gurnee, retiring from politics, Curtiss moved to West Urbana Illinois in 1855, and took up farming. Curtiss died on November 2,1859, in Joliet, Illinois and his funeral was held at the Second Presbyterian Church on Wabash Avenue following the Odd Fellows rites. Originally buried in City Cemetery, when the Cemetery was moved to make way for Lincoln Park, first Inaugural Address Second Inaugural Address
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John Henry Rauch
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John Henry Rauch was an American sanitarian. He brought attention to health problems posed by cemeteries in large cities. He was the president of the Illinois State Board of Health. Rauch graduated in medicine from the University of Pennsylvania and settled in Burlington, in 1850, on the organization of the Iowa State Medical Society, he was appointed to report on the “Medical and Economic Botany of Iowa, ” and this report was afterward published. In 1857, he was appointed professor of materia medica and medical botany in Rush Medical College, Chicago, in 1859, he was one of the organizers of the Chicago College of Pharmacy and filled its chair of materia medica and medical botany. During the Civil War, he served as assistant medical director of the Army of Virginia, at the close of the war he was brevetted lieutenant-colonel. On his return to Chicago, Dr. Rauch published a pamphlet on “Intramural Interments in Populous Cities, and Their Influence Upon Health and Epidemics”. He aided in reorganizing the health service of the city, and in 1867 was appointed member of the newly created board of health and sanitary superintendent, which office he filled until 1873. In 1876 he was elected president of the American Public Health Association, in 1877, when the Illinois State Board of Health was created, Rauch was appointed one of its members, and elected its first president. He was elected secretary, to office he had been re-elected annually for years. In 1887 he published the results of his investigations into the character of the water-supplies of Illinois. Rauch was a member of scientific bodies and the author of monographs, chiefly in the domain of sanitary science. His chief work as a writer is embodied in the reports of the Illinois State Board of Health in eight volumes and he was a recognized authority on medical education. Wilson, James Grant, Fiske, John, eds, intramural Interments in Populous Cities, and Their Influence Upon Health and Epidemics. Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas page=405 date=Aug
27.
Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
28.
Prisoner of war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
29.
Camp Douglas (Chicago)
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Camp Douglas, in Chicago, Illinois, was one of the largest Union Army prisoner-of-war camps for Confederate soldiers taken prisoner during the American Civil War. Based south of the city on the prairie, it was used as a training. The Union Army first used the camp in 1861 as an organizational and it became a prisoner-of-war camp in early 1862. Later in 1862 the Union Army again used Camp Douglas as a training camp, in the fall of 1862, the Union Army used the facility as a detention camp for paroled Confederate prisoners pending their formal exchange for Union prisoners. Camp Douglas became a permanent prisoner-of-war camp from January 1863 to the end of the war in May 1865, in the summer and fall of 1865, the camp served as a mustering out point for Union Army volunteer regiments. The camp was dismantled and the property was sold off late in the year. In the aftermath of the war, Camp Douglas eventually came to be noted for its poor conditions, some 4,275 Confederate prisoners were known to be reinterred from the camp cemetery to a mass grave at Oak Woods Cemetery after the war. On May 3,1861, President Lincoln called for 42,000 three–year volunteers, expansion of the army by 23,000 men. Convening in July 1861, Congress retroactively approved Lincolns actions and authorized one million three–year volunteers. The states and localities had to organize and equip the volunteer regiments until later in 1861, senator Stephen A. Douglas owned land next to this location and had donated land just south of the camps to the original University of Chicago. Henry Graves owned most of the property on which the camp was located, Illinois Governor Richard Yates assigned Judge Allen C. Fuller, soon to be adjutant general for the State of Illinois, fuller was not an engineer and did not realize that the site was a poor choice for a large camp because of its wet, low–lying location. The camp lacked sewers for more than a year, and the prairie on which it was built could not absorb the waste from thousands of humans, the camp flooded with each rainfall. In the winter, it was a sea of mud when the ground was not frozen, when the camp opened, only one water hydrant worked. There was a shortage of latrines and medical facilities from the time of the camps initial use through the period of incarceration of the first group of Confederate prisoners in mid–1862. The camp ran west four blocks from Cottage Grove Avenue to the present Martin Luther King Drive and its northern boundary was what is now East 31st Street and its southern boundary was the current East 33rd Place, which then was named College Place. A smallpox hospital, four rows of barracks, and an Illinois Central Railroad station were located on the former Douglas property. The boundaries of the camp and the number, use and location of its buildings evolved during the war, garrison Square contained officers quarters, post headquarters, a post office and parade ground
30.
