1.
Leptis Magna
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Leptis Magna was a prominent city in Roman Libya. Originally a Punic foundation, it was expanded under emperor Septimius Severus. Diocletian re-instated the city as capital, and the city grew again in prosperity until it fell to the Vandals in 439. It was re-incorporated into the Eastern Empire in 533, but continued to be plagued by Berber raids and it fell to the Muslim invasion in c.647 and was abandoned. The ruins of Leptis Magna are located in Khoms, Libya,130 km east of Tripoli, the site is one of best preserved Roman ruins in the Mediterranean. The Latin name was Lepcis Magna The Greek name was Λέπτις μεγάλη Leptis megale or Νεάπολις Neapolis, the city was called Greater in contrast with Leptis Parva in modern-day Tunisia. The Neo-Punic name is recorded as lpqy, the name appears to be Semitic in origin, tentatively connected to the Arabic root lfq to fabricate, piece together, taken to refer to the foundation or construction of the city. The modern Arabic name is لَبْدَة Labdah, the Punic city was founded in the second half of the 7th century BC. Little is known about the old city, but it appears to have been enough to repel Dorieus attempt to establish a Greek colony nearby in c.515 BC. A 4th to 3rd century BC necropolis was found under the Roman theatre, during the reign of Augustus, Leptis Magna was classified as a Civitas libera et immunis, or a free community, over which the governor had an absolute minimum of control. As such Leptis retain its two suphetes at the head of its government, with the mhzm, similar to the Roman aediles, in addition there were such sacred officials as the addir ararim or praefectus sacrorum, the nēquim ēlīm, and probably a sacred college of fifteen members. These offices were still in operation when Leptis was made a Municipium with a certain degree of Roman rights. The city depended primarily on the fertility of its surrounding farmland, as early as 46 BC, its olive oil production was of such an extent that the city was levied by Caesar with a tax of three million pounds of oil annually. The Roman Republic sent some colonists together with a garrison in order to control the city. Since then the city started to grow and was allowed to create its own money. Soon Italian merchants settled in the city and started a profitable commerce with the Libyan interior, Leptis Magna remained as such until the reign of the Roman emperor Tiberius, when the city and the surrounding area were formally incorporated into the empire as part of the province of Africa. It soon became one of the cities of Roman Africa. The city grew rapidly under Roman administration and it was elevated to municipium in AD 64/5 and to colonia under Trajan Leptis achieved its greatest prominence beginning in AD193, as the hometown of emperor Septimius Severus
2.
Door
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A door is a moving structure used to block off, and allow access to, an entrance to or within an enclosed space, such as a building or vehicle. Doors normally consist of a panel that swings on hinges on the edge, similar exterior structures to doors are called gates. Typically, doors have a side that faces the inside of a space. In many cases the interior side of a door mostly matches its exterior side, when open, doors admit people, animals, ventilation or light. The door is used to control the atmosphere within a space by enclosing the air drafts. Doors are significant in preventing the spread of fire and they also act as a barrier to noise. Many doors are equipped with locking mechanisms to allow entrance to certain people, as a form of courtesy and civility, people often knock before opening a door and entering a room. Doors are used to screen areas of a building for aesthetics, keeping formal, Doors also have an aesthetic role in creating an impression of what lies beyond. Doors are often endowed with ritual purposes, and the guarding or receiving of the keys to a door, or being granted access to a door can have special significance. Similarly, doors and doorways frequently appear in metaphorical or allegorical situations, literature, the earliest in records are those represented in the paintings of the Egyptian tombs, in which they are shown as single or double doors, each in a single piece of wood. Doors were once believed to be the doorway to the afterlife. The stiles were the boards, one of which, tenoned or hinged, is known as the hanging stile. The horizontal cross pieces are the top rail, bottom rail, the most ancient doors were made timber, such as those referred to in the Biblical depiction of King Solomons temple being in olive wood, which were carved and overlaid with gold. The doors dwelt upon in Homer would appear to have been cased in silver or brass, besides olive wood, elm, cedar, oak and cypress were used. A5, 000-year-old door has been found by archaeologists in Switzerland. All ancient doors were hung by pivots at the top and bottom of the hanging stile which worked in sockets in the lintel and sill and those found at Nippur by Dr. Hilprecht dating from 2000 B. C. were in dolerite. The tenons of the gates at Balawat were sheathed with bronze and these doors or gates were hung in two leaves, each about 8 ft 4 in wide and 27 ft. high, they were encased with bronze bands or strips,10 in. High, covered with decoration of figures, etc
3.
Window
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A window is an opening in a wall, door, roof or vehicle that allows the passage of light and, if not closed or sealed, air and sound by using sheet glass. Modern windows are glazed or covered in some other transparent or translucent material. Windows are held in place by frames, many glazed windows may be opened, to allow ventilation, or closed, to exclude inclement weather. Windows often have a latch or similar mechanism to lock the window shut, the Romans were the first known to use glass for windows, a technology likely first produced in Roman Egypt, in Alexandria ca.100 AD. Paper windows were economical and widely used in ancient China, Korea, in England, glass became common in the windows of ordinary homes only in the early 17th century whereas windows made up of panes of flattened animal horn were used as early as the 14th century. In the 19th century American west, greased paper windows came to be used by itinerant groups, modern-style floor-to-ceiling windows became possible only after the industrial plate glass making processes were perfected. The English language-word window originates from the Old Norse vindauga, from vindr – wind and auga – eye, the Danish word is pronounced fairly similarly to window. Window is first recorded in the early 13th century, and originally referred to a hole in a roof. Window replaced the Old English eagþyrl, which literally means eye-hole, many Germanic languages however adopted the Latin word fenestra to describe a window with glass, such as standard Swedish fönster, or German Fenster. The use of window in English is probably because of the Scandinavian influence on the English language by means of loanwords during the Viking Age, in English the word fenester was used as a parallel until the mid-18th century. Fenestration is still used to describe the arrangement of windows within a façade, as well as defenestration, in the 13th century, the earliest windows were unglazed openings cut in a roof to admit light during the day. Later, windows were covered with animal hide, cloth, or wood, shutters that could be opened and closed came next. Over time, windows were built that both protected the inhabitants from the elements and transmitted light, using small pieces of translucent material set in frameworks of wood. In the Far East, paper was used to fill windows, the Romans were the first known to use glass for windows, a technology likely first produced in Roman Egypt. It would be over a millennium before a window glass became transparent enough to see through clearly, over the centuries techniques were developed to shear through one side of a blown glass cylinder and produce thinner rectangular window panes from the same amount of glass material. This gave rise to tall narrow windows, usually separated by a vertical support called a mullion, mullioned glass windows were the windows of choice among European well-to-do, whereas paper windows were economical and widely used in ancient China, Korea and Japan. In England, glass became common in the windows of homes only in the early 17th century whereas windows made up of panes of flattened animal horn were used as early as the 14th century. Modern-style floor-to-ceiling windows became possible only after the plate glass making processes were perfected
4.
Fireplace
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A fireplace is a structure made of brick, stone or metal designed to contain a fire. Fireplaces are used for the relaxing ambiance they create and for heating a room, modern fireplaces have variable heat efficiency, depending on the sophistication of the design. Historically they were used for heating a dwelling, cooking, and heating water for laundry, a fire is contained in a firebox or firepit, a chimney or other flue allows exhaust to escape. On the exterior there is often a brick crown, in which the projecting courses of brick act as a drip course to keep rainwater from running down the exterior walls. Some chimneys have a spark arrestor incorporated into the crown or cap, organizations like the Environmental Protection Agency and the Washington Department of Ecology warn that, according to various studies, fireplaces can pose a significant health risk. The EPA writes Smoke may smell good, but its not good for you, manufactured fireplaces are made with sheet metal fire boxes. Electric fireplaces can be built-in replacements for wood or gas or retrofit with log inserts or electric fireboxes, Masonry and prefabricated fireplaces can be fueled by wood, natural gas, biomass and propane fuel sources. Ventless Fireplaces are fueled by either gel, liquid propane, bottled gas or natural gas, in the United States, some states and local counties have laws restricting these types of fireplaces. They must be sized to the area to be heated. There are also air quality issues due to the amount of moisture they release into the room air. Direct vent fireplaces are fueled by either liquid propane or natural gas and they are completely sealed from the area that is heated, and vent all exhaust gasses to the exterior of the structure. Chimney and flue types, Masonry with or without tile-lined flue, fundamental design flaws bankrupted the US manufacturers and made the design obsolete. These chimneys often show vertical cracks on the exterior, metal-lined flue, Double or triple walled metal pipe running up inside a new or existing wood-framed or masonry chase. Newly constructed flues may feature a cover, a cap. All fireplaces require trained gas service members to carry out installations, a wide range of accessories are used with fireplaces, which range between countries, regions, and historical periods. For the interior, common in recent Western cultures include grates, fireguards, log boxes, andirons, pellet baskets, a grate is a frame, usually of iron bars, to retain fuel for a fire. Heavy metal firebacks are sometimes used to capture and re-radiate heat, to protect the back of the fireplace, fenders are low metal frames set in front of the fireplace to contain embers, soot and ash. For fireplace tending, tools include pokers, bellows, tongs, shovels, brushes, ancient fire pits were sometimes built in the ground, within caves, or in the center of a hut or dwelling
5.
Prestressed concrete
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Prestressed concrete is a concrete construction material which is placed under compression prior to it supporting any applied loads. A more technical definition is Structural concrete in which stresses have been introduced to reduce potential tensile stresses in the concrete resulting from loads. This compression is produced by the tensioning of high-strength tendons located within or adjacent to the concrete volume, tendons may consist of single wires, multi-wire strands or threaded bars, and are most commonly made from high-tensile steels, carbon fibre or aramid fibre. This can result in improved structural capacity and/or serviceability compared to reinforced concrete in many situations. Typical applications range through high-rise buildings, residential slabs, foundation systems, bridge and dam structures, silos and tanks, industrial pavements, first used in the late-nineteenth century, prestressed concrete has developed to encompass a wide range of technologies. Tensioning of the tendons may be undertaken either before or after the concrete itself is cast, tendons may be located either within the concrete volume, or wholly outside of it. Whereas pre-tensioned concrete by definition uses tendons directly bonded to the concrete, pre-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the tendons are tensioned prior to the concrete being cast. Pre-tensioning is a common technique, where the resulting concrete element is manufactured remotely from the final structure location. It requires strong, stable end-anchorage points between which the tendons are stretched and these anchorages form the ends of a casting bed which may be many times the length of the concrete element being fabricated. Higher bond strength in early-age concrete allows more economical fabrication as it speeds production, to promote this, pre-tensioned tendons are usually composed of isolated single wires or strands, as this provides a greater surface area for bond action than bundled strand tendons. Unlike those of post-tensioned concrete, the tendons of pre-tensioned concrete elements generally form straight lines between end-anchorages, where profiled or harped tendons are required, one or more intermediate deviators are located between the ends of the tendon to hold the tendon to the desired non-linear alignment during tensioning. Such deviators usually act against substantial forces, and hence require a robust casting bed foundation system, pre-tensioned concrete is most commonly used for the fabrication of structural beams, floor slabs, hollow-core planks, balconies, lintels, driven piles, water tanks and concrete pipes. Post-tensioned concrete is a variant of prestressed concrete where the tendons are tensioned after the concrete structure has been cast. The tendons are not placed in contact with the concrete. At each end of a tendon is an anchorage assembly firmly fixed to the surrounding concrete, once the concrete has been cast and set, the tendons are tensioned by pulling the tendon ends through the anchorages while pressing against the concrete. The large forces required to tension the tendons result in a significant permanent compression being applied to the once the tendon is locked-off at the anchorage. Casting the tendon ducts/sleeves into the concrete before any tensioning occurs allows them to be profiled to any desired shape including incorporating vertical and/or horizontal curvature. Bonded post-tensioning has prestressing tendons permanently bonded to the concrete by the in situ grouting of their encapsulating ducting following tendon tensioning
6.
