1.
Helsinki
–
Helsinki is the capital and largest city of Finland. It is in the region of Uusimaa, in southern Finland, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland. Helsinki has a population of 629,512, a population of 1,231,595. Helsinki is located some 80 kilometres north of Tallinn, Estonia,400 km east of Stockholm, Sweden, Helsinki has close historical connections with these three cities. The Helsinki metropolitan area includes the core of Helsinki, Espoo, Vantaa, Kauniainen. It is the worlds northernmost metro area of one million people. The Helsinki metropolitan area is the fourth largest metropolitan area in the Nordic countries, Helsinki is Finlands major political, educational, financial, cultural, and research center as well as one of northern Europes major cities. Approximately 75% of foreign companies operating in Finland have settled in the Helsinki region, the nearby municipality of Vantaa is the location of Helsinki Airport, with frequent service to various destinations in Europe and Asia. In 2009, Helsinki was chosen to be the World Design Capital for 2012 by the International Council of Societies of Industrial Design, the city was the venue for the 1952 Summer Olympics and the 52nd Eurovision Song Contest 2007. In 2011, the Monocle magazine ranked Helsinki the most liveable city in the world in its Liveable Cities Index 2011, in the Economist Intelligence Units August 2015 Liveability survey, assessing the best and worst cities to live in globally, Helsinki placed among the worlds top ten cities. Helsinki is used to refer to the city in most languages, the Swedish name Helsingfors is the original official name of the city. The Finnish name probably comes from Helsinga and similar names used for the river that is known as the Vantaa River. Helsingfors comes from the name of the parish, Helsinge and the rapids, which flowed through the original village. As part of the Grand Duchy of Finland in the Russian Empire, one suggestion for the origin of the name Helsinge is that it originated with medieval Swedish settlers who came from Hälsingland in Sweden. Others have proposed that the name derives from the Swedish word helsing, other Scandinavian cities located at similar geographic locations were given similar names at the time, for example Helsingør and Helsingborg. The name Helsinki has been used in Finnish official documents and in Finnish language newspapers since 1819, the decrees issued in Helsinki were dated with Helsinki as the place of issue. This is how the form Helsinki came to be used in written Finnish, in Helsinki slang the city is called Stadi. Hesa, is not used by natives to the city, helsset is the Northern Sami name of Helsinki
2.
Dunthorpe, Oregon
–
Dunthorpe is an affluent, unincorporated suburb of Portland, Oregon, United States. It is located just south of the Portland city limits and north of the Multnomah County line on the west side of the Willamette River, lewis & Clark College, Tryon Creek State Park, and Lake Oswego are nearby. In January 1916, William M. Ladds Ladd Estate Company purchased 215 acres from the soon to be dissolved Oregon Iron & Steel Company for $1. One of the attractions of the area is the Elk Rock Gardens of the Bishops Close. The property includes approximately 6 acres of cultivated English-style gardens that were designed by the New York firm of Olmsted and Son, who also designed Central Park in New York City. The garden is open to the seven days a week and is widely known for the many varieties of magnolias as well as for examples of many other native. As a community, Dunthorpe was historically anchored by Riverdale Grade School, in the early 1990s, the Oregon legislature decreed that all school districts should have both primary and secondary schools, and expected smaller school districts like Riverdale to merge. The high school moved into its permanent building, a renovation and expansion of an existing but unused public school structure, in July 2009, the original grade school was demolished. The building was rebuilt in the style of the original in 2010, according to 24/7 Wall St. s analysis of U. S. Census data from 2006 through 2010, the Riverdale School District is the third richest school district in the United States
3.