Union Stock Yards
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The Union Stock Yard & Transit Co. or The Yards, was the meatpacking district in Chicago for more than a century, starting in 1865. The district was operated by a group of companies that acquired swampland. By the 1890s, the money behind the Union Stockyards was Vanderbilt money. The Union Stockyards operated in the New City community area for 106 years, helping Chicago become known as hog butcher for the world, the stockyards became the focal point of the rise of some of the earliest international companies. These companies refined novel industrial innovations and influenced financial markets, both the rise and fall of the district owe their fortunes to the evolution of transportation services and technology in America. The stockyards have become an part of the popular culture of Chicagos history. From the Civil War until the 1920s and peaking in 1924, construction began in June 1865 with an opening on Christmas Day in 1865. The Yards closed at midnight on Friday, July 30,1971, the Union Stock Yard Gate was designated a Chicago Landmark on February 24,1972, and a National Historic Landmark on May 29,1981. Before construction of the various private stockyards, tavern owners provided pastures, with the spreading service of railroads, several small stockyards were created in and around the City of Chicago. In 1848, a called the Bulls Head Market was opened to the public. The Bulls Head Stock Yards were located at Madison Street and Ogden Avenue, in the years that followed, several small stockyards were scattered throughout the city. Between 1852 and 1865, five railroads were constructed to Chicago, the stockyards that sprang up were usually built along various rail lines of these new railroad companies. Some railroads built their own stockyards in Chicago, the Illinois Central and the Michigan Central railroads combined to build the largest set of pens on the lake shore east of Cottage Grove Avenue from 29th Street to 35th Street. In 1878, the New York Central Railroad managed to buy a controlling interest in the Michigan Central Railroad, in this way, Cornelius Vanderbilt, owner of the New York Central Railroad, got his start in the stockyard business in Chicago. The United States government purchased a great deal of beef and pork to feed the Union troops fighting the Civil War, with an influx of butchers and small meat packing concerns, the number of businesses greatly increased to process the flood of livestock being shipped to the Chicago stockyards. The goal was to butcher and process the livestock locally rather than transferring it to northern cities for butchering and processing. Keeping up with the number of animals arriving each day proved impossible until a new wave of consolidation and modernization altered the meatpacking business in the post-Civil War era. The Union Stock Yards, designed to consolidate operations, was built in 1864 on swampland south of the city, the stockyards were connected to the citys main rail lines by 15 miles of track
31.
Oak Woods Cemetery
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Oak Woods Cemetery is a cemetery in Chicago, Illinois. Located at 1035 E. 67th Street, in the Greater Grand Crossing area of Chicagos South Side, it was established 164 years ago on February 12,1853, the first burials took place in 1860. After the Civil War, several thousand Confederate soldiers, prisoners who died at Camp Douglas, were reburied here, a monument, which former Kentucky Lieutenant Governor John C. Underwood helped construct, says that 6,000 soldiers were buried here, another, smaller memorial commemorates the Union guards who died at that facility of contagious diseases. These bodies had originally been buried at City Cemetery, which was abandoned during expansion of Grant Park during the urban renewal following the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. They were exhumed and reinterred together in a grave, which came to be known as Confederate Mound. The cemetery now contains the graves of many prominent African Americans and it also has section for U. S. veterans of several wars, and a separately maintained Jewish section. Cap Anson, Major League Baseball Hall of Fame Faith Bacon, Burlesque dancer and actress Frank Bacon actor, 1984–85 #1 Ranked high school basketball player in America James Hutchinson Woodworth, mayor of Chicago Otto Young, Merchant Millionaire of Chicago and Lake Geneva, WI. The tomb received considerable publicity since Burris appointment by the since-convicted governor, the central segment of the triptych includes a large inscription of the words TRAIL BLAZER along the top. The segments of the also include accomplishments of Burris and his wife. IL-2-A, Oak Woods Cemetery, Confederate Mound,1035 East 67th Street, Chicago, Cook County, IL,12 photos,2 photo caption pages Oak Woods Cemetery, Famous names at Find a Grave
32.
Burnham Plan of Chicago
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The Burnham Plan is a popular name for the 1909 Plan of Chicago, co-authored by Daniel Burnham and Edward H. Bennett. It recommended a series of projects including new and widened streets, parks, new railroad and harbor facilities. Though only portions of the plan were realized, the document reshaped Chicagos central area and was an important influence on the new field of city planning and they retained Daniel H. Burnham, an architect who had managed the construction of the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago. After the fair, he had presented ideas for improving Chicagos lakefront, cleveland, San Francisco, and Manila and Baguio in the Philippines. Burnham retained Edward Bennett as co-author, and a staff to help prepare the plan. The Burnham Plan focused on 6 major elements, Foremost among the goals was reclaiming the lakefront for the public. “The Lakefront by right belongs to the people, wrote Burnham, not a foot of its shores should be appropriated to the exclusion of the people. ”The plan recommended expanding the parks along the Lake Michigan shoreline with landfill, which was done in the early 20th century. Of the citys 29 miles of lakefront, all but four miles are today public parkland, the plan also provided for extensive lakefront harbour facilities, which became unnecessary with the citys development of facilities in the Lake Calumet regions. The plan considered Chicago as the centre of a region extending 75 miles from the city centre, at the dawn of the automobile age, the plan diagrammed both radial and circumferential highways for the region. However, the agencies who built and improved highways in the 1910s and 1920s do not appear to have been guided to build along the specific routes recommended in the plan. The plan drew on technical studies previously done by others, including a plan for competing railroads to pool usage of tracks for greater efficiency in freight handling. In addition, the plan detailed the consolidation of Chicagos six intercity railroad passenger terminals into new complexes west of the Loop and this, in turn, would allow the expansion of the business district southward. A new Chicago Union Station was finished in 1925, but no stations were consolidated or relocated. In 1929, the South Branch of the Chicago River was rechanneled, the movement to purchase and preserve the natural areas that became the Cook County Forest Preserves was well under way as the plan was being written. The plan includes those proposals and also calls for the expansion of the park and boulevard system. New wider arterials were prescribed to relieve congestion and beautify the fast growing city. One of these diagonals was constructed, the extension of Ogden Avenue, many of the plans street recommendations were followed. The city renovated, widened, and extended Michigan Avenue, widened Roosevelt Road, with the growth in automobile usage after World War I, Chicago planners began to drastically alter or step away from Burnhams proposals for the street system
33.