Beam (structure)
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A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beams axis. Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending, the loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the beams support points. The total effect of all the acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending moments within the beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile, length, historically beams were squared timbers but are also metal, stone, or combinations of wood and metal such as a flitch beam. Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads, the loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls, or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression members. In light frame construction joists may rest on beams, in carpentry a beam is called a plate as in a sill plate or wall plate, beam as in a summer beam or dragon beam. In engineering, beams are of types, Simply supported - a beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and have no moment resistance. Fixed - a beam supported on both ends and restrained from rotation, over hanging - a simple beam extending beyond its support on one end. Double overhanging - a simple beam with both ends extending beyond its supports on both ends, continuous - a beam extending over more than two supports. Cantilever - a projecting beam fixed only at one end, trussed - a beam strengthened by adding a cable or rod to form a truss. In the beam equation I is used to represent the moment of area. It is commonly known as the moment of inertia, and is the sum, about the axis, of dA*r^2, where r is the distance from the neutral axis. Therefore, it not just how much area the beam section has overall. The greater I is, the stiffer the beam in bending, internally, beams experience compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the loads applied to them. Above the supports, the beam is exposed to shear stress, there are some reinforced concrete beams in which the concrete is entirely in compression with tensile forces taken by steel tendons. These beams are known as prestressed concrete beams, and are fabricated to produce a more than the expected tension under loading conditions. High strength steel tendons are stretched while the beam is cast over them, then, when the concrete has cured, the tendons are slowly released and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial loads. This eccentric loading creates a moment, and, in turn
7.
Concrete slab
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A concrete slab is a common structural element of modern buildings. Horizontal slabs of steel reinforced concrete, typically between 4 and 20 inches thick, are most often used to construct floors and ceilings, while thinner slabs are also used for exterior paving. Sometimes these thinner slabs, ranging from 2 inches to 6 inches thick, are called mud slabs, in many domestic and industrial buildings a thick concrete slab, supported on foundations or directly on the subsoil, is used to construct the ground floor of a building. These can either be ground-bearing or suspended slabs, in high rise buildings and skyscrapers, thinner, pre-cast concrete slabs are slung between the steel frames to form the floors and ceilings on each level. On the technical drawings, reinforced concrete slabs are often abbreviated to r. c. c. slab or simply r. c, there are two main thermal considerations. The first is the question of insulating a floor slab, in older buildings, concrete slabs cast directly on the ground can drain heat from a room. In modern construction, concrete slabs are usually cast above a layer of such as expanded polystyrene. However, there are still uses for an uninsulated slab, typically in outbuildings which are not heated or cooled to room temperature. In those cases, casting the slab directly onto a substrate will maintain the slab at or near the temperature of the substrate throughout the year. The second consideration is the thermal mass, which applies to walls and floors. It is a disadvantage where the rooms are heated intermittently and require a response, as the concrete takes time to warm up. But it is an advantage in climates with large temperature swings. For a suspended slab, there are a number of designs to improve the strength-to-weight ratio, in all cases the top surface remains flat, and the underside is modulated, Corrugated, usually where the concrete is poured into a corrugated steel tray. This improves strength and prevents the slab from bending under its own weight, the corrugations run across the short dimension, from side to side. A ribbed slab, giving considerable extra strength on one direction, a waffle slab, giving added strength in both directions and it looks hollow from bottom. Reinforcement design A one-way slab needs moment resisting reinforcement only in its short-direction because the moment along long axes is so small that it can be neglected. When the ratio of the length of long direction to short direction of a slab is greater than 2 it can be considered as a one way slab. Long direction = ly Short direction = lx One way slab IF ly/lx >2 A two-way slab needs moment resisting reinforcement in both directions, if the ratio of the lengths of long and short side is less than two then moment in both direction should be considered in design
8.
Post and lintel
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In architecture, post and lintel is a building system where strong horizontal elements are held up by strong vertical elements with large spaces between them. This is usually used to hold up a roof, creating an open space beneath. The horizontal elements are called by a variety of names including lintel, header, architrave or beam, the use of wider elements at the top of the post, called capitals, to help spread the load, is common to many traditions. The trabeated system is a principle of Neolithic architecture, Ancient Indian architecture, Ancient Greek architecture. Other trabeated styles are the Persian, Lycian, Japanese, traditional Chinese, and ancient Chinese architecture, especially in northern China, the traditions are represented in North and Central America by Mayan architecture, and in South America by Inca architecture. In all or most of these traditions, certainly in Greece and India, the earliest versions developed using wood, timber framing, also using trusses, remains common for smaller buildings such as houses to the modern day. The biggest disadvantage to a post and lintel construction is the weight that can be held up. Ancient Roman architectures development of the allowed for much larger structures to be constructed. As with the Roman temple portico front and its descendents in later classical architecture, the classical orders of Greek origin were in particular retained in buildings designed to impress, even though they usually had little or no structural role. In architecture, a post-and-lintel or trabeated system refers to the use of horizontal beams or lintels which are borne up by columns or posts, the name is from the Latin trabs, beam, influenced by trabeatus, clothed in the trabea, a ritual garment. In India the style was used originally for wooden construction, but later the technique was adopted for stone structures for decorated load-bearing, post and lintel construction is one of four ancient structural methods of building, the others being the corbel, arch-and-vault, and truss. The two posts are under compression from the weight of the lintel above, the lintel will deform by sagging in the middle because the underside is under tension and the topside is under compression
9.
Classical architecture
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Different styles of classical architecture have arguably existed since the Carolingian Renaissance, and prominently since the Italian Renaissance. Although classical styles of architecture can vary greatly, they can in all be said to draw on a common vocabulary of decorative and constructive elements. The term classical architecture also applies to any mode of architecture that has evolved to a highly refined state, such as classical Chinese architecture and it can also refer to any architecture that employs classical aesthetic philosophy. The term might be used differently from traditional or vernacular architecture, for contemporary buildings following authentic classical principles, the term New Classical Architecture may be used. Classical architecture is derived from the architecture of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, with the collapse of the western part of the Roman empire, the architectural traditions of the Roman empire ceased to be practised in large parts of western Europe. In the Byzantine Empire, the ancient ways of building lived on, the first conscious efforts to bring back the disused language of form of classical antiquity into Western architecture can be traced to the Carolingian Renaissance of the late 8th and 9th centuries. In general, therefore, they are not considered classical architectural styles in a strict sense, nonetheless, the classical architecture of the Renaissance from the outset represents a highly specific interpretation of the classical ideas. Most of the styles originating in post-renaissance Europe can be described as classical architecture and this broad use of the term is employed by Sir John Summerson in The Classical Language of Architecture. The elements of architecture have been applied in radically different architectural contexts than those for which they were developed. For example, Baroque or Rococo architecture are styles which, although classical at root, during these periods, architectural theory still referred to classical ideas but rather less sincerely than during the Renaissance. Neoclassical architecture held a strong position on the architectural scene c. With the advent of Modernism during the early 20th century, classical architecture arguably almost completely ceased to be practised, as noted above, classical styles of architecture dominated Western architecture for a very long time, roughly from the Renaissance until the advent of Modernism. That is to say, that classical antiquity at least in theory was considered the source of inspiration for architectural endeavours in the West for much of Modern history. Furthermore, it can even be argued that styles of architecture not typically considered classical, like Gothic, therefore, a simple delineation of the scope of classical architecture is difficult to make. The more or less defining characteristic can still be said to be a reference to ancient Greek or Roman architecture, and the architectural rules or theories that derived from that architecture. In the grammar of architecture, the word petrification is often used when discussing the development of sacred structures, such as temples, during the Archaic and early Classical periods, the architectural forms of the earliest temples had solidified and the Doric emerged as the predominant element. And not everyone within the reach of Mediterranean civilization made this transition. Nor was it the lack of knowledge of working on their part that prevented them from making the transition from timber to dressed stone
10.
Merriam-Webster
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Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, is an American company that publishes reference books, especially known for its dictionaries. In 1831, George and Charles Merriam founded the company as G & C Merriam Co. in Springfield, in 1843, after Noah Webster died, the company bought the rights to An American Dictionary of the English Language from Websters estate. All Merriam-Webster dictionaries trace their lineage to this source, in 1964, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. acquired Merriam-Webster, Inc. as a subsidiary. The company adopted its current name in 1982, in 1806, Webster published his first dictionary, A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language. In 1807 Webster started two decades of work to expand his publication into a fully comprehensive dictionary, An American Dictionary of the English Language. To help him trace the etymology of words, Webster learned 26 languages, Webster hoped to standardize American speech, since Americans in different parts of the country used somewhat different vocabularies and spelled, pronounced, and used words differently. Webster completed his dictionary during his year abroad in 1825 in Paris and his 1820s book contained 70,000 words, of which about 12,000 had never appeared in a dictionary before. He also added American words, including skunk and squash, that did not appear in British dictionaries, at the age of 70 in 1828, Webster published his dictionary, it sold poorly, with only 2,500 copies putting him in debt. However, in 1840, he published the edition in two volumes with much greater success. He shows ways that American poetry inherited Websters ideas and draws on his lexicography to develop the language, in 1843, after Websters death, George Merriam and Charles Merriam secured publishing and revision rights to the 1840 edition of the dictionary. They published a revision in 1847, which did not change any of the text but merely added new sections. This began a series of revisions that were described as being unabridged in content, in 1884 it contained 118,000 words,3000 more than any other English dictionary. With the edition of 1890, the dictionary was retitled Websters International, the Collegiate Dictionary was introduced in 1898 and the series is now in its eleventh edition. Following the publication of Websters International in 1890, two Collegiate editions were issued as abridgments of each of their Unabridged editions, with the ninth edition, the Collegiate adopted changes which distinguish it as a separate entity rather than merely an abridgment of the Third New International. Some proper names were returned to the word list, including names of Knights of the Round Table, the most notable change was the inclusion of the date of the first known citation of each word, to document its entry into the English language. The eleventh edition includes more than 225,000 definitions, a CD-ROM of the text is sometimes included. This dictionary is preferred as a source for general matters of spelling by the influential The Chicago Manual of Style, the Chicago Manual states that it normally opts for the first spelling listed. Merriam overhauled the dictionary again with the 1961 Websters Third New International under the direction of Philip B, gove, making changes that sparked public controversy
11.
Architrave
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An architrave is the lintel or beam that rests on the capitals of the columns. It is an element in Classical architecture. The term can also be applied to all sides, including the vertical members, in an entablature in classical architecture, it is the lowest part, below the frieze and cornice. The word is derived from the Greek and Latin words arche, the architrave is different in the different orders. In the Tuscan, it consists of a plain face, crowned with a fillet. In the Doric and composite, it has two faces, or fasciae, and three in the Ionic and Corinthian, in which it is 10/12 of a high, though. It means the part of something. The part on which the idea, the reasoning, the thought or the philosophy are based, examples, 1). the Mature Hegel- the Hegel of the Philosophy of Right- who becomes the architrave on which he constructs his social philosophy. Ref. Page, XIV, The Ethics of Democracy, A Contemporary Reading of Hegels Philosophy of Right LINK 2) to become the architrave of his theoretic construction Ref. Pag and it is placed above the bracket of a pillar, which gives it extra support. Dravidian architecture recognizes several distinct types of Architraves, rounded, wavy, flower shaped, bevel and tenon type, voluted, figural
12.
Mycenaean Greece
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Mycenaean Greece was the last phase of the Bronze Age in Ancient Greece. It represents the first advanced civilization in mainland Greece, with its states, urban organization, works of art. Among the centers of power emerged, the most notable were those of Pylos, Tiryns, Midea in the Peloponnese, Orchomenos, Thebes, Athens in Central Greece. The most prominent site was Mycenae, in Argolid, to which the culture of this era owes its name. Mycenaean and Mycenaean-influenced settlements also appeared in Epirus, Macedonia, on islands in the Aegean Sea, on the coast of Asia Minor, the Levant, Cyprus and Italy. Their syllabic script, the Linear B, offers the first written records of the Greek language, Mycenaean Greece was dominated by a warrior elite society and consisted of a network of palace states that developed rigid hierarchical, political, social and economic systems. At the head of society was the king, known as wanax. Various theories have proposed for the end of this civilization. Additional theories such as natural disasters and climatic changes have also suggested. The Mycenaean period became the setting of much ancient Greek literature and mythology. The Bronze Age in mainland Greece is generally termed as the Helladic period by modern archaeologists, after Hellas, the Greek name for Greece. This period is divided into three subperiods, The Early Helladic period was a time of prosperity with the use of metals, the Middle Helladic period faced a slower pace of development, as well as the evolution of megaron-type dwellings and cist grave burials. Finally, the Late Helladic period roughly coincides with Mycenaean Greece, the transition period from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in Greece is known as Sub-Mycenaean. Moreover, it revealed that the bearers of Mycenaean culture were ethnically connected with the populations that resided in the Greek peninsula after the end of this cultural period. Various collective terms for the inhabitants of Mycenaean Greece were used by Homer in his 8th century BC epic, the Iliad, in reference to the Trojan War. The latter was supposed to have happened in the late 13th – early 12th century BC, Homer used the ethnonyms Achaeans, Danaans and Argives, to refer to the besiegers. These names appear to have passed down from the time they were in use to the time when Homer applied them as terms in his Iliad. There is an reference to a-ka-wi-ja-de in the Linear B records in Knossos, Crete dated to c.1400 BC
13.