University of Helsinki
–
The University of Helsinki is a university located in Helsinki, Finland since 1829, but was founded in the city of Turku in 1640 as the Royal Academy of Åbo, at that time part of the Swedish Empire. It is the oldest and largest university in Finland with the widest range of disciplines available, around 36,500 students are currently enrolled in the degree programs of the university spread across 11 faculties and 11 research institutes. As of August 1,2005, the University complies with the structure of the Europe-wide Bologna Process and offers Bachelor, Master, Licenciate. Admission to degree programmes is determined by entrance examinations, in the case of bachelors degrees. It has been ranked a top 100 university in the according to the 2016 ARWU, QS. The university is bilingual, with teaching officially provided both in Finnish and Swedish, generally speaking, however, the university is monolingual Finnish, as courses taught in Swedish are very few and far apart. Teaching in English is extensive throughout the university at Master, Licentiate, remaining true to its traditionally strong Humboldtian ethos, the University of Helsinki places heavy emphasis on high-quality teaching and research of a top international standard. It is a member of various prominent international university networks, such as Europaeum, UNICA, the Utrecht Network, the first predecessor of the university, The Cathedral School of Åbo, was presumably founded in 1276 for education of boys to become servants of the Church. It was the university founded in the Swedish Empire, following Uppsala University. The second period of the Universitys history covers the period when Finland was a Grand Duchy of the Russian Empire, as Finland became part of the Russian Empire in 1809, Emperor Alexander I expanded the University and allocated substantial funds to it. In the capital the primary task of the University was to educate the Grand Duchy’s civil servants, the University became a community subscribing to the new Humboldtian ideals of science and culture, studying humanity and its living environment by means of scientific methods. The Alexander University was a centre of life that promoted the birth of an independent Finnish State. The great men of 19th century Finland, Johan Vilhelm Snellman, Johan Ludvig Runeberg, Elias Lönnrot, in the 19th century university research changed from being collection-centred to being experimental, empirical, and analytical. The more scientific approach of the university led to specialisation and created new disciplines, as the scientific disciplines developed, Finland received ever more scholarly knowledge and highly educated people, some of whom entered rapidly evolving industry or the government. The third period of the universitys history began with the creation of the independent Republic of Finland in 1917, once Finland gained her independence in 1917 the University was given a crucial role in building the nation state and, after World War II, the welfare state. Members of the community promoted the international relations of the new state. Furthermore, they were involved in national politics and the struggle for equality. In the 20th century, scholarly research at the University of Helsinki reached the level of the European elite in many disciplines. I, virtanen and the Nobel Prize in Medicine shared by Professor Ragnar Granit
4.
Software engineer
–
Prior to the mid-1960s, software practitioners called themselves computer programmers or software developers, regardless of their actual jobs. Many people prefer to call themselves software developer and programmer, because most widely agree what these terms mean, in many companies, the titles programmer and software developer were changed to software engineer, for many categories of programmers. In May 2015, the United States U, S. S. in all other engineering disciplines combined. The label software engineer is used liberally in the corporate world. Very few of the software engineers actually hold Engineering degrees from accredited universities. About half of all practitioners today have degrees in science, information systems. A small, but growing, number of practitioners have software engineering degrees, in 1997, PSG College of Technology in Coimbatore, India was the first to start a five-year integrated Master of Science degree in Software Engineering. Since then, software engineering degrees have been established at many universities. A standard international curriculum for undergraduate software engineering degrees was defined by the CCSE. As of 2004, in the U. S. about 50 universities offer software engineering degrees, the first software engineering Masters degree was established at Seattle University in 1979. Since then graduate software engineering degrees have been available from many more universities. Likewise in Canada, the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board of the Canadian Council of Professional Engineers has recognized several software engineering programs, in 1998, the US Naval Postgraduate School established the first doctorate program in Software Engineering in the world. Steve McConnell opines that because most universities teach computer science rather than software engineering, ETS University and UQAM were mandated by IEEE to develop the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge, which has become an ISO standard describing the body of knowledge covered by a software engineer. In business, some software engineering practitioners have MIS or computer information systems degrees, in medical software, practitioners may have medical informatics, general medical, or biology degrees. Some practitioners have mathematics, science, engineering, or technology degrees, some have philosophy or other non-technical degrees. For instance, Barry Boehm earned degrees in mathematics. Most software engineers work as employees or contractors, Software engineers work with businesses, government agencies, and non-profit organizations. Some software engineers work on their own as consulting software engineers, some organizations have specialists to perform each of the tasks in the software development process. Other organizations required software engineers to do many or all of them, entry-level software engineer or associate software engineer may be best
5.