Richard J. Daley
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Richard Joseph Daley was an American politician who served as the 38th Mayor of Chicago for a total of twenty one years beginning on April 20,1955 until his death on December 20,1976. Daley was the chairman of the Cook County Democratic Central Committee for 23 years, Daley was Chicagos third consecutive mayor from the working-class, heavily Irish American Bridgeport neighborhood on Chicagos South Side, where he lived his entire life. Daley is remembered for doing much to avoid the declines that some other rust belt cities like Cleveland, Buffalo, Daley played a major role in the history of the Democratic Party, especially with his support of John F. Kennedy in 1960 and of Hubert Humphrey in 1968. While many members of Daleys administration were charged with corruption and convicted, Richard J. Daley was born in Bridgeport, a working-class neighborhood of Chicago. He was the child of Michael and Lillian Daley, whose families had both arrived from the Old Parish area, near Dungarvan, County Waterford, Ireland during the Great Famine. Daley would later state that his wellsprings were his religion, his family, his neighborhood, the Democratic Party and his father was a sheet metal worker with a reserved demeanor. Michaels father, James E. Daley, was a born in New York, while his mother. Richards mother was outgoing and outspoken, before women obtained the right to vote in 1920, Lillian Daley was an active Suffragette, participating in marches. Mrs. Daley often brought her son to them and she hoped her sons life would be more professionally successful than that of his parents. Prior to his mothers death, Daley had won the Democratic nomination for Cook County sheriff, Lillian Daley wanted more than this for her son, telling a friend, I didnt raise my son to be a policeman. Daley attended the school of his parish, Nativity of Our Lord. As a young man, his jobs included selling newspapers and making deliveries for a door to door peddler and he spent his free time at the Hamburg Athletic Club, an athletic, social and political organization near his home. Hamburg and similar clubs were funded, at least in part, Daley made his mark there, not in sports, but in organization as the club manager. At age 22, he was elected president of the club, although he practiced law with partner William J. Lynch, he dedicated the majority of his time to his political career. After his election, Daley quickly moved back to the Democratic side of the aisle in 1938, in 1939, Illinois State Senator William Botchy Connors remarked You couldnt give that guy a nickel, thats how honest he is. Daley was appointed by Governor Adlai Stevenson as head of the Illinois Department of Finance, Daley suffered his only political defeat in 1946, when he lost a bid to become Cook County sheriff. Daley then made a run for Cook County Clerk and held that position prior to being elected Chicagos mayor. In the late 1940s, Daley became Democratic Ward Committeeman of the 11th Ward, Daley became chairman of the Central Committee of the Cook County Democratic Party, i. e. boss of the political machine in 1953
34.
MC5
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MC5 was an American rock band from Lincoln Park, Michigan, formed in 1964. The original band consisted of vocalist Rob Tyner, guitarists Wayne Kramer and Fred Sonic Smith, bassist Michael Davis. Their loud, energetic style of rock and roll included elements of garage rock, hard rock, blues rock. MC5 had a beginning which earned them a January 1969 cover appearance in Rolling Stone. They developed a reputation for energetic and polemical live performances, one of which was recorded as their 1969 debut album Kick Out the Jams and their initial run was short-lived, though. In 1972, just three years after their record, the band came to an end. MC5 was often cited as one of the most important American hard rock groups of their era and their three albums are regarded by many as classics, and their song Kick Out the Jams is widely covered. Tyner died of an attack in late 1991 at the age of 46. Smith also died of an attack, in 1994 at the age of 45. The origins of MC5 can be traced to the friendship between guitarists Wayne Kramer and Fred Smith, each guitarist/singer formed and led a rock group. Kramer felt they needed a manager, which led him to Rob Derminer, a few years older than the others, Tyner also invented their new name, MC5, it reflected their Detroit roots. MC5 even later opened for a few U. S. midwest shows for Sun Ra, housed in a striking picture sleeve, it comprised two original songs, Borderline and Looking at You. The first pressing sold out in a few weeks, and by years end it had gone through more pressings totaling several thousand copies. A third single that coupled I Can Only Give You Everything with the original I Just Dont Know appeared at about the time on the AMG label. That summer MC5 toured the U. S, as related in the notes for reissued editions of the Stooges debut album, Danny Fields of Elektra Records came to Detroit to see MC5. At Kramers recommendation, he went to see The Stooges, Fields was so impressed that he ended up offering contracts to both bands in September 1968. They were the first hard rock groups signed to the fledgling Elektra, Black Panther Party founder Huey P. Newton prompted John Sinclair to found the White Panthers, a militant leftist organization of white people working to assist the Black Panthers. Shortly after, Sinclair was arrested for possession of marijuana, under the guidance of John Sinclair, MC5 were soon involved in left-wing politics, Sinclair was active with the White Panther Party and Fifth Estate
35.