Treasury of Atreus
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The Treasury of Atreus or Tomb of Agamemnon is a large tholos tomb on the Panagitsa Hill at Mycenae, Greece, constructed during the Bronze Age around 1250 BC. The lintel stone above the doorway weighs 120 tons, with approximate dimensions 8.3 x 5.2 x 1. 2m, the tomb was used for an unknown period. Mentioned by Pausanias, it was visible in 1879 when the German archeologist Heinrich Schliemann discovered the shaft graves under the agora in the Acropolis at Mycenae. The tomb perhaps held the remains of the sovereign who completed the reconstruction of the fortress or one of his successors. The grave is in the style of the other tholoi of the Mycenaean World, of which there are nine in total around the citadel of Mycenae, however, in its monumental shape and grandeur it is one of the most impressive monuments surviving from Mycenaean Greece. The tomb is excavated into the side of a hill and it is formed of a semi-subterranean room of circular plan, with a corbel arch covering that is ogival in section. Great care was taken in the positioning of the enormous stones and this gave a perfectly smoothed internal surface, onto which could be placed gold, silver and bronze decoration. Tiers of ashlar masonry were laid in rings so that each successive tier projected slightly farther inward, the tholos was entered from an inclined uncovered hall or dromos,36 meters long and with dry-stone walls. A short passage led from the chamber to the actual burial chamber. Segments of the columns and architraves were removed by Lord Elgin in the nineteenth century and are now in the British Museum. The capitals are influenced by ancient Egyptian examples, one is in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin as part of the Antikensammlung Berlin, other decorative elements were inlaid with red porphyry and green alabaster, a surprising luxury for the Bronze Age. List of megalithic sites List of worlds largest domes Treasury of Atreus at Structurae Treasury of Atreus 360° Interactive virtual tour A different light inside Treasury of Atreus
14.
Mycenae
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Mycenae is an archaeological site in Greece, located about 90 kilometres southwest of Athens, in the north-eastern Peloponnese. Argos is 11 kilometres to the south, Corinth,48 kilometres to the north, from the hill on which the palace was located, one can see across the Argolid to the Saronic Gulf. In the second millennium BC, Mycenae was one of the centres of Greek civilization. The period of Greek history from about 1600 BC to about 1100 BC is called Mycenaean in reference to Mycenae, at its peak in 1350 BC, the citadel and lower town had a population of 30,000 and an area of 32 hectares. Although the citadel was built by Greeks, the name Mukanai is thought not to be Greek, legend has it that the name was connected to the Greek word mycēs. Thus, Pausanias ascribes the name to the legendary founder Perseus, the earliest written form of the name is Mykēnē, which is found in Homer. The reconstructed Mycenaean Greek name of the site is Mukānai, which has the form of a plural like Athānai, the change of ā to ē in more recent versions of the name is the result of a well-known sound change in later Attic-Ionic. An EH–MH settlement was discovered near a well on top of the Kalkani hill southwest of the acropolis. The first burials in pits or cist graves manifest in the MH period on the west slope of the acropolis, during the Bronze Age, the pattern of settlement at Mycenae was a fortified hill surrounded by hamlets and estates, in contrast to the dense urbanity on the coast. Richer grave goods mark the burials as possibly regal, mounds over the top contained broken drinking vessels and bones from a repast, testifying to a more than ordinary farewell. A walled enclosure, Grave Circle A, included six more shaft graves, with nine female, eight male, Grave goods were more costly than in Circle B. The presence of engraved and inlaid swords and daggers, with points and arrowheads, leave little doubt that warrior chieftains. Some art objects obtained from the graves are the Silver Siege Rhyton, the Mask of Agamemnon, the Cup of Nestor, Alan Wace divided the nine tholos tombs of Mycenae into three groups of three, each based on architecture. His earliest – the Cyclopean Tomb, Epano Phournos, and the Tomb of Aegisthus – are dated to LHIIA, burial in tholoi is seen as replacing burial in shaft graves. The care taken to preserve the shaft graves testifies that they were by then part of the royal heritage, being more visible, the tholoi all had been plundered either in antiquity, or in later historic times. Within these walls, much of which can still be seen, the final palace, remains of which are currently visible on the acropolis of Mycenae, dates to the start of LHIIIA,2. Earlier palaces must have existed, but they had cleared away or built over. The construction of palaces at that time with an architecture was general throughout southern Greece
15.
Mandapa
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Mandapa in Indian architecture is a pillared outdoor hall or pavilion for public rituals. In the Hindu temple the mandapa is a structure through the. It is used for dancing and music and is part of the basic temple compound. The prayer hall was built in front of the temples sanctum sanctorum. A large temple would have many mandapas, if a temple has more than one mandapa, each one is allocated for a different function and given a name to reflect its use. For example, a dedicated to divine marriage is referred to as a kalyana mandapa. Often the hall was pillared and the pillars adorned with intricate carvings, in contemporary terms, it also represents a structure within which a Hindu wedding is performed. The Bride & Groom encircle a holy fire lit by the officiating priest in the center of the Mandapa, when a temple has more than one mandapa, they are given different names. It is used for conducting religious discourses, some times, the maha mandapa is also built along a transversal axis with a transept. At the exterior, the ends by a large window which brings light. Nandi Mandapam - In the Shiva temples, pavilion with a statue of the sacred bull Nandi, ranga Mandapa Meghanath Mandapa Namaskara Mandapa Open Mandapa In Indonesia, the mandap is known as a pendopo. Unusually, Indonesian pendopos are built mostly for Muslim communities, many mosques follow the pendopo design, with a layered roof to resemble Mount Meru. The Burmese term mandat, which has origins in Pali mandapa, is an open platform or pavilion from which people spray water to passers-by during the Buddhist festival Thingyan. A mandapa in Thai is a mondop and it features often in Thai temple art and architecture, either in the form of a Hor Trai or as an altar shrine such as the one in Wat Chiang Man in Chiang Mai. Pendopo Wedding mandap Zayat Photo of four-pillared Kakatiya mandapa Photo of relief in a mandapa Floor plan of North Indian temple with mandapa
16.
Chennakeshava Temple, Belur
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The Chennakeshava Temple, originally called Vijayanarayana Temple, was built on the banks of the Yagachi River in Belur, by the Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana. Belur, which was an early Hoysala capital, is in the Hassan district of Karnataka state and it is 40 km from Hassan city and 220 km from Bangalore. Chennakesava is a form of the Hindu god Vishnu, Belur is well known for its marvelous temples built during the rule of the Hoysala dynasty, making it and nearby Halebidu favored tourist destinations in Karnataka state. These temple complexes have been proposed to be listed under UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the temple was commissioned by King Vishnuvardhana in 1117 AD. Scholars are divided about the reasons for the construction of the temple, the military successes of Vishnuvardhana is considered a probable reason. Some scholars believe Vishnuvardhana commissioned the temple to surpass his overlord, King Vikramaditya VI of the Western Chalukya Empire, the Hoysalas employed many noted architects and artisans who developed a new architectural tradition, which art critic Adam Hardy called the Karnata Dravida tradition. The main entrance to the complex is crowned by a Rajagopura built during the days of the Vijayanagar empire. Within the complex, the Chennakesava temple is at the centre, facing east, and is flanked by the Kappe Channigraya temple on its right, on its left, also set slightly back is the Ranganayaki temple. The pillar facing the temple, the Garuda sthambha was erected in the Vijayanagar period while the pillar on the right. This is the first great Hoysala temple, though according to the art critic and historian Settar, hence, the over-decoration which is seen in later Hoysala temples is not visible here. According to Settar, during years, the Hoysala art took an inclination towards craftsmanship. The Chennakesava temple has three entrances and their doorways have decorated sculptures called dvarapalaka on either side, while the Kappe Channigraya temple is smaller than the Chennakesava temple, it is architecturally significant, though it lacks any sculptural features. The Kappe Chennigraya temple became a dvikuta with the addition of a shrine to its original plan. The original shrine has a plan while the additional shrine is a simple square. The image inside is also that of Kesava and was commissioned by Shantala Devi, the building material used in the Chennakesava temple is chloritic schist, more commonly known as or potstone, and is essentially a simple Hoysala plan built with extraordinary detail. What differentiates this temple from other Hoysala temples of the plan is the unusually large size of the basic parts of the temple. The temple is a ekakuta vimana design of 10.5 m by 10.5 m size, a large vestibule connects the shrine to the mandapa which is one of the main attractions of the temple. The superstructure on top of the vimana has been lost over time, the temple is built on a jagati
17.
Hoysala architecture
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Hoysala architecture is the building style developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire between the 11th and 14th centuries, in the region known today as Karnataka, a state of India. Hoysala influence was at its peak in the 13th century, when it dominated the Southern Deccan Plateau region, other examples of Hoysala craftsmanship are the temples at Belavadi, Amruthapura, Hosaholalu, Mosale, Arasikere, Basaralu, Kikkeri and Nuggehalli. Study of the Hoysala architectural style has revealed a negligible Indo-Aryan influence while the impact of Southern Indian style is more distinct, some three hundred temples are known to survive in present-day Karnataka state and many more are mentioned in inscriptions, though only about seventy have been documented. The greatest concentration of these are in the Malnad districts, the home of the Hoysala kings. Its final development stage and transformation into an independent style was during the rule of the Hoysalas in the 12th and 13th centuries. Hindu temples began as simple shrines housing a deity and by the time of the Hoysalas had evolved into well articulated edifices in which worshippers sought transcendence of the daily world. Hoysala temples were not limited to any specific organised tradition of Hinduism, the Hoysalas usually dedicated their temples to Shiva or to Vishnu, but they occasionally built some temples dedicated to the Jain faith as well. Worshippers of Shiva are called Shaivas and worshippers of Vishnu are called Vaishnavas, most of these temples have secular features with broad themes depicted in their sculptures. This can be seen in the famous Chennakesava Temple at Belur dedicated to Vishnu, the Kesava temple at Somanathapura is different in that its ornamentation is strictly Vaishnavan. Generally Vaishnava temples are dedicated to Keshava while a number are dedicated to Lakshminarayana and Lakshminarasimha with Lakshmi, consort of Vishnu. Temples dedicated to Vishnu are always named after the deity, the Shaiva temples have a Shiva linga, symbol of fertility and the universal symbol of Shiva, in the shrine. The names of Shiva temples can end with the suffix eshwara meaning Lord of, the name Hoysaleswara, for instance, means Lord of Hoysala. The temple can also be named after the devotee who commissioned the construction of the temple, the Doddagaddavalli Lakshmi Devi Temple is an exception as it is dedicated to neither Vishnu nor Shiva. However, two locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The Hoysalas built Jain temples to satisfy the needs of its Jain population and they constructed stepped wells called Pushkarni or Kalyani, the ornate tank at Hulikere being an example. The tank has twelve minor shrines containing Hindu deities, the two main deities found in Hoysala temple sculpture are Shiva and Vishnu in their various forms and avatars. Shiva is usually shown with four holding a trident and a small drum among other emblems that symbolise objects worshiped independently of the divine image with which they are associated. Any male icon portrayed in this way is Shiva although a female icon may sometimes be portrayed with these attributes as Shivas consort, Parvati
18.
Hypostyle
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In architecture, a hypostyle hall has a roof which is supported by columns. The word hypostyle comes from the Ancient Greek ὑπόστυλος hypóstȳlos meaning under columns, the roof may be constructed of with bridging lintels of stone, wood or other rigid material such as cast iron, steel or reinforced concrete. The architectural form has many applications, occurring in the cella of Ancient Greek temples and in many Asian buildings, with a combination of columns and arches, the hypostyle hall became one of the two main types of mosque construction. In many mosques, especially the early congregational mosques, the hall has the hypostyle form. One of the finest examples of the mosques is the Great Mosque of Kairouan in the city of Kairouan. The hypostyle is widely used in modern architecture, peristyle Portico Apadana Ancient Egyptian architecture This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Hypostyle
19.