Linux Foundation
–
In recent years, the Linux Foundation has expanded its services through events, training and certification and Collaborative Projects. The Linux Foundation promotes, protects, and standardizes Linux by providing a set of services to compete effectively with closed platforms. The origin of The Linux Foundation can be traced back to 2000 when the Open Source Development Labs was founded. In 2003, Linus Torvalds, the creator of the freely available Linux operating system announced he would join the organization as an OSDL Fellow to work full-time on future versions of Linux. In 2007, OSDL merged with the Free Standards Group, another organization promoting the adoption of Linux, at the time, Jim Zemlin, who headed FSG, took over as executive director of The Linux Foundation. Major parts including OpenPrinting were still offline on October 20,2011, the restoration was complete on January 4,2012. The Linux Foundation serves as a spokesperson for Linux and generates original content that advances the understanding of the Linux platform. It also fosters innovation by hosting collaboration events among the Linux technical community, application developers, industry, through the Linux Foundations community programs, end users, developers, and industry members collaborate on technical, legal, and promotional issues. In order for Linux Kernel creator Linus Torvalds and other key developers to remain independent. The Linux Foundation offers application developers standardization services and support that makes Linux an attractive target for their development efforts and these include, the Linux Standard Base and the Linux Developer Network. The Linux Foundation also provides services to key areas of the Linux community, including an open source developer travel fund, through its workgroups, members and developers can collaborate on key technical areas. There is also a program that is vendor-neutral, technically advanced. On March 3,2009, the Linux Foundation announced that they would take over management of Linux. com from its previous owners, SourceForge and it also includes a directory of Linux software and hardware. Much like Linux itself, Linux. com plans to rely on the community to create and drive the content, the Linux Foundation hosts a Linux video forum where users, developers and vendors can create and share Linux video tutorials. It also includes videos from recent Linux Foundation events, as well as other industry forums and it is the home for the annual Linux Foundation Video Contest. The Linux Foundation plans to add commissioned series of Linux video tutorials on Linux. com in the months ahead, the Linux Developer Network is an online community for Linux application developers and independent software vendors who want to start or continue to develop applications for the Linux platform. The Linux Developer Networks goal is to empower developers to target the Linux platform, one of the ways the Linux Developer Network helps developers accomplish this is to help them build portable Linux applications. The Linux Developer Network also gives developers tools to create the best Linux apps possible, the Linux Foundation Training Program features instructors and content straight from the leaders of the Linux developer community
6.
Linux kernel
–
The Linux kernel is a monolithic Unix-like computer operating system kernel. The Android operating system for computers, smartphones and smartwatches is also based atop the Linux kernel. While the adoption on desktop computers is low, Linux-based operating systems dominate nearly every segment of computing. As of November 2016, all but two of the worlds 500 most powerful supercomputers run Linux, Linux rapidly attracted developers and users who adopted it as the kernel for other free software projects, notably the GNU Operating System. The Linux kernel has received contributions from nearly 12,000 programmers from more than 1,200 companies, the Linux kernel API, the application programming interface through which user programs interact with the kernel, is meant to be very stable and to not break userspace programs. As part of the functionality, device drivers control the hardware. However, the interface between the kernel and loadable kernel modules, unlike in many other kernels and operating systems, is not meant to be stable by design. The Linux kernel, developed by contributors worldwide, is a prominent example of free, day-to-day development discussions take place on the Linux kernel mailing list. The Linux kernel is released under the GNU General Public License version 2, in April 1991, Linus Torvalds, at the time a 21-year-old computer science student at the University of Helsinki, Finland, started working on some simple ideas for an operating system. He started with a task switcher in Intel 80386 assembly language, on 25 August 1991, Torvalds posted the following to comp. os. minix, a newsgroup on Usenet, Im doing a operating system for 386 AT clones. This has been brewing since April, and is starting to get ready, id like any feedback on things people like/dislike in minix, as my OS resembles it somewhat. Ive currently ported bash and gcc, and things seem to work and this implies that Ill get something practical within a few months Yes - its free of any minix code, and it has a multi-threaded fs. It is NOT portable, and it never will support anything other than AT-harddisks, as thats all I have. Its mostly in C, but most people wouldnt call what I write C and it uses every conceivable feature of the 386 I could find, as it was also a project to teach me about the 386. As already mentioned, it uses a MMU, for both paging and segmentation and its the segmentation that makes it REALLY386 dependent. Some of my C-files are almost as much assembler as C, unlike minix, I also happen to LIKE interrupts, so interrupts are handled without trying to hide the reason behind them. After that, many people contributed code to the project, early on, the MINIX community contributed code and ideas to the Linux kernel. At the time, the GNU Project had created many of the components required for an operating system
7.