1968 Democratic National Convention
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The 1968 National Convention of the U. S. Democratic Party was held August 26–29 at the International Amphitheatre in Chicago, the keynote speaker was Senator Daniel Inouye. Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey and Senator Edmund S. Muskie of Maine were nominated for President and Vice President, respectively. The convention was held during a year of violence, political turbulence, the convention also followed the assassination of Democratic presidential hopeful Senator Robert F. Kennedy of New York, on June 5. Both Kennedy and Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota had been running for the Democratic Nomination at the time, in 1968 the Democratic Party was divided. Senator Eugene McCarthy entered the campaign in November 1967, challenging incumbent President Johnson for the Democratic nomination, Robert F. Kennedy entered the race in March 1968. Johnson, facing dissent within his party, and having only won the New Hampshire primary. After Kennedys assassination on June 5, the Democratic Partys divisions grew, at the moment of Kennedys death the delegate count stood at Humphrey 561.5, Kennedy 393.5, McCarthy 258. Kennedys murder left his delegates uncommitted, in the end, the Democratic Party nominated Humphrey. Even though 80 percent of the voters had been for anti-war candidates. The loss was perceived to be the result of President Johnson, Humphrey, who had not entered any of 13 state primary elections, won the Democratic nomination, and went on to lose the election to the Republican Richard Nixon. Source, Keating Holland, All the Votes, really, CNN Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley intended to showcase his and the citys achievements to national Democrats and the news media. Rioting took place by the Chicago Police Department and the Illinois National Guard against the demonstrators, the disturbances were well publicized by the mass media, with some journalists and reporters being caught up in the violence. Network newsmen Mike Wallace, Dan Rather, and Edwin Newman were assaulted by the Chicago police while inside the halls of the Democratic Convention, the Democratic Presidential Nominating Convention had been held in Chicago 12 years earlier. Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley had played a role in the election of John F. Kennedy in 1960. In 1968, however, it did not seem that Daley had maintained the clout which would allow him to bring out the voters again to produce a Democratic victory as he had in 1960. On October 7,1967, Daley and Johnson had a meeting at a fund raiser for President Johnsons re-election campaign. Johnsons pro-war policies had already created a division within the party
36.
Old Town, Chicago
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Old Town is a neighborhood and historic district in North Side, Chicago, Illinois, home to many of Chicagos older, Victorian-era buildings. Examples include St. Michaels Church, one of seven buildings to survive the Great Chicago Fire, in the 19th century, German immigrants moved to the meadows north of North avenue and began farming previous swampland, planting celery, potatoes and cabbages. This gave the area the nickname The Cabbage Patch, the name stuck until around 1900. During World War II, the streets of North, Clark, in the years immediately after the war, The population of “North Town” sponsored annual art fairs called the “Old Town Holiday. In the 1950s, much of Old Town was an enclave to many of the first Puerto Ricans to emigrate to Chicago and they referred to this area as part of La Clark. There is no legal entity known as Old Town, although claims have made as to the nature of its unspecific borders. Old Town is where you make it and this neighborhood is supposed to be as much a sound as a place, and its from the bells of St. Michaels Church. The story goes you only live in Old Town if you can hear them. it was said that all who lived within hearing distance of the churchs bells were Old Towners. The land known as Old Town originally served as a home and trade center to many Nations including Potawatomi, Miami, following the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, most of the indigenous people were forcibly removed, and the land was then settled in the 1850s by German-Catholic immigrants. Clark Street is a leftover of the culture, it being an old road which followed a ridge along Lake Michigan. Old Town is home to many of Chicagos older, Victorian-era buildings, the neighborhood is also home to St. Michaels Church, originally a Bavarian-built church, and one of 7 to survive the path of the Great Chicago Fire. Many of the streets and alleys, particularly in the Old Town Triangle section, predate the Great Chicago Fire, Old Town has one Brown-Purple Line L station at 1536-40 North Sedgwick Street. It is one of the oldest standing stations on the L, the first homophile organization in American history, the Society for Human Rights, was established by Henry Gerber at his home, the Henry Gerber House, on North Crilly Court in 1924. The Henry Gerber House was designated a Chicago Landmark on June 6,2001, in June 2015 it was named a National Historic Landmark. In 1927, sculptors Sol Kogen and Edgar Miller purchased and subsequently rehabilitated a house on Burton Place, near Wells Street, through the 1930s, an art colony emerged in the neighborhood as artists moved from the Towertown neighborhood near Washington Square Park. The Young Lords then a street gang with Jose Cha-Cha Jimenez had a branch of their group at Wieland and this dense storefront-laden area became also the nexus of hippie culture, and gave rise to the boutiques in the neighborhood today. Seed Magazine was a staple of the neighborhood at the time. There is a piece of Chicago Real Estate, west of Lincoln Park, that is the pride of urban conservationists
37.