Slab stela
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The slab stela was an original form of the steles of ancient Egypt. However, it was horizontal in dimension, some of the earliest tablets from mid- to late-3rd millennium BC were painted Slab Steles. A small list of Ancient Egyptian dignitaries or their wives had a slab stela, some funerary stelas were in the form of slab steles, as opposed to being of the more common vertical type. At the same period of the middle 3rd millennium BC and later. Hemon-, the architect had one. It is housed in the Pelizaeus Museum of Germany, the horizontal archaeological lintel was used in other cultures in ancient times, for example in the mesopotamian cultures
20.
Ancient Egypt
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Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations to arise independently, Egyptian civilization followed prehistoric Egypt and coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh Narmer. In the aftermath of Alexander the Greats death, one of his generals, Ptolemy Soter and this Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom ruled Egypt until 30 BC, when, under Cleopatra, it fell to the Roman Empire and became a Roman province. The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the Nile River valley for agriculture, the predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which supported a more dense population, and social development and culture. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities carried off to far corners of the world and its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for centuries. The Nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history, nomadic modern human hunter-gatherers began living in the Nile valley through the end of the Middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. By the late Paleolithic period, the climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and dry. In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was less arid than it is today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates, foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians, and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated. The largest of these cultures in upper Egypt was the Badari, which probably originated in the Western Desert, it was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools. The Badari was followed by the Amratian and Gerzeh cultures, which brought a number of technological improvements, as early as the Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape blades and other objects from flakes. In Naqada II times, early evidence exists of contact with the Near East, particularly Canaan, establishing a power center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the desert to the west. Royal Nubian burials at Qustul produced artifacts bearing the oldest-known examples of Egyptian dynastic symbols, such as the crown of Egypt. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient Egyptian language. The Early Dynastic Period was approximately contemporary to the early Sumerian-Akkadian civilisation of Mesopotamia, the third-century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to his own time into 30 dynasties, a system still used today
21.
Indian rock-cut architecture
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Indian rock-cut architecture is more various and found in greater abundance than any other form of rock-cut architecture around the world. Rock-cut architecture is the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of natural rock. Rock that is not part of the structure is removed until the rock left is the architectural elements of the excavated interior. Indian rock-cut architecture is religious in nature. There are more than 1,500 known rock cut structures in India, many of these structures contain artwork of global importance, and most are adorned with exquisite stone carvings. These ancient and medieval structures represent significant achievements of structural engineering, in India, caves have long been regarded as places of sanctity. Caves that were enlarged or entirely man-made were felt to hold the same sanctity as natural caves, in fact, the sanctuary in all Indian religious structures, even free-standing ones, retains the same cave-like feeling of sacredness, being small and dark without natural light. The oldest rock-cut architecture is found in the Barabar caves, Bihar built around the 3rd century BC, other early cave temples are found in the western Deccan, mostly Buddhist shrines and monasteries, dating between 100 BC and 170 AD. Originally, they were accompanied by wooden structures, which would have deteriorated over time. Historically, rock-cut temples have retained a wood-like theme in adornment, skilled craftsmen learned to mimic timber texture, grain, the earliest cave temples include the Bhaja Caves, the Karla Caves, the Bedse Caves, the Kanheri Caves, and some of the Ajanta Caves. Relics found in these caves suggest a connection between the religious and the commercial, as Buddhist missionaries often accompanied traders on the international trading routes through India. Although free standing structural temples were being built by the 5th century, later rock-cut cave architecture became more sophisticated as in the Ellora Caves, culminating ultimately in the monolithic Kailash Temple. Kailash was the last spectacular rock-cut excavated temple, there are also a number of rock reliefs, relief sculptures carved into rock faces, outside caves or at other sites. The earliest caves employed by humans were natural caves used by inhabitants for a variety of purposes, such as shrines. Evidence suggests that the caves were first occupied and altered during the Mesolithic period, early examples included overhanging rock decorated with rock-cut designs. The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, a World Heritage Site, are located on the edge of the Deccan Plateau, the areas many caves and grottos have yielded primitive tools and decorative rock paintings, reflections of the ancient tradition of human interaction with the landscape. When Buddhist missionaries arrived, they gravitated to caves for use as temples and abodes, in accord with their religious ideas of asceticism. The Western Ghats topography, with its flat-topped basalt hills, deep ravines, the earliest of the Kanheri Caves were excavated in the 1st and 2nd centuries B. C. as were those at Ajanta, which were occupied continuously by Buddhist monks from 200 BCE to 650 AD
22.
Temple
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A temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. It is typically used for such buildings belonging to all faiths where a specific term such as church. These include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism among religions with many modern followers, the form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by believers to be in some sense the house of one or more deities. Typically offerings of some sort are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, the degree to which the whole population of believers can access the building varies significantly, often parts or even the whole main building can only be accessed by the clergy. Temples typically have a building and a larger precinct, which may contain many other buildings. The word comes from Ancient Rome, where a templum constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest and it has the same root as the word template, a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur. Templa also became associated with the places of a god or gods. Hindu temples are large and magnificent with a rich history, there is evidence of use of sacred ground as far back as the Bronze Age and later the Indus Valley Civilization. Hindu temples have been built in countries around the world, including Cambodia, Nepal, Mauritius, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Great Britain. They include the structures called stupa, wat and pagoda in different regions, Temples in Buddhism represent the pure land or pure environment of a Buddha. Traditional Buddhist temples are designed to inspire inner and outer peace, a Jain temple is the place of worship for Jains, the followers of Jainism. Some famous Jain temples are Shikharji, Palitana Jain Temples, Ranakpur Jain Temple, Shravan Belgola, Dilwara Temples, Jain temples are built with various architectural designs. Jain temples in North India are completely different from the Jain temples in South India, additionally, a Manastambha is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. The temple of Mesopotamia derived from the cult of gods and deities in the Mesopotamian religion and it spanned several civilizations, from Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian. Ancient Egyptian temples were meant as places for the deities to reside on earth, indeed, the term the Egyptians most commonly used to describe the temple building, ḥwt-nṯr, means mansion of a god. A gods presence in the temple linked the human and divine realms and these rituals, it was believed, sustained the god and allowed it to continue to play its proper role in nature. They were therefore a key part of the maintenance of maat, maintaining maat was the entire purpose of Egyptian religion, and thus it was the purpose of a temple as well. Ancient Egyptian temples were also of significance to Egyptian society
23.
Deccan Plateau
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The Deccan Plateau is a large plateau in southern India. It rises to 100 metres in the north, and to more than 1 kilometre in the south and it extends over eight Indian states and encompasses a wide range of habitats, covering most of central and southern India. It is separated from the Gangetic plain to the north by the Satpura and Vindhya Ranges, the name Deccan is an anglicised form of the Prakrit word dakkhin, itself derived from the Sanskrit word dákṣiṇa, as the Deccan Plateau is located in southern part of Indian subcontinent. The Deccan region has historically lacked an enduring geo-political centre, and has been defined in various ways, geographers have attempted to define it using indices such as rainfall, vegetation, soil type or physical features. When considering physical features, it is taken to be the bounded by the Narmada River, the Eastern Ghats. The 16th century historian Firishta defined Deccan as the inhabited by the native speakers of Kannada, Marathi. Richard M. Eaton also settled on this linguistic definition, the Western Ghats mountain range is very tall and blocks the moisture from the southwest monsoon from reaching the Deccan Plateau, so the region receives very little rainfall. The eastern Deccan Plateau is at an elevation spanning the southeastern coast of India. Its forests are relatively dry but serve to retain the rain to form streams that feed into rivers that flow into basins. Most Deccan plateau rivers flow south, most of the central plateau is drained by the Tungabhadra River, Krishna River and its tributaries, including the Bhima River, which also run east. The climate of the region varies from semi-arid in the north to tropical in most of the region with distinct wet, rain falls during the monsoon season from about June to October. March to June can be dry and hot, with temperatures regularly exceeding 40 °C. The name derives from the Sanskrit daksina, the plateau is bounded on the east and west by the Ghats, while its northern extremity is the Vindhya Range. The Deccans average elevation is about 2,000 feet, sloping generally eastward, its rivers, the Godavari, Krishna. The plateaus climate is drier than that on the coasts and is arid in places, having once constituted a segment of the ancient continent of Gondwanaland, this land is the oldest and most stable in India. The average height of the Western Ghats, which run along the Arabian Sea, anaimudi Peak in Kerala, with a height of 2,695 m above sea level, is the highest peak of peninsular India. In the Nilgiris lie Ootacamund, the hill station of southern India. The western coastal plain is uneven and swift rivers flow through it that forms beautiful lagoons and backwaters, the east coast is wide with deltas formed by the rivers Godavari, Mahanadi and Kaveri
24.
Hoysala Empire
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The Hoysala empire was a prominent Southern Indian Kannadiga empire that ruled most of the modern-day state of Karnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur but was moved to Halebidu. The Hoysala rulers were originally from Malnad Karnataka, a region in the Western Ghats range. By the 13th century, they governed most of present-day Karnataka, minor parts of Tamil Nadu and parts of western Andhra Pradesh, the Hoysala era was an important period in the development of art, architecture, and religion in South India. The empire is remembered primarily for its temple architecture. Over a hundred surviving temples are scattered across Karnataka, well known temples which exhibit an amazing display of sculptural exuberance include the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. The Hoysala rulers also patronised the arts, encouraging literature to flourish in Kannada. Kannada folklore tells a tale of a young man Sala, who saved his Jain guru Sudatta by striking dead a Tiger he encountered near the temple of the Goddess Vasantika at Angadi, the word strike literally translates to hoy in Hale Kannada, hence the name Hoy-sala. This legend first appeared in the Belur inscription of Vishnuvardhana, early inscriptions, dated 1078 and 1090, have implied that the Hoysalas were descendants of the Yadava by referring to the Yadava vamsa as Hoysala vamsa. But there are no early records directly linking the Hoysalas to the Yadavas of North India, historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of Malnad Karnataka, based on numerous inscriptions calling them Maleparolganda or Lord of the Male chiefs. This title in the Kannada language was used by the Hoysala kings as their royal signature in their inscriptions. Literary sources from that time in Kannada and Sanskrit have also helped confirm they were natives of the region known today as Karnataka, the first Hoysala family record is dated 950 and names Arekalla as the chieftain, followed by Maruga and Nripa Kama I. The next ruler, Munda, was succeeded by Nripa Kama II who held titles as Permanadi that show an early alliance with the Western Ganga dynasty. From these modest beginnings, the Hoysala dynasty began its transformation into a subordinate of the Western Chalukyas. Through Vishnuvardhanas expansive military conquests, the Hoysalas achieved the status of a kingdom for the first time. He wrested Gangavadi from the Cholas in 1116 and moved the capital from Belur to Halebidu, Vishnuvardhanas ambition of creating an independent empire was fulfilled by his grandson Veera Ballala II, who freed the Hoysalas from subordination in 1187–1193. During this time, peninsular India saw a four way struggle for hegemony – Pandya, Kakatiya, Veera Ballala II defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom. He assumed the title Establisher of the Chola Kingdom, Emperor of the south and he founded the city of Bangalore according to Kannada folklore
25.