Linux
–
Linux is a Unix-like computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open-source software development and distribution. The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17,1991 by Linus Torvalds, the Free Software Foundation uses the name GNU/Linux to describe the operating system, which has led to some controversy. Linux was originally developed for computers based on the Intel x86 architecture. Because of the dominance of Android on smartphones, Linux has the largest installed base of all operating systems. Linux is also the operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe computers. It is used by around 2. 3% of desktop computers, the Chromebook, which runs on Chrome OS, dominates the US K–12 education market and represents nearly 20% of the sub-$300 notebook sales in the US. Linux also runs on embedded systems – devices whose operating system is built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system. This includes TiVo and similar DVR devices, network routers, facility automation controls, televisions, many smartphones and tablet computers run Android and other Linux derivatives. The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free, the underlying source code may be used, modified and distributed—commercially or non-commercially—by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License. Typically, Linux is packaged in a known as a Linux distribution for both desktop and server use. Distributions intended to run on servers may omit all graphical environments from the standard install, because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any intended use. The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&Ts Bell Laboratories in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, first released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in assembly language, as was common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, it was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie, the availability of a high-level language implementation of Unix made its porting to different computer platforms easier. Due to an earlier antitrust case forbidding it from entering the computer business, as a result, Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs, freed of the legal obligation requiring free licensing, the GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, has the goal of creating a complete Unix-compatible software system composed entirely of free software. Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software Foundation, by the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system were completed, although low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete. Linus Torvalds has stated that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time, although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Torvalds has also stated that if 386BSD had been available at the time, although the complete source code of MINIX was freely available, the licensing terms prevented it from being free software until the licensing changed in April 2000
8.
Git
–
Git is a version control system for tracking changes in computer files and coordinating work on those files among multiple people. It is primarily used for development, but it can be used to keep track of changes in any files. As a distributed control system it is aimed at speed, data integrity. Git was created by Linus Torvalds in 2005 for development of the Linux kernel and its current maintainer since 2005 is Junio Hamano. Like the Linux kernel, Git is free software distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License version 2, the copyright holder of BitKeeper, Larry McVoy, had withdrawn free use of the product after claiming that Andrew Tridgell had reverse-engineered the BitKeeper protocols. Linus Torvalds wanted a system that he could use like BitKeeper. So immediately after the 2.6. 12-rc2 Linux kernel development release, Torvalds quipped about the name git, Im an egotistical bastard, and I name all my projects after myself. The man page describes Git as the stupid content tracker, the readme file of the source code elaborates further, The development of Git began on 3 April 2005. Torvalds announced the project on 6 April, it became self-hosting as of 7 April, the first merge of multiple branches took place on 18 April. Torvalds achieved his goals, on 29 April, the nascent Git was benchmarked recording patches to the Linux kernel tree at the rate of 6.7 per second. On 16 June Git managed the kernel 2.6.12 release, Torvalds turned over maintenance on 26 July 2005 to Junio Hamano, a major contributor to the project. Hamano was responsible for the 1.0 release on 21 December 2005, gits design was inspired by BitKeeper and Monotone. Git was originally designed as a version control system engine on top of which others could write front ends. The core Git project has become a complete version control system that is usable directly. While strongly influenced by BitKeeper, Torvalds deliberately avoided conventional approaches, in Git, a core assumption is that a change will be merged more often than it is written, as it is passed around to various reviewers. In Git, branches are very lightweight, a branch is only a reference to one commit, with its parental commits, the full branch structure can be constructed. These changes are imported as added development branches, and can be merged in the way as a locally developed branch. Git also has a CVS server emulation, which enables the use of extant CVS clients, Subversion and svk repositories can be used directly with git-svn
9.
Subsurface (software)
–
Subsurface is a software for logging and planning scuba dives. It was initially designed and developed by Linus Torvalds and Dirk Hohndel in 2011, Subsurface is free and open-source software distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License version 2. Subsurface allows a diver or free diver to keep track of their dive data. It allows to read out many different dive computers and represent this data both graphically as well as tabularly, pictures taken during the dive can be added to the log and the location of the dive site is displayed on a map. Decompression information based on the Bühlmann model or the VPM-B model as well as gas usage information can be displayed, the program also includes an interactive dive planner. The logbook can be exported in many formats and to a Git-based cloud storage. There is a version running on mobile devices that can display the log book while downloading dives from dive computers is currently not supported. Until version 3.9.2, Subsurface used GTK+ for its user interface and with version 4.0. At the LCA2014, Torvalds and Hohndel explained why they choose to re-write the GUI using Qt, Subsurface further depends on GConf, SQLite, ATK and makes use of OpenStreetMap and/or OpenSeaMap. Subsurface officially runs on Linux, OS X and Microsoft Windows and it is written using the POSIX API and not the Linux API, so it should be portable to any POSIX-compliant operating system. The mobile version using Qt Quick runs on Android and iOS
10.