Abbie Hoffman
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Abbot Howard Abbie Hoffman was an American political and social activist and anarchist who co-founded the Youth International Party. The group was known collectively as the Chicago Eight, when Seales prosecution was separated from the others, while the defendants were initially convicted of intent to incite a riot, the verdicts were overturned on appeal. Hoffman continued his activism into the 1970s, and remains an icon of the anti-war movement, Hoffman was born November 30,1936 in Worcester, Massachusetts, to John Hoffman and Florence Schanberg. Hoffman was raised in a household and had two younger siblings. As a child in the 1940s–50s, he was a member of what has been described as the generation between the beatniks and hippies. He described his childhood as idyllic and the 40s as a time to grow up in. On June 3,1954, 17-year-old Hoffman was arrested for the first time, during his school days, he became known as a troublemaker who started fights, played pranks, vandalized school property, and referred to teachers by their first names. In his sophomore year, Hoffman was expelled from Classical High School, as an atheist, Hoffman wrote a paper declaring that God could not possibly exist, for if he did, there wouldnt be any suffering in the world. The irate teacher ripped up the paper and called him a Communist punk. Hoffman jumped on the teacher, after his expulsion, he attended Worcester Academy, graduating in 1955. Hoffman engaged in many behaviors typical of rebellious teenagers in the 1950s, such as riding motorcycles, wearing leather jackets, upon graduating, he enrolled in Brandeis University, where he studied under professors such as noted psychologist Abraham Maslow, often considered the father of humanistic psychology. He was also a student of Marxist theorist Herbert Marcuse, who Hoffman said had an effect on his political outlook. Hoffman would later cite Marcuses influence during his activism and his theories on revolution and he was on the Brandeis tennis team, which was coached by journalist Bud Collins. Hoffman graduated with a B. A. in psychology in 1959 and that fall, he enrolled at the University of California, Berkeley, where he completed coursework toward a masters degree in psychology. Soon after, he married his pregnant girlfriend Sheila Karklin in May 1960, during the Vietnam War, Hoffman was an anti-war activist, using deliberately comical and theatrical tactics. In late 1966, Hoffman met with a radical group called the Diggers. He later returned to New York and published a book with this knowledge, doing so was considered a violation by the Diggers. Diggers co-founder Peter Coyote explained, Abbie, who was a friend of mine, was always a media junky and we explained everything to those guys, and they violated everything we taught them. One of Hoffmans well-known stunts was on August 24,1967, the protesters threw fistfuls of real and fake dollar bills down to the traders below, some of whom booed, while others began to scramble frantically to grab the money as fast as they could
38.
Chicago Seven
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Bobby Seale, the eighth man charged, had his trial severed during the proceedings, lowering the number of defendants from eight to seven. Seale was eventually sentenced to four years in prison for contempt of court, the 1968 Democratic National Convention was held in Chicago in late August to select the partys candidates for the November 1968 presidential election. These activities were primarily in protest of President Lyndon B, johnsons policies for the Vietnam War, policies which were vigorously contested during the presidential primary campaign and inside the convention. The city denied all permits, except for one afternoon rally at the old bandshell at the end of Grant Park. The city also enforced an 11,00 pm curfew in Lincoln Park, confrontations with protesters ensued as the police enforced the curfew, stopped attempts to march to the International Amphitheatre, and cleared crowds from the streets. The Grant Park rally on Wednesday, August 28,1968, was attended by about 15,000 protesters, the police made scores of arrests. The television networks broadcast footage of violent clashes, cutting away from the nominating speeches for the presidential candidates. Over the course of five days and nights, the police made arrests, in addition to using tear gas, mace. Hundreds of police officers and protesters were injured, dozens of journalists covering the actions were also clubbed by police or had cameras smashed and film confiscated. Following the convention on September 9,1968, a grand jury was convened to consider criminal charges. Over the course of more than six months, the jury met 30 times. The grand jury returned indictments only after President Richard Nixon took office, on March 20,1969, eight protesters were charged with various federal crimes and eight police officers were charged with civil rights violations. The eight defendants were charged under the provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 which made it a federal crime to cross state lines with the intent to incite a riot. That David Dellinger, Rennie Davis, Tom Hayden, Abbie Hoffman, Jerry Rubin and that John Froines and Lee Weiner instructed other persons in the construction and use of an incendiary device. The 16 alleged co-conspirators who avoided prosecution were, Wolfe B. The original eight defendants indicted by the jury on March 20,1969, were Abbie Hoffman, Jerry Rubin, David Dellinger, Tom Hayden, Rennie Davis, John Froines, Lee Weiner. The trial began on September 24,1969, the defense attorneys were William Kunstler and Leonard Weinglass of the Center for Constitutional Rights, the judge was Julius Hoffman, and the prosecutors were Richard Schultz and Tom Foran. On October 9, the governor of Illinois requested the United States National Guard for crowd control as demonstrations increased outside the courtroom
39.