Kannada people
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The Kannada people known as the Kannadigas and Kannadigaru, are the people who natively speak Kannada. Kannadigas are mainly found in the state of Karnataka in India, Kannada minorities are also found in the neighboring states Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Goa. Settlement in Karnataka is found to be existent at least from the 2nd millennium BC as explored in Brahmagiri archaeological site near Chitradurga district, chandravalli exploration has revealed interaction of Roman and Chinese travelers around the 2nd and 3rd century BC. Kannadigas have built powerful empires and kingdoms with Kannada as the official language, the language was once popular from Kaveri to Godavari as mentioned in the Kannada classic Kavirajamarga of 850 CE. Archaeological evidences show Kannada inscriptions found as far north as Madhya Pradesh, the great Karnataka Expansion provides insights to kingdoms of northern India whose originators were from Kannada country. The Karnata Dynasty of Mithila and Nepal, However contrary evidence also suggests that this dynasty may have been of Parmar Rajput origin, the temples of Karnataka had in them many shaili or varieties to credit. A majority of the temples were built using the available stones. Ajanta Caves have sculptures of Rashrakutas and Badami Chalukyas, Dasa is literally servant in Kannada and sahitya is literature. Haridasas were preachers of Bhakti to Vishnu, the bhakti literature of these Haridasas is collectively referred to as Dasa Sahitya. It is composed in the Kannada language, the Haridasas richly contributed to the heritage of Karntataka music. They made an impression on the religious and cultural life of Karnataka by spreading the didactic teachings in a musical form to the hearts of the common folk. Like other doyens of Indian classical music, these scholars offered prayer to Vishnu through music, the Lord is described as Samagana priya, and bhakti through music is the most preferred path to reach Him. The Haridasa compositions are known as Devaranamas. Compositions like Krishna Nee Begane Baaro, Venkatachala Nilayam, Jagadoddharana, both Hindustani and Karnataka variations are respected and nurtured by Kannadigas. Bhavageete and Sugama Sangeetha are some innovations, other forms of music include Gamaka, Joogera Pada and Lavani. Yakshagana is considered a unique and indigenous form of music and dance of Karnataka. While a lot of gadhya is written in praise of the characters of the epics and puranas, there are major works depicting the kings. These are called Naataka and Bayalata, as its etymology indicates, bayalu means open-air field and ata means theater
26.
Hindu temple
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A temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. It is typically used for such buildings belonging to all faiths where a specific term such as church. These include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism among religions with many modern followers, the form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by believers to be in some sense the house of one or more deities. Typically offerings of some sort are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, the degree to which the whole population of believers can access the building varies significantly, often parts or even the whole main building can only be accessed by the clergy. Temples typically have a building and a larger precinct, which may contain many other buildings. The word comes from Ancient Rome, where a templum constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest and it has the same root as the word template, a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur. Templa also became associated with the places of a god or gods. Hindu temples are large and magnificent with a rich history, there is evidence of use of sacred ground as far back as the Bronze Age and later the Indus Valley Civilization. Hindu temples have been built in countries around the world, including Cambodia, Nepal, Mauritius, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Great Britain. They include the structures called stupa, wat and pagoda in different regions, Temples in Buddhism represent the pure land or pure environment of a Buddha. Traditional Buddhist temples are designed to inspire inner and outer peace, a Jain temple is the place of worship for Jains, the followers of Jainism. Some famous Jain temples are Shikharji, Palitana Jain Temples, Ranakpur Jain Temple, Shravan Belgola, Dilwara Temples, Jain temples are built with various architectural designs. Jain temples in North India are completely different from the Jain temples in South India, additionally, a Manastambha is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples. The temple of Mesopotamia derived from the cult of gods and deities in the Mesopotamian religion and it spanned several civilizations, from Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian. Ancient Egyptian temples were meant as places for the deities to reside on earth, indeed, the term the Egyptians most commonly used to describe the temple building, ḥwt-nṯr, means mansion of a god. A gods presence in the temple linked the human and divine realms and these rituals, it was believed, sustained the god and allowed it to continue to play its proper role in nature. They were therefore a key part of the maintenance of maat, maintaining maat was the entire purpose of Egyptian religion, and thus it was the purpose of a temple as well. Ancient Egyptian temples were also of significance to Egyptian society
27.
Maya civilization
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The Maya civilization developed in an area that encompasses southeastern Mexico, all of Guatemala and Belize, and the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador. The Archaic period, prior to 2000 BC, saw the first developments in agriculture, the first Maya cities developed around 750 BC, and by 500 BC these cities possessed monumental architecture, including large temples with elaborate stucco façades. Hieroglyphic writing was being used in the Maya region by the 3rd century BC, in the Late Preclassic a number of large cities developed in the Petén Basin, and Kaminaljuyu rose to prominence in the Guatemalan Highlands. Beginning around 250 AD, the Classic period is defined as when the Maya were raising sculpted monuments with Long Count dates. This period saw the Maya civilization develop a number of city-states linked by a complex trade network. In the Maya Lowlands two great rivals, Tikal and Calakmul, became powerful, the Classic period also saw the intrusive intervention of the central Mexican city of Teotihuacan in Maya dynastic politics. In the 9th century, there was a political collapse in the central Maya region, resulting in internecine warfare, the abandonment of cities. The Postclassic period saw the rise of Chichen Itza in the north, in the 16th century, the Spanish Empire colonized the Mesoamerican region, and a lengthy series of campaigns saw the fall of Nojpetén, the last Maya city in 1697. Classic period rule was centred on the concept of the divine king, kingship was patrilineal, and power would normally pass to the eldest son. A prospective king was expected to be a successful war leader. Maya politics was dominated by a system of patronage, although the exact political make-up of a kingdom varied from city-state to city-state. By the Late Classic, the aristocracy had greatly increased, resulting in the reduction in the exclusive power of the divine king. Maya cities tended to expand haphazardly, and the city centre would be occupied by ceremonial and administrative complexes, different parts of a city would often be linked by causeways. The principal architecture of the city consisted of palaces, pyramid-temples, ceremonial ballcourts, the Maya elite were literate, and developed a complex system of hieroglyphic writing that was the most advanced in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Maya recorded their history and ritual knowledge in screenfold books, there are also a great many examples of Maya text found on stelae and ceramics. The Maya developed a complex series of interlocking ritual calendars. As a part of their religion, the Maya practised human sacrifice, the Maya civilization developed within the Mesoamerican cultural area, which covers a region that spreads from northern Mexico southwards into Central America. Mesoamerica was one of six cradles of civilization worldwide, the Mesoamerican area gave rise to a series of cultural developments that included complex societies, agriculture, cities, monumental architecture, writing, and calendrical systems
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Americas
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The Americas, also collectively called America, encompass the totality of the continents of North America and South America. Together they make up most of the land in Earths western hemisphere, along with their associated islands, they cover 8% of Earths total surface area and 28. 4% of its land area. The topography is dominated by the American Cordillera, a chain of mountains that runs the length of the west coast. The flatter eastern side of the Americas is dominated by river basins, such as the Amazon, St. Lawrence River / Great Lakes basin, Mississippi. Humans first settled the Americas from Asia between 42,000 and 17,000 years ago, a second migration of Na-Dene speakers followed later from Asia. The subsequent migration of the Inuit into the neoarctic around 3500 BCE completed what is regarded as the settlement by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. The first known European settlement in the Americas was by the Norse explorer Leif Ericson, however, the colonization never became permanent and was later abandoned. The voyages of Christopher Columbus from 1492 to 1502 resulted in permanent contact with European powers, diseases introduced from Europe and Africa devastated the indigenous peoples, and the European powers colonized the Americas. Mass emigration from Europe, including numbers of indentured servants. Decolonization of the Americas began with the American Revolution in 1776, the population is over 1 billion, with over 65% of them living in one of the three most populous countries. As of the beginning of the 2010s, the most populous urban agglomerations are Mexico City, New York, Sao Paulo, Los Angeles, Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro, all of them megacities. The name America was first recorded in 1507 in the Cosmographiae Introductio, apparently written by Matthias Ringmann and it first applied to both North and South America by Gerardus Mercator in 1538. Amerigen means land of Amerigo and derives from Amerigo and gen, America accorded with the feminine names of Asia, Africa, and Europa. When conceived as a continent, the form is generally the continent of America in the singular. However, without a context, singular America in English commonly refers to the United States of America. In some countries of the world, America is considered a continent encompassing the North America and South America subcontinents, the first inhabitants migrated into the Americas from Asia. Habitation sites are known in Alaska and the Yukon from at least 20,000 years ago, beyond that, the specifics of the Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. Widespread habitation of the Americas occurred during the glacial maximum
29.
Yaxchilan
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Yaxchilan is an ancient Maya city located on the bank of the Usumacinta River in what is now the state of Chiapas, Mexico. In the Late Classic Period Yaxchilan was one of the most powerful Maya states along the course of the Usumacinta, architectural styles in subordinate sites in the Usumacinta region demonstrate clear differences that mark a clear boundary between the two kingdoms. Yaxchilan was a center, important throughout the Classic era. It dominated such smaller sites as Bonampak, and had a rivalry with Piedras Negras and at least for a time with Tikal, it was a rival of Palenque. The site is known for its well-preserved sculptured stone lintels set above the doorways of the main structures. These lintels, together with the stelae erected before the major buildings, epigraphers think that the ancient name for the city was probably the same as that of its realm, Pa Chan. Pronounced, meaning Cleft Sky. pronounced, Teoberto Maler gave it its modern name, for some time, the Emblem Gylph was read as Siyaj Chan, or Sky Born. Yaxchilan is located on the bank of the Usumacinta River. This loop defends the site on all sides except for a land approach from the south. The site is 40 kilometres upriver from the ruins of Piedras Negras, Yaxchilan is 21 kilometres from the ruins of Bonampak. The site lies in Ocosingo Municipality in the state of Chiapas, on the Mexican side of the border with Guatemala. It is 80 kilometres downriver from the Maya site Altar de Sacrificios, Yaxchilan has its origins in the Preclassic Period. Some retrospective inscriptions appear to have used to rewrite Yaxchilans dynastic history to suit king Bird Jaguar IV. Before the rule of king Itzamnaaj Balam II, who reigned from 681 to 742, the city-state then grew to a regional capital and the dynasty lasted into the early 9th century. The known history of Yaxchilan starts with the enthronement of Yopaat Balam I and he was the founder of a long dynasty, and took the throne when Yaxchilan was still a minor site. Hieroglyphic inscriptions dating to the Late Classic describe a series of wars in the Early Classic between the city and its neighbours, the long running rivalry with Piedras Negras had already begun by the fifth century AD, with both cities struggling to dominate the Usumacinta trade route. King Moon Skull was credited with gaining a victory over Piedras Negras in 460 and with capturing the enemy king, by the middle of the 5th century Yaxchilan had formal contacts with the great city of Tikal. Bird Jaguar II, the king of Yaxchilan, captured a vassal of the king of Piedras Negras around 478
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Usumacinta River
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The Usumacinta River is a river in southeastern Mexico and northwestern Guatemala. It defines part of the border between Guatemala and the Mexican state of Chiapas, then continues its course, meandering through the Mexican state of Tabasco to the Gulf of Mexico. Passing the canyon called Boca del Cerro, Tenosique, the Usumacinta goes into the plain of Tabasco, in Tabasco, the Grijalva River flows into the Usumacinta River. This confluence is at Tres Brazos, Centla, and it forms a wetland region known as the Wetlands of Centla. The total length of the river, including the Salinas, Chixoy and it is the only visible natural boundary separating the Yucatán Peninsula from Mexico. The river and its tributaries were important trade routes for the ancient Maya civilization, yaxchilan and Piedras Negras, two of the most powerful cities of the Maya Classic Period, lie along its banks. Before roads, such as the Border Highway constructed by the Mexican Government in the early 1990s, penetrated the jungle, huge trunks of hardwood trees were floated downriver to the state of Tabasco. In the 1980s, many Guatemalan refugees fled across the river to safety in Mexico. Other groups of refugees and Guatemalan guerrillas formed the so-called CPR communities in the jungle on the Guatemalan shores, frans and Trudi Blom first brought the idea of conservation to the watershed in the 1950s by proposing that a section of the Selva Lacandona be reserved for the Lacandon Maya. Conservationists working in the region, such as Nacho March, Ron Nigh, Fernando Ochoa, Roan Balas McNab and others, have all acknowledged, at that time, the Guatemalan shore was held by rebels, whose presence discouraged illegal logging, poaching, and looting. In 1985 Jefferey Wilkersons groundbreaking article in National Geographic brought the river, a thriving seasonal business in wilderness tourism began after the Wilkerson article. The river and its environs became a destination of river travelers, amateur Mayanists and archaeologists, birders. Carlos Salinas de Gortari proposed a smaller but still monumental hydro project in 1990, articles in The New York Times and op-ed pieces by Homero Aridjis suggesting a binational reserve for the area, helped defeat this incarnation of the idea. The conference addressed many of the jurisdictional and administrative questions that still bedevil the idea, the Zapatista Rebellion in 1994 and 1995, and the Guatemalan peace accords in 1996, reshaped the political lines in the watershed. As a direct consequence, and with the fall of the peso, bandits began robbing raft trips. One of the most promising tourist activities, with the least potential impact and the most possibility for helping conservation, archaeology, illegal activity of all types took over the corridor. The Mexican army, which pervaded the Zapatista region, had little effect on river crime, the region continued in a state of low-grade terror and occupation for ten years. List of longest rivers of Mexico THE USUMACINTA RIVER, Building a Framework for Cooperation between Mexico and Guatemala
31.
Phimai Historical Park
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The Phimai historical park protects one of the most important Khmer temples of Thailand. It is located in the town of Phimai, Nakhon Ratchasima province, the temple marks one end of the Ancient Khmer Highway from Angkor. As the enclosed area of 1020x580m is comparable with that of Angkor Wat, most buildings are from the late 11th to the late 12th century, built in the Baphuon, Bayon and Angkor Wat style. However, even though the Khmer at that time were Hindu, inscriptions name the site Vimayapura, which developed into the Thai name Phimai. The first inventory of the ruins was done in 1901 by the French geographer Etienne Aymonier and they were put under governmental protection by announcement in the Government Gazette, Volume 53, section 34, from September 27,1936. Most of the restorations were done from 1964 to 1969 as a joint Thai-French project, the historical park, now managed by the Fine Arts Department, was officially opened by Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn on April 12,1989. The weakest of the five, Prince Teppipit was the first defeated and was executed in 1768, Phimai had also been an important town at the time of the Khmer. The site is now protected as the Phimai Historical Park, Phimai has recently been the base of operations for the excavation of Ban Non Wat. Because of its location deep in the part of Thailand. Art and architecture shown on the temple itself shows great evidence of the ancient Khmer civilization, similar in its look and design to Angkor, it also has the same function for worshiping the gods in the Hindu religion. Despite the fact that Phimai was built in a fashion to Angkor and other Khmer Buddhist temples. Evidence of Dvaravati influence, for instance the sculpture of the Wheel of Law or the statue of Buddha, in other words, Phimai has been an important religious landmark for Animists, Buddhists, and Hindus. There is little evidence concerning the origins of Phimai or the Khmer civilization in Thailand, the earliest engraved records of the Khmer date from the 6th century AD in the northeast of Thailand. For example, stone Sanskrit inscriptions were found along with statues and engraved images of Hindu deities, the king during that time, Mahendravarman, ordered his men to obliterate the engraved inscription. Modern scholars debate about the possibility that evidence may have been lost, Phimai, along with other Khmer-influenced temples in Thailand, were built mainly under the cause of the Deveraja cult, or the King that resembles a god. Jayavarman II was the most mentioned devaraja, the Devaraja cult developed the belief of worshiping Shiva and the principle that the king was an avatar of Shiva. Under this principle, Khmer rulers built temples to glorify the reign of the king along with the spread of Hinduism. The 10th century was the time of the reign of king Rajendravarman II, consequently, temples in Thailand with the Kleang and Baphuon styles remain as evidence of this Khmer heritage
32.
Shebna inscription
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The Shebna inscription is an important ancient Hebrew inscription found at Siloam outside Jerusalem in 1870. After passing through various hands, the inscription was purchased by the British Museum in 1871, the inscribed lintel was found in 1870 above the entrance to a cave near Jerusalem. At one stage it belonged to the French archaeologist, Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau, the limestone inscription was so severely damaged that it was not possible to completely decipher the script until 1952. Nevertheless, the inscription is significant because it describes a figure from the bible called Shebna who was sent by King Hezekiah to negotiate with the Assyrian army. The three-line Hebrew funerary inscription indicates that the cave was the tomb of Shebna, the writing is in Biblical Hebrew and can be dated to the seventh century BC. There is no silver or gold here, only, and the bones of his maidservant with him. Cursed be the man who opens this, the royal steward or court chamberlain was a powerful figure in Ancient Judah. According to Isaiah 22, 15–16, the royal steward appointed by King Hezekiah was called Shebna, Isaiah 22 Siloam Inscription F. Frances, Treasures of the British Museum, London,1972 D. Colon, Ancient Near East Art, British Museum Press, London,1995
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Jerusalem
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Jerusalem is a city located on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is considered a city in the three major Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, the part of Jerusalem called the City of David was settled in the 4th millennium BCE. In 1538, walls were built around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent, today those walls define the Old City, which has been traditionally divided into four quarters—known since the early 19th century as the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters. The Old City became a World Heritage Site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger, Modern Jerusalem has grown far beyond the Old Citys boundaries. These foundational events, straddling the dawn of the 1st millennium BCE, the sobriquet of holy city was probably attached to Jerusalem in post-exilic times. The holiness of Jerusalem in Christianity, conserved in the Septuagint which Christians adopted as their own authority, was reinforced by the New Testament account of Jesuss crucifixion there, in Sunni Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city, after Mecca and Medina. As a result, despite having an area of only 0, outside the Old City stands the Garden Tomb. Today, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the captured and later annexed by Israel while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was captured. Israel captured East Jerusalem from Jordan during the 1967 Six-Day War and subsequently annexed it into Jerusalem, one of Israels Basic Laws, the 1980 Jerusalem Law, refers to Jerusalem as the countrys undivided capital. All branches of the Israeli government are located in Jerusalem, including the Knesset, the residences of the Prime Minister and President, the international community does not recognize Jerusalem as Israels capital, and the city hosts no foreign embassies. Jerusalem is also home to some non-governmental Israeli institutions of importance, such as the Hebrew University. In 2011, Jerusalem had a population of 801,000, of which Jews comprised 497,000, Muslims 281,000, a city called Rušalim in the Execration texts of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt is widely, but not universally, identified as Jerusalem. Jerusalem is called Urušalim in the Amarna letters of Abdi-Heba, the name Jerusalem is variously etymologized to mean foundation of the god Shalem, the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city. The form Yerushalem or Yerushalayim first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua, according to a Midrash, the name is a combination of Yhwh Yireh and the town Shalem. The earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961. The inscription states, I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem, or as other scholars suggest, the mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem
34.
Lauburu
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The lauburu or Basque cross is a traditional Basque swastika with four comma-shaped heads. Today, it is a symbol of the Basque Country and the unity of the Basque people and it is also associated with Celtic peoples, most notably Galicians and Asturians. Historians and authorities have attempted to apply allegorical meaning to the ancient symbol, some say it signifies the four heads or regions of the Basque Country. The lauburu does not appear in any of the seven coats-of-arms that have combined in the arms of the Basque Country, Higher and Lower Navarre, Gipuzkoa, Biscay, Álava, Labourd. The Basque intellectual Imanol Mujica liked to say that the heads signify spirit, life, consciousness, and form, after the time of the Antonines, Camille Jullian finds no specimen of swastikas, round nor straight, in the Basque area until modern times. Paracelsuss Archidoxis Magicae features a similar to the lauburu that is to be drawn to heal animals. M. Colas considers that the lauburu is not related to the swastika but comes from Paracelsus and marks the tombs of healers of animals and healers of souls. Around the end of the 16th century, the lauburu appears abundantly as a Basque decorative element, in chests or tombs. Straight swastikas are not found until the 19th century, many Basque homes and shops display the symbol over the doorway as a sort of talisman. Sabino Arana interpreted it as a symbol, supporting his theory of a Basque solar cult based on wrong etymologies. The lauburu has been featured on flags and emblems of various Basque political organisations including Eusko Abertzale Ekintza, the use of the lauburu as a cultural icon fell into some disuse under the Francoist dictatorship, which repressed many elements of Basque culture. Lau buru means four heads, four ends or four summits in Basque, some argue this might be a folk etymology applied to the Latin labarum. However, Father Fidel Fita thought the relation reversed, labarum being adapted from Basque in Octavian Augustus time, lábaro Triskelion Tomoe Swastika Stone Camunian rose The Baskian Swastika Lauburu, its symbolic meaning and history La croix Basque, laubaru, demonstrating the layout for scribing the arms
35.
Basques
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The Basques are an indigenous ethnic group characterised by the Basque language, a common Basque culture and shared ancestry to the ancient Vascones and Aquitanians. The Basques are known as, Euskaldunak in Basque Vasco in Spanish Basque in French, the English word Basque may be pronounced /bɑːsk/ or /bæsk/ and derives from the French Basque, which is derived from Gascon Basco, cognate with Spanish Vasco. These, in turn, come from Latin Vasco, plural Vascones, several coins from the 2nd and 1st centuries BC found in the Basque Country bear the inscription barscunes. The place where they were minted is not certain, but is thought to be somewhere near Pamplona, in Basque, the people call themselves the euskaldunak, singular euskaldun, formed from euskal- and -dun, euskaldun literally means a Basque speaker. Therefore, the neologism euskotar, plural euskotarrak, was coined in the 19th century to mean a culturally Basque person, alfonso Irigoyen posits that the word euskara is derived from an ancient Basque verb enautsi to say and the suffix -ara. Thus euskara would literally mean way of saying, way of speaking, one item of evidence in favour of this hypothesis is found in the Spanish book Compendio Historial, written in 1571 by the Basque writer Esteban de Garibay. He records the name of the Basque language as enusquera and it may, however, be a writing mistake. In the 19th century, the Basque nationalist activist Sabino Arana posited an original root euzko which, he thought, on the basis of this putative root, Arana proposed the name Euzkadi for an independent Basque nation, composed of seven Basque historical territories. Aranas neologism Euzkadi is still used in both Basque and Spanish, since it is now the official name of the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country. Since the Basque language is unrelated to Indo-European, it has long thought to represent the people or culture that occupied Europe before the spread of Indo-European languages there. A comprehensive analysis of Basque genetic patterns has shown that Basque genetic uniqueness predates the arrival of agriculture in the Iberian Peninsula and it is thought that Basques are a remnant of the early inhabitants of Western Europe, specifically those of the Franco-Cantabrian region. Basque tribes were mentioned in Roman times by Strabo and Pliny, including the Vascones, the Aquitani. There is enough evidence to support the hypothesis that at that time, castile deprived Navarre of its coastline by conquering key western territories, leaving the kingdom landlocked. The Basques were ravaged by the War of the Bands, bitter partisan wars between local ruling families, weakened by the Navarrese civil war, the bulk of the realm eventually fell before the onslaught of the Spanish armies. However, the Navarrese territory north of the Pyrenees remained beyond the reach of an increasingly powerful Spain, Lower Navarre became a province of France in 1620. Nevertheless, the Basques enjoyed a deal of self-government until the French Revolution and the Carlist Wars. On either side of the Pyrenees, the Basques lost their native institutions, labourd, Lower Navarre, and Soule were integrated into the French department system, with Basque efforts to establish a region-specific political-administrative entity failing to take off to date. The corresponding Basque names of these territories are Araba, Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa, the BAC only includes three of the seven provinces of the currently called historical territories
36.
Lower Navarre
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Lower Navarre is a traditional region of the present day Pyrénées Atlantiques département of France. It corresponds to the northernmost merindad of the Kingdom of Navarre during the Middle Ages, after the Spanish conquest of Iberian Navarre, this merindad was restored to the rule of the native king, Henry II. Its capitals were Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port and Saint-Palais, in the extreme north there was the little sovereign Principality of Bidache. Its extent is of 1,284 km2, and has a population of 44,450,25,356. Although this denomination is not completely correct from the point of view, it is also known as Merindad de Ultrapuertos by the southerners. Despite its lost administrative cohesion, the memory of its past heyday has left an imprint on its inhabitants, the Nafarroaren Eguna or Day of Navarre is a festival held in Baigorri every year to strengthen their bonds and celebrate their Basque identity. The territory is claimed by Basque nationalists to be one of the seven constituent regions making up the Basque Country. Lower Navarre is a collection of valleys in the foothills of the Pyrenees, the Irouléguy wines are produced in the area around the town of Irouléguy. The river Nive rises in Lower Navarre and flows through the province and on to Bayonne, beyond Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port itself, the Nive enters the Ossès valley, with many beautiful old houses with carved lintels in the villages of Ossès, Irissarry and Bidarray. A reserve for the pottok, the wild Basque Pyrenean pony, the Baigura massif towers over the western valleys and sets a natural boundary with the rolling valleys of Labourd. North of Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port is the Mixe region around the town of Saint-Palais, although close to Béarn, Basque influence and traditions are strong. Lower Navarrese is a dialect of the Basque language spoken in the region, just south of Saint-Palais, the three principal routes to Santiago de Compostela on the Way of St James met at the hamlet of Ostabat, bringing much wealth and trade to the area in medieval times. The Way of St James headed south from Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port towards the pass above Roncesvalles. Pilgrims travelled across the Cize region of Lower Navarre on their way to Navarre across the mountains, in these rolling hills, ewes milk cheese, pur brebis, is commonly made, including Ossau-Iraty cheese. Villages like Estérençuby and Lecumberry are popular for agro-tourism and the Iraty beech forest on the Spanish border is known for its views and history. Dolmens and other neolithic monuments dot the landscape, including the Tour dUrkulu high in the mountains at 1, 149m—a 2, Lower Navarre is well delimited by mountain ranges on the west, south and the east. The lands of the Lower Navarre were part of the Duchy of Vasconia turned into Gascony by the end of the first millennium. Moreover, the valleys of Baigorri, Ossès, Arberoa, Cize and Arberoa were attached to the latter, so establishing the first nucleus of the Navarrese grip on the lands north of the Pyrenees
37.