Tallgrass prairie
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The tallgrass prairie is an ecosystem native to central North America. They were characteristically found in the central forest-grasslands transition, the tall grasslands, the upper Midwest forest-savanna transition. They flourished in areas with loess soils and moderate rainfall around 30 to 35 inches per year. To the east were the eastern savannas. In the northeast, where fire was infrequent and periodic windthrow represented the source of disturbance. In contrast, shortgrass prairie was typical in the western Great Plains, due to expansive agricultural land use, very little tallgrass prairie remains. Retreating glaciers deposited the parent material for soil in the form of till, i. e. unsorted sediment, wind-dropped loess and organic matter accumulated, resulting in deep levels of topsoil. Animals such as bison, elk, deer, and rabbits added nitrogen to the soil through urine, Prairie dogs, a ground squirrel-like rodent considered to be a keystone species, dug tunnels that aerated the soil and channeled water several feet below the surface. For 5,000 to 8,000 years, more than 240 million acres of prairie grasslands were a feature of the landscape. Between 1800 and 1930, the vast majority was destroyed, settlers transformed what they named the Great American Desert or The Inland Sea into farmland. Further, extensive tile drainage has changed the water content and hydrodynamics. Tallgrass prairie is capable of supporting significant biodiversity, parts of the ecoregion among the top ten ecoregions for reptiles, birds, butterflies, and tree species. Tallgrass species are found in the understory layer, oak and hickory tree species occur in some areas, but generally in moderate densities. The tallgrass prairie biome depends on fires, a form of wildfire. Tree seedlings and intrusive alien species without fire tolerance are eliminated by periodic fires, such fires may either be set by humans or started naturally by lightning. Technically, prairies have less than 5–11% tree cover, a grass-dominated plant community with 10–49% tree cover is a savanna. After the steel plow was invented by John Deere, this fertile soil became one of Americas most important resources, over 95% of the original tallgrass prairie is now farmland. In Oklahoma, the tallgrass prairie has been maintained by ranchers and they have reintroduced plains bison to the vast expanses of grass
40.
Zoo
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A zoo is a facility in which animals are confined within enclosures, displayed to the public, and in which they may also breed. The term zoological garden refers to zoology, the study of animals, the abbreviation zoo was first used of the London Zoological Gardens, which was opened for scientific study in 1828 and to the public in 1857. The number of animal collections open to the public around the world now exceeds to 1,000. In the United States of America alone, zoos are visited by over 180 million people annually, London Zoo, which opened in 1826, first called itself a menagerie or zoological forest, which is short for Gardens and Menagerie of the Zoological Society of London. The term zoological park was used for more facilities in Washington, D. C. and the Bronx in New York. Relatively new terms for zoos coined in the late 20th century are conservation park or biopark, adopting a new name is a strategy used by some zoo professionals to distance their institutions from the stereotypical and nowadays criticized zoo concept of the 19th century. The term biopark was first coined and developed by the National Zoo in Washington D. C. in the late 1980s, in 1993, the New York Zoological Society changed its name to the Wildlife Conservation Society and rebranded the zoos under its jurisdiction as wildlife conservation parks. The predecessor of the garden is the menagerie, which has a long history from the ancient world to modern times. The oldest known collection was revealed during excavations at Hierakonpolis, Egypt in 2009. The exotic animals included hippopotami, hartebeest, elephants, baboons, King Ashur-bel-kala of the Middle Assyrian Empire created zoological and botanical gardens in the 11th century BCE. In the 2nd century BCE, the Chinese Empress Tanki had a house of deer built, other well-known collectors of animals included King Solomon of the Kingdom of Israel and Judah, queen Semiramis and King Ashurbanipal of Assyria, and King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia. By the 4th century BCE, zoos existed in most of the Greek city states, the Roman emperors kept private collections of animals for study or for use in the arena, the latter faring notoriously poorly. The 19th-century historian W. E. H. Lecky wrote of the Roman games, first held in 366 BCE, At one time, a bear, four hundred bears were killed in a single day under Caligula. Under Nero, four hundred tigers fought with bulls and elephants, in a single day, at the dedication of the Colosseum by Titus, five thousand animals perished. Lions, tigers, elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, giraffes, bulls, stags, even crocodiles, henry I of England kept a collection of animals at his palace in Woodstock, which reportedly included lions, leopards, and camels. The most prominent collection in medieval England was in the Tower of London and it was opened to the public during the reign of Elizabeth I in the 16th century. During the 18th century, the price of admission was three half-pence, or the supply of a cat or dog for feeding to the lions, the animals were moved to the London Zoo when it opened. The oldest zoo in the still in existence is the Tiergarten Schönbrunn in Vienna
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Big cat