Banteay Srei
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Banteay Srei or Banteay Srey is a 10th-century Cambodian temple dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. Located in the area of Angkor in Cambodia and it lies near the hill of Phnom Dei,25 km north-east of the main group of temples that once belonged to the medieval capitals of Yasodharapura and Angkor Thom. Banteay Srei is built largely of red sandstone, a medium that lends itself to the decorative wall carvings which are still observable today. The buildings themselves are miniature in scale, unusually so when measured by the standards of Angkorian construction and these factors have made the temple extremely popular with tourists, and have led to its being widely praised as a precious gem, or the jewel of Khmer art. Consecrated on 22 April 967 A. D, the foundational stela says that Yajnavaraha, grandson of king Harsavarman I, was a scholar and philanthropist who helped those who suffered from illness, injustice, or poverty. His pupil was the future king Jayavarman V. Originally, the temple was surrounded by a town called Īśvarapura, yajñavarāhas temple was primarily dedicated to the Hindu god Śiva. Originally, it carried the name Tribhuvanamaheśvara—great lord of the threefold world—in reference to the Shaivite linga that served as its central religious image, some have speculated that it relates to the many devatas carved into the walls of the buildings. Bantãy Srĕi was subject to expansion and rebuilding work in the eleventh century. It remained in use at least until the fourteenth century according to the last known inscription K569, the temple was rediscovered only in 1914, and was the subject of a celebrated case of art theft when André Malraux stole four devatas in 1923. Until the discovery of the stela in 1936, it had been assumed that the extreme decoration indicated a later date than was in fact the case. To prevent the site from water damage, the joint Cambodian-Swiss Banteay Srei Conservation Project installed a system between 2000 and 2003. Measures were also taken to prevent damage to the walls from nearby trees. Unfortunately, the temple has been ravaged by pilfering and vandalism, when toward the end of the 20th century authorities removed some original statues and replaced them with concrete replicas, looters took to attacking the replicas. A statue of Shiva and his shakti Uma, removed to the National Museum in Phnom Penh for safekeeping, was assaulted in the museum itself, Banteay Srei is built largely of a hard red sandstone that can be carved like wood. Brick and laterite were used only for the walls and some structural elements. The temple is known for the beauty of its sandstone lintels, a pediment is the roughly triangular space above a rectangular doorway or openings. At Banteay Srei, pediments are relatively large in comparison to the openings below, for the first time in the history of Khmer architecture, whole scenes of mythological subject-matter are depicted on the pediments. A lintel is a beam spanning the gap between two posts
38.
Ellora Caves
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Ellora is one of the largest rock-cut monastery-temple caves complexes in the world, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Maharashtra, India. The site presents monuments and artwork of Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism from the 600-1000 CE period, Cave 16 of Ellora features the largest single monolithic rock excavation in the world, the Kailasha temple, a chariot shaped monument dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasha temple excavation also presents the gods, goddesses and mythologies found in Vaishnavism, Shaktism, the site features over 100 caves, of which 34 caves are open to public. These were excavated out of the basalt cliff in the Charanandri hills. These consist of 12 Buddhist,17 Hindu and 5 Jain caves, each group presents the respective deities and mythologies prevalent in 1st millennium CE, as well as the monasteries of that religion. They were built in proximity and illustrate the religious harmony prevalent in ancient India. All Ellora monuments were built by Hindu dynasties, such as the Rashtrakuta dynasty who built some of the Hindu & Buddhist group of caves, Ellora was an important historic commercial center of the Deccan region, located on an ancient trade route of South Asia. The caves served as monasteries for monks, temples for prayers and a place for pilgrims to rest and it is 29 kilometres north-west of the city of Aurangabad, and about 300 kilometres east-northeast from Mumbai. Ellora Caves, along with the nearby Ajanta Caves, form one of the major tourist attractions in Marathwada region of Maharashtra, Ellora is a protected monument under the Archaeological Survey of India. In the Indian tradition, each cave is named and has a suffix Guha, Lena or Leni, Ellora caves are located in the Indian state of Maharashtra. They are about 29 kilometres northwest from the city of Aurangabad,300 kilometres east-northeast from Mumbai, Ellora occupies a relatively flat rocky region of the Western Ghats. Ancient volcanic activity in this area created many layered basalt formations, formed during the volcanic activity of the Cretaceous geological period, one such west-facing cliff houses the Ellora Caves. Its vertical face made access to many layers of rock formations easier, the disagreements have broadly been two fold. One being whether Buddhist or Hindu caves were carved first, the earliest Ellora caves may have been built during the rule of the Hindu dynasties of Vakataka and Traikutakas. The later Hindu caves and early Jaina caves were built by the Hindu Rashtrakuta dynasty and these caves are located on the southern side of the Ellora cave collection, and were built between 600-730 CE. It was initially thought that the Buddhist caves were the earliest structures that were created between the fifth and eighth centuries, with caves 1-5 in the first phase and 6-12 in the later phase, modern scholarship places some of the Hindu caves before the Buddhist caves were built. The earliest Buddhist cave is Cave 6, chronologically followed by 5,2,3,5,4,7,8,10 and 9, Caves 11 and 12, also called the Do Thal and Tin Thal respectively, were the last. All the Buddhist caves were constructed between 630-700, the monastery caves have shrines including carvings of Gautama Buddha, bodhisattvas and saints
39.
Bolzano
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Bolzano is the capital city of the province of South Tyrol in northern Italy. With a population of 105,713, Bolzano is also by far the largest city in South Tyrol, Bolzano is the seat of the Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, where lectures and seminars are held in English, German and Italian. The city is home to the Italian Armys Alpini High Command and some of its combat. In 2014 version of the ranking of quality of life in Italian cities. Along with other Alpine towns in South Tyrol, Bolzano engages in the Alpine Town of the Year Association for the implementation of the Alpine Convention, the Convention aims to promote and achieve sustainable development in the Alpine Arc. Consequently, Bolzano was awarded Alpine Town of the Year 2009, the Romans built a settlement after the area had been conquered in 15 BC by General Nero Claudius Drusus. The military settlement, Pons Drusi, was named after this Roman General, during this time the area became part of the region Venetia et Histria of ancient Italy. In 1948, excavations of the current Cathedral led to the discovery of an ancient Christian basilica from the 4th century. Also discovered was a Roman cemetery, including the tomb of Secundus Regontius with Latin inscriptions dating to the 3rd century, making him the oldest known inhabitant of Bolzano. During the gradual decline of the Romans influence in the 7th century, Bavarian immigration took place, at that time, the Bavarians named the nearby villages around Bolzano Bauzanum or Bauzana. German populations have been present in the region of Tyrol since this time, in 1027 the area of Bolzano and the rest of the diocese was conferred, by the emperor Conrad II from the Salian dynasty, upon the bishops of Trent. In the late-12th century, the bishop founded a market town, the town therefore became an important trading post on the Transalpine Augsburg-Venice route over the Brenner Pass, elevation 1,371 metres above sea level, within the Holy Roman Empire. In 1277 Bolzano was conquered by Meinhard II, the Count of Tyrol, in 1363, the County of Tyrol fell under the influence of Habsburg Austria and the Holy Roman Empire. In 1381, Duke Leopold granted the citizens of Bolzano the privilege of a town council and this gradually eliminated the influence and power previously held by the bishops of Trent over the next few decades. In 1462, the bishops eventually resigned all their rights of jurisdiction over the town, from the 14th and 15th centuries onwards, a large market fair was organised four times per year to greet tradesmen and merchants en-route the Brenner Pass. The Mercantile Magistrate was therefore founded in 1635 by the Austrian duchess Claudia de Medici, during every market season, two Italian and two Germanic officers, who were appointed among the local tradesmen, worked in this magistrate office. The establishment of a trade organisation strengthened Bolzano as a cultural crossroad in the Alps. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, Bolzano became briefly part of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy and was incorporated into the Dipartimento Alto Adige
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Marriage stone
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A marriage stone is usually a stone lintel carved with the initials, coat of arms, etc. of a newly married couple with the date of the marriage. They were very popular until Victorian times, but fell out of use in the 20th century. Many survive for aesthetic value particularly where well carved or as their removal is illegal because they are part of or in the grounds of a building or in a conservation area. Marriage stones serve as a record of a marriage, especially important in aristocratic families, the stones also clearly indicated the ownership of the building to onlookers at the time as well as serving as a record for posterity of both marital bliss and often also of social advancement. Datestones are a different category in that they primarily commemorate the construction of a building rather than record a marriage. They may do both and such symbolism as entwined hearts indicates that they serve to perform both functions, some buildings have both marriage stones and datestones, such as The Hill at Dunlop, which has a date stone on the mansion house and even the gateposts are dated. In some cases the adornment was religious in nature, such as at The Hill farm mansion house or an artistic design simply placed there as an ornamentation, the designs are found cut into the stone or standing proud of the rock face. Originally some of these stones would have been painted and adorned with gilt. Aiket Castle, Dunlop, East Ayrshire – At Aiket, the stone is set into the wall of a building which was latterly a timber mill is a very worn marriage stone. It was demolished in the early 20th century after a fire in the late 19th century but was built by Donald Junor and Katrin Gally who married in 1710. Albion House, Cromarty, Ross and Cromarty – the above-mentioned Donald Junor may be connected to the Andrew or Alexander Junor whose marriage stone was built into the Courthouse. Bogflat, Stewarton, East Ayrshire – now in the Stewarton Museum, the Bogflat stone is dated 1711 with a JR carved into it, Castle of Park, Cornhill, Aberdeenshire – the dining room has an early 18th-century marriage stone set into one wall. The Cuff, Gateside, North Ayrshire – M Gibson & I Gibson,1767, Fullarton House, Troon – set in a plinth after the house was demolished. Anne Brisbane and William Fullarton 1673, the Hill, Dunlop, East Ayrshire – The Hill stone is now placed above an internal window in the original farmhouse, but it, may have been moved or the building substantially altered. It reads 16 ID & BG92 in old characters and this commemorates the marriage of John Dunlop and Barbara Gilmour of Dunlop cheese fame. A Brown family marriage stone is present on a lintel entering the old farmhouse. The AB stands for Andrew Brown, grandson of Barbara and John and he married JA, Jean Anderson, daughter of Matthew Anderson of Craighead, which they later inherited. As well to do farmers they may have built the house at the The Hill, converting the old farm into a dairy and byre, however the window above is off centre
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Dunlop, East Ayrshire
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Dunlop is a village and parish in East Ayrshire, Scotland. It lies on the A735, north-east of Stewarton, seven miles from Kilmarnock, the road runs on to Lugton and the B706 enters the village from Beith and Burnhouse. The name, first recorded in 1260, may be derived from the Gaelic words Dun, therefore, it is the fortified hill by the bend in the river. The old local pronunciation was Dulop or Delap without an n, in the 1600s, Dunloppe had two fairs a year for the sale of dairy stock, one on the second Friday of May, and the other called Hallowday, on the 12th. The Estate was erected into the Barony of Dunlop in 1688, Dunlop cheese, a sweet milk cheese, was first made by Barbara Gilmour who went to Ireland to escape the covenanting prosecutions. Her stone cheese press was said to be preserved at The Hill Farm in the 1860s, the cheese became World famous and created a cottage industry with cheese merchants from Kirktoun buying up the cheeses and taking them to Glasgow for sale. The cheese making used up excess fresh milk and the coming of the reduced the need for cheese manufacture. Dunlop cheeses are made at Clerkland Farm. Tam Giffen was reputed to be a warlock from the Dunlop Parish, tam could not get over the flood swollen Lugton Water so he just. came through below it. Tam died in odd circumstances, supposedly being murdered by the fairies for giving away their secrets, in 1849 a Mr. Wilson set up shop as a ham curer. Robert Howie and sons started a small meal-mill in 1857, and they moved closer to the railway, where they remained until recently. The population of the village in 1871 was 380 and 357 in 1881, in 1876, the town had acquired a butcher, a baker, a branch of the Clydesdale Bank, as well as a Free Church, but still no writer or doctor was needed. By the 1950s, Dunlop had a post office, four grocers, a baker, a newsagent, a hotel, below the church stands the bridge over the Black Burn that locally has the appellation the Tee Wal Burn after a spring that flows out under this bridge. The 1860s OS maps show that a cottage, Bridgend, once close to the bridge. A tradition states that the De Ross first held Boarland or Dunlop Hill as their seat, a Celtic hillfort may have existed here, as suggested by the etymology of the placename. In 1848 the Scottish Journal records that a number of years ago the foundation of a ruin of considerable extent was removed by the late proprietor. In 1853 Mr. Dobie recorded that There can still be traced the meiths of a building of considerable extent on the top of the Hill of Borland. Mr. G. Howie, of Dunlop in 1856, stated that he remembered seeing a small portion of what was said to be one of the walls about 70 or 80 years ago and it was a sort of bank, quite crumbled down and overgrown with grass
42.
Old Town, Edinburgh
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The Old Town is the name popularly given to the oldest part of Scotlands capital city of Edinburgh. The area has preserved much of its street plan and many Reformation-era buildings. Together with the 18th-century New Town, it part of a protected UNESCO World Heritage Site. Narrow closes, often no more than a few feet wide, the area has a number of underground vaults and hidden passages that are relics of previous phases of construction. No part of the street is officially called The Royal Mile in terms of legal addresses, the actual street names are Castlehill, Lawnmarket, High Street, Canongate and Abbey Strand. This crag and tail landform was created during the last ice age when receding glaciers scoured across the land pushing soft soil aside, the hilltop crag was the earliest part of the city to develop, becoming fortified and eventually developing into the current Edinburgh Castle. The rest of the city grew slowly down the tail of land from the Castle Rock and this was an easily defended spot with marshland on the south and a man-made loch, the Nor Loch, on the north. Access up the road to the settlement was therefore restricted by means of various gates. The original strong linear spine of the Royal Mile only had narrow closes and these began to be supplemented from the late 18th century with wide new north–south routes, beginning with the North Bridge/South Bridge route, and then George IV Bridge. The Edinburgh City Improvement Act of 1866 further added to the north south routes and this was devised by the architects David Cousin and John Lessels. It had quite radical effects, St Marys Wynd was demolished and replaced by the much wider St Marys Street with all new buildings, Leith Wynd which descended from the High Street to the Low Calton was demolished. Jeffrey Street started from Leith Wynds junction with the High Street, opposite St Marys Street, east Market Street was built to connect Market Street and New Street. Blackfriars Street was created by the widening of Blackfriars Wynd, removing all the buildings on the east side, Chambers Street was created, replacing N College Street and removing Brown Square and Adam Square. It was named after the then Lord Provost of Edinburgh, Sir William Chambers, guthrie Street was created, linking the new Chambers Street to the Cowgate. Multi-storey dwellings became the norm from the 16th century onwards, the construction of new streets including North Bridge and South Bridge in the 18th century also created underground spaces, such as the Edinburgh Vaults below the latter. Traditionally buildings were less dense in the eastern, Canongate, section and this area underwent major slum clearance and reconstruction in the 1950s, thereafter becoming an area largely of Council housing. Further Council housing was built on the fringe of the Canongate in the 1960s and 1970s in an area generally called Dumbiedykes. From 1990 to 2010 major new housing schemes appeared throughout the Canongate and these were built to a much higher scale than the traditional buildings and have greatly increased the population of the area
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Simonsbath House
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Simonsbath House is a historic house in Simonsbath on Exmoor in Somerset, England. The Grade II listed building is now the Simonsbath House Hotel and it lies in the valley of the River Barle and on the Two Moors Way footpath. The house was built in the century by the merchant, lawyer and philosopher James Boevey, the warden of the Royal forest of Exmoor. After the death of Boevey and his wife the house was sold with the Exmoor estate to Robert Siderfin of Luxborough. During the second half of the 18th century and the part of the 19th century the wardens of the forest were the Acland baronets who leased the house. Knight set about converting the Royal Forest, now known as Exmoor National Park and he and especially his son Frederick, who assumed management in 1841, erected most of the large farms in the central section of the moor and built 22 miles of metalled access roads to Simonsbath. He built a 29 miles wall around his estate, much of which still survives and this was largely done to further his passion for staghunting. When Castle Hill was largely destroyed by a fire in 1934, the 4th Earls grand-daughter and eventual heiress, Lady Margaret Fortescue, devoted much time to attempting to put the Exmoor estate onto a profitable footing. The house was altered by the Fortescues, including the building of one of the first Squash Courts in England in 1929, a 16th century heraldic chimney piece was brought by the Fortescues from their secondary seat at Weare Giffard Hall in Devon, and survives in todays hotel. During World War II the house was used as a school, and afterwards was as an hotel under the name Diana Lodge Hotel, in 1969 the name reverted to Simonsbath House. The house, which consists of bays, has white painted walls. Outside are several buildings which have been adapted to provide accommodation. Above the fireplace in the lounge of Simonsbath House is a late 16th-century heraldic overmantel relating to the Fortescue family and brought by them from Weare Giffard Hall, a framed handwritten explanatory note written c. Third shield from left, the arms of Richard Fortescue of Filleigh, impaling the arms of his wife Joan Moreton, baron, Fortescue, femme, quarters 1&4, Morton of Kent, 2&3, Hagget of Kent. Fourth shield from left, the arms of Sir John Chichester of Raleigh impaling the arms of his wife Gertrude Courtenay and these arms are visible on Sir John Chichesters monument in Pilton Church. A modern heraldic overmantel also exists in the bar, showing 19th century Fortescue family arms
44.
Atalburu
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Atalburu is the name given to the lintel above the main entrance of traditional Basque houses. Working tools The text may have references, for example. Traditionally, all Basque houses have a name, but this was written on the atalarri. On modern houses, the name is frequently engraved on a stele near the door. Once a house is named, the name is never changed
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Dolmen
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A dolmen is a type of single-chamber megalithic tomb, usually consisting of two or more vertical megaliths supporting a large flat horizontal capstone, although there are also more complex variants. Most date from the early Neolithic, Dolmens were typically covered with earth or smaller stones to form a tumulus. In many instances, that covering has weathered away, leaving only the skeleton of the burial mound intact. It remains unclear when, why, and by whom the earliest dolmens were made, the oldest known dolmens are in Western Europe, where they were set in place around 7,000 years ago. Archaeologists still do not know who erected these dolmens, which makes it difficult to know why they did it and they are generally all regarded as tombs or burial chambers, despite the absence of clear evidence for this. Human remains, sometimes accompanied by artefacts, have found in or close to the dolmens which could be scientifically dated using radiocarbon dating. However, it has been impossible to prove that these date from the time when the stones were originally set in place. The word dolmen has a confused history, the word entered archaeology when Théophile Corret de la Tour dAuvergne used it to describe megalithic tombs in his Origines gauloises using the spelling dolmin. The name was derived from a Breton language term meaning stone table but doubt has been cast on this. Nonetheless it has now replaced cromlech as the usual English term in archaeology, granja is used in Portugal, Galicia, and Spain. The rarer forms anta and ganda also appear, in the Basque Country, they are attributed to the jentilak, a race of giants. The etymology of the German, Hünenbett, Hünengrab and Dutch, of other Celtic languages, Welsh, cromlech was borrowed into English and quoit is commonly used in English in Cornwall. Great dolmen Passage grave Polygonal dolmen Rectangular, enlarged or extended dolmen Simple dolmen Korean dolmens exhibit a distinct from the Atlantic European dolmen. The largest concentration of dolmens in the world is found on the Korean Peninsula, with an estimated 35,000 dolmens, Korea alone accounts for nearly 40% of the world’s total. Three specific UNESCO World Heritage sites at Gochang, Hwasun and Ganghwa by themselves account for over 1,000 dolmens, the Korean word for dolmen is goindol supported stone. Serious studies of the Korean megalithic monuments were not undertaken until relatively recently, after 1945, new research is being conducted by Korean scholars. In 1981 a curator of National Museum of Korea, Gongil Ji, the boundary between them falls at the Bukhan River although examples of both types are found on either side. Korean dolmens can also be divided into three types, the table type, the go-table type and the unsupported capstone type
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Dougong
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Dougong is a unique structural element of interlocking wooden brackets, one of the most important elements in traditional Chinese architecture. The use of dougong first appeared in buildings of the late centuries BC and evolved into a network that joined pillars. Dougong was widely used in the ancient Chinese during the Spring and Autumn period, the pieces are fitted together by joinery alone without glue or fasteners, due to the precision and quality of the carpentry. After the Song Dynasty, brackets and bracket sets became more ornamental than structural when used in structures and important religious buildings. Walls functioned to delineate spaces in the rather than to support weight. Multiple interlocking bracket sets are formed by placing a wooden block on a column to provide a solid base for the bow-shaped brackets that support the beam or another gong above it. This process can be repeated many times, and rise many stories, adding multiple sets of interlocking brackets or dougong reduces the amount of strain on the horizontal beams when transferring their weight to a column. Multiple dougong also allows structures to be elastic and to damage from earthquakes. During the Ming Dynasty an innovation occurred through the invention of new components that aided dougong in supporting the roof. This allowed dougong to add an element to buildings in the traditional Chinese integration of artistry and function. Brackets could be hung under eaves, giving the appearance of graceful baskets of flowers while also supporting the roof, the Baoen Temple in Sichuan is a good example of the Ming style. It has forty-eight types and 2,200 sets of dougong to support and it is a well-preserved fifteenth century monastery complex located in northwestern Sichuan province, China. It was built by Wang Xi, a chieftain, between 1440 and 1446 during Emperor Yingzongs reign in the Ming Dynasty. Liang Ssu Cheng Chinese Architecture, A Pictorial History ISBN 0-486-43999-2 Dougong Brackets Arts of China to A. D.900 Chinese architecture
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I-beam
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An I-beam, also known as H-beam, W-beam, Universal Beam, Rolled Steel Joist, or double-T, is a beam with an I or H-shaped cross-section. The horizontal elements of the I are known as flanges, while the element is termed the web. I-beams are usually made of steel and are used in construction. The web resists shear forces, while the flanges resist most of the bending moment experienced by the beam, Beam theory shows that the I-shaped section is a very efficient form for carrying both bending and shear loads in the plane of the web. On the other hand, the cross-section has a capacity in the transverse direction. The method of producing an I-beam, as rolled from a piece of steel, was patented by Alphonse Halbou of the company Forges de la Providence in 1849. Bethlehem Steel was a supplier of rolled structural steel of various cross-sections in American bridge. Today, rolled cross-sections have been displaced in such work by fabricated cross-sections. There are two standard I-beam forms, Rolled I-beam, formed by hot rolling, cold rolling or extrusion, plate girder, formed by welding plates. I-beams are commonly made of steel but may also be formed from aluminium or other materials. A common type of I-beam is the rolled steel joist —sometimes incorrectly rendered as reinforced steel joist, british and European standards also specify Universal Beams and Universal Columns. These sections have parallel flanges, as opposed to the thickness of RSJ flanges which are seldom now rolled in the UK. Parallel flanges are easier to connect to and do away with the need for tapering washers, however, there has been some concern as to their rapid loss of strength in a fire if unprotected. I-beams are widely used in the industry and are available in a variety of standard sizes. Tables are available to allow selection of a suitable steel I-beam size for a given applied load. I-beams may be used both as beams and as columns, I-beams may be used both on their own, or acting compositely with another material, typically concrete. A beam under bending sees high stresses along the fibers that are farthest from the neutral axis. To prevent failure, most of the material in the beam must be located in these regions, comparatively little material is needed in the area close to the neutral axis
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