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The informal term big cat is typically used to refer to any of the four largest members of the entire Panthera genus. Among the five species within the Panthera genus, these four are the only cats that are able to roar. In descending order of their potential size, these four species are, tigers, lions, jaguars. A more liberal and expansive definition is used which may include the snow leopard, puma, clouded leopard, Sunda clouded leopard and/or cheetah. The two clouded leopard species are considered a link between big and small cats. All cats are carnivores and efficient apex predators and their range includes the Americas, Africa, Asia, and Europe. The ability to roar comes from an elongated and specially adapted larynx, when air passes through the larynx on the way from the lungs, the cartilage walls of the larynx vibrate, producing sound. The lions larynx is longest, giving it the most robust roar, all five extant members of the Panthera genus contain this elongated hyoid but due to differences in the larynx the snow leopard cannot roar. The principal threats to big cats vary by location, but primarily are habitat destruction. In Africa many big cats are hunted by pastoralists or government problem animal control officers, certain protected areas exist that shelter large and exceptionally visible populations of lions, hyenas, leopards, and cheetahs, such as Botswanas Chobe, Kenyas Masai Mara, and Tanzanias Serengeti. Rather, it is outside these areas where hunting poses the dominant threat to large carnivores. The initial Captive Wildlife Safety Act was signed into law on December 19,2003, to address problems associated with the increasing trade in certain big cat species, the CSWA regulations were strengthened by a law passed on September 17,2007. Private ownership of these big cats is not prohibited by law but the law does make it illegal to transport, sell. The WWF is concerned that weaknesses in the existing U. S. regulations could be helping to fuel the black market for tiger parts. An animal sanctuary provides a refuge for animals to live out their lives in a protected environment. Usually these animal sanctuaries are the organizations which provide a home to big cats whose private owners are no longer able or willing to care for their big cats. However, use of the sanctuary in an organizations name is by itself no guarantee that it is a true animal sanctuary in the sense of a refuge. The study reveals that the leopard and the tiger are sister species, while the lion, leopard
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Penguin
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Penguins are a group of aquatic, flightless birds. They live almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere, with one species. Highly adapted for life in the water, penguins have countershaded dark and white plumage, most penguins feed on krill, fish, squid and other forms of sealife caught while swimming underwater. They spend about half of their lives on land and half in the oceans, although almost all penguin species are native to the Southern Hemisphere, they are not found only in cold climates, such as Antarctica. In fact, only a few species of penguin live so far south, several species are found in the temperate zone, and one species, the Galápagos penguin, lives near the equator. The largest living species is the penguin, on average adults are about 1.1 m tall. The smallest penguin species is the little penguin, also known as the fairy penguin. Among extant penguins, larger penguins inhabit colder regions, while smaller penguins are found in temperate or even tropical climates. Some prehistoric species attained enormous sizes, becoming as tall or as heavy as an adult human, the word penguin first appears in the 16th century as a synonym for great auk. The etymology of the penguin is still debated. The English word is not apparently of French, Breton or Spanish origin, an alternative etymology links the word to Latin pinguis, which means fat or oil. Support for this etymology can be found in the alternative Germanic word for penguin, fettgans or fat-goose, the number of extant penguin species is debated. Depending on which authority is followed, penguin biodiversity varies between 17 and 20 living species, all in the subfamily Spheniscinae. Some sources consider the white-flippered penguin a separate Eudyptula species, while others treat it as a subspecies of the little penguin, similarly, it is still unclear whether the royal penguin is merely a color morph of the macaroni penguin. The status of the penguins is also unclear. Updated after Marples, Acosta Hospitaleche, and Ksepka et al, CADIC P21 Delphinornis – Palaeeudyptinae, basal, new subfamily 1. Marambiornis – Palaeeudyptinae, basal, new subfamily 1, mesetaornis – Palaeeudyptinae, basal, new subfamily 1. Tonniornis Wimanornis Duntroonornis – possibly Spheniscinae Korora Kairuku Platydyptes – possibly not monophyletic, further examination in 1980 resulted in placement as Aves incertae sedis
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Gorilla
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Gorillas are ground-dwelling, predominantly herbivorous apes that inhabit the forests of central Africa. The eponymous genus Gorilla is divided into two species, the gorillas and the western gorillas, and either four or five subspecies. They are the largest living primates, the DNA of gorillas is highly similar to that of humans, from 95–99% depending on what is counted, and they are the next closest living relatives to humans after the chimpanzees and bonobos. Gorillas natural habitats cover tropical or subtropical forests in Africa, although their range covers a small percentage of Africa, gorillas cover a wide range of elevations. The mountain gorilla inhabits the Albertine Rift montane cloud forests of the Virunga Volcanoes, ranging in altitude from 2, 200–4,300 metres. The word gorilla comes from the history of Hanno the Navigator, members of the expedition encountered a savage people, the greater part of whom were women, whose bodies were hairy, and who our interpreters called Gorillae. The word was later used as the species name, though it is unknown whether what these ancient Carthaginians encountered were truly gorillas, another species of ape or monkeys. The American physician and missionary Thomas Staughton Savage and naturalist Jeffries Wyman first described the gorilla in 1847 from specimens obtained in Liberia. The name was derived from Ancient Greek Γόριλλαι, meaning tribe of hairy women, the closest relatives of gorillas are the other two Homininae species, chimpanzees and humans, all of them having diverged from a common ancestor about 7 million years ago. Human gene sequences differ only 1. 6% on average from the sequences of corresponding gorilla genes, until recently, gorillas were considered to be a single species, with three subspecies, the western lowland gorilla, the eastern lowland gorilla and the mountain gorilla. There is now agreement that there are two species, each with two subspecies, more recently, a third subspecies has been claimed to exist in one of the species. The separate species and subspecies developed from a type of gorilla during the Ice Age. Primatologists continue to explore the relationships between various gorilla populations, the species and subspecies listed here are the ones upon which most scientists agree. The proposed third subspecies of Gorilla beringei, which has not yet received a trinomen, is the Bwindi population of the mountain gorilla, some variations that distinguish the classifications of gorilla include varying density, size, hair colour, length, culture, and facial widths. Now, over 100,000 western lowland gorillas are thought to exist in the wild, with 4,000 in zoos, mountain gorillas are the most severely endangered, with an estimated population of about 880 left in the wild and none in zoos. Population genetics of the lowland gorillas suggest that the western and eastern lowland populations diverged ~261 thousand years ago, gorillas move around by knuckle-walking, although they sometimes walk bipedally for short distances while carrying food or in defensive situations. Wild male gorillas weigh 135 to 180 kg while females usually weigh half as much as adult males at 70–115 kg. Adult males are 1.7 to 1.8 m tall, female gorillas are shorter, with smaller arm spans
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Reptile
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Reptiles are tetrapod animals in the class Reptilia, comprising todays turtles, crocodilians, snakes, amphisbaenians, lizards, tuatara, and their extinct relatives. The study of these traditional reptile orders, historically combined with that of amphibians, is called herpetology. Because some reptiles are more related to birds than they are to other reptiles. For this reason, many scientists prefer to consider the birds part of Reptilia as well. Some early examples include the lizard-like Hylonomus and Casineria, in addition to the living reptiles, there are many diverse groups that are now extinct, in some cases due to mass extinction events. In particular, the K–Pg extinction wiped out the pterosaurs, plesiosaurs, ornithischians, and sauropods, as well as species of theropods, crocodyliforms. Modern non-avian reptiles inhabit every continent with the exception of Antarctica, several living subgroups are recognized, Testudines, approximately 400 species, Sphenodontia,1 species, Squamata, over 9,600 species, Crocodilia,25 species, and Aves,10,000 species. Reptiles are tetrapod vertebrates, creatures that either have four limbs or, unlike amphibians, reptiles do not have an aquatic larval stage. As amniotes, reptile eggs are surrounded by membranes for protection and transport, many of the viviparous species feed their fetuses through various forms of placenta analogous to those of mammals, with some providing initial care for their hatchlings. In the 18th century, the reptiles were, from the outset of classification, the terms reptile and amphibian were largely interchangeable, reptile being preferred by the French. Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti was the first to use the term Reptilia for an expanded selection of reptiles. Today, the two groups are commonly treated under the same heading as herptiles. He subsequently proposed the names of Sauropsida and Ichthyopsida for the two groups. In 1866, Haeckel demonstrated that vertebrates could be divided based on their strategies, and that reptiles, birds. The terms Sauropsida and Theropsida were used again in 1916 by E. S, Goodrich to distinguish between lizards, birds, and their relatives on the one hand and mammals and their extinct relatives on the other. Goodrich supported this division by the nature of the hearts and blood vessels in each group, according to Goodrich, both lineages evolved from an earlier stem group, Protosauria in which he included some animals today considered reptile-like amphibians, as well as early reptiles. Watson observed that the first two groups diverged very early in history, so he divided Goodrichs Protosauria between them. He also reinterpreted Sauropsida and Theropsida to exclude birds and mammals, thus his Sauropsida included Procolophonia, Eosuchia, Millerosauria, Chelonia, Squamata, Rhynchocephalia, Crocodilia, thecodonts, non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, ichthyosaurs, and sauropterygians
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Monkey
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Monkeys are haplorhine primates, a group generally possessing tails and consisting of about 260 known living species. There are two lineages of monkeys, New World Monkeys and catarrhines. Apes emerged within the catarrhines with the Old World monkeys as a sister group, however, traditionally apes are not considered monkeys, rendering this grouping paraphyletic. The equivalent monophyletic clade are the simians, many monkey species are tree-dwelling, although there are species that live primarily on the ground, such as baboons. Most species are active during the day. Monkeys are generally considered to be intelligent, particularly Old World monkeys, lemurs, lorises, and galagos are not monkeys, instead they are strepsirrhine primates. Like monkeys, tarsiers are haplorhine primates, however, they are not monkeys. There are two types of monkey, New World monkeys from South and Central America and Old World monkeys from Africa. Hominoid apes, which all lack tails, are also catarrhines but are not considered monkeys, Simians and tarsiers emerged within haplorrhines some 60 million years ago. New World monkeys and catarrhine monkeys emerged within the simians some 35 millions years ago, Old World monkeys and Hominoidea emerged within the catarrhine monkeys some 25 millions years ago. Extinct basal simians such as Aegyptopithecus or Parapithecus are also considered monkeys by primatologists, according to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word monkey may originate in a German version of the Reynard the Fox fable, published circa 1580. In this version of the fable, a character named Moneke is the son of Martin the Ape, colloquially, the terms monkey and ape are widely used interchangeably. Also, a few species have the word ape in their common name. Monkeys thus constituted a grade on the path to humans and were distinguished from apes, scientific classifications are now more often based on monophyletic groups, that is groups consisting of all the descendants of a common ancestor. The New World monkeys and the Old World monkeys are each monophyletic groups, thus the term monkey no longer refers to a recognized scientific taxon. The smallest accepted taxon which contains all the monkeys is the infraorder Simiiformes, however this also contains the hominoids, so that monkeys are, in terms of currently recognized taxa, non-hominoid simians. Colloquially and pop-culturally, the term is ambiguous and sometimes monkey includes non-human hominoids, in addition, frequent arguments are made for a monophyletic usage of the word monkey from the perspective that usage should reflect cladistics. A group of monkeys may be referred to as a tribe or a troop
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Lincoln Park