Nils Torvalds
–
Nils ”Nicke” Torvalds is a Finnish politician and Member of the European Parliament from Finland. He is a member of the Swedish Peoples Party of Finland, part of the Alliance of Liberals, Torvalds is the son of the poet Ole Torvalds, and the father of the software engineer Linus Torvalds of Linux kernel fame. Torvalds was elected to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Finland in 1982, in 2007 Torvalds was elected to the post of the third vice chairperson of the Swedish Peoples Party. In 2008, he was elected in Helsinki City Council for term 2009–2012, Torvalds was a candidate for European Parliament election in 2009 on the Swedish Peoples Party list. He got 14,044 votes which was insufficient for a seat, on 5 July 2012 he was installed in the European Parliament, after the resignation of Carl Haglund. As a MEP he is vice-chair of the Fisheries committee and member of the committee for Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs. Linus Torvalds, the creator of the Linux kernel, joked during a LinuxCon keynote in 18 September 2013 that the NSA, creators of SELinux, however, later, Linus father revealed that the NSA had actually asked for the installation of backdoors in Linux. When my oldest son was asked the question, “Has he been approached by the NSA about backdoors. ”He said “No”. Then he was sort of in the legal free and he had given the right answer, everybody understood that the NSA had approached him
11.
Finnish Americans
–
Finnish Americans comprise Americans with ancestral roots from Finland or Finnish people who emigrated to and reside in the United States. Finnish American population numbers about 700,000, some Finns, like the ancestors of John Morton, came to the Swedish colony of New Sweden, that existed in mid-17th century. Finns first started coming to the United States in large numbers in the late 19th century, many townships were established by Finnish Americans, including Herman, located in Baraga County, Michigan. The town is named for Herman Keranen, of Puolanka, Finland, a number of the Finns fleeing the Russification efforts also emigrated to many of the mill towns of New England where they became known for their woodworking skills. The first immigrants to North America arrived to the New Sweden colony by the lower Delaware River in 1640, Finland was an integrated part of the Kingdom of Sweden at the time, and a Swedish colony in the New World was bound to include subjects from Finland as well. In two years time, the number of Finns in the settlement had grown to fifty, and was increasing, New Sweden changed hands to Dutch control in 1655, but many Finns had already entered, and the Finnish community, while small, was growing. Among the Finnish settlers of New Sweden was Martti Marttinen, who came to North America in 1654, John Morton, the politician who signed the U. S. Declaration of Independence on behalf of Pennsylvania in 1776, was his great-grandson, Migration to North America from Finland continued throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, but it was very sporadic in nature and only a few individuals and groups dared make the move. This was largely due to the distance between Europe and America, and the difficulties associated with crossing it. However, as the Industrial Revolution began with the turn of the 19th century, bringing with it such technological innovations as railways and steam ships, these obstacles slowly began to disappear. While the rest of Europe was industrializing, Finland, by now a Grand Duchy of the Russian Empire, was to a great extent excluded from the revolutionary process. The society was largely agrarian, and unemployment was rising, resultant from population growth, America, on the other hand, possessed abundant natural resources but lacked a work force. Rural life in Finland during the 1860s seemed doomed to remain laborious, stunted, in 1867, a severe crop failure in Finland drove masses of Finns, especially from rural Ostrobothnia, into migrating to Norway, from where they later moved to the United States and Canada. The Laestadian Finns longed for a way of life and religious toleration which they believed they would find in America. So a group of Laestadian preachers and followers immigrated to the Upper Peninsula of Michigan bringing their beloved sermons, in 1873 the Finnish Laestadians started their own congregation at Calumet, Michigan. By 1906 the Laestadian movement in America resulted in 68 churches, today the Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Church of America remains in Calumet, Michigan. The years between 1870 and 1930 are sometimes referred as the Great Migration of Finns into North America, in the 1870s, there were only 3,000 migrants from Finland, but this figure was rapidly growing. New migrants often sent letters home, describing their life in the New World, rumors began of the acres of land that could be cleared into vast productive fields and the opportunity to earn a barrel of American dollars in mines, factories, and railroads
12.
Software engineering
–
Software engineering is the application of engineering to the development of software in a systematic method. Practitioners quickly realized that this design was not flexible and came up with the stored program architecture or von Neumann architecture, thus the division between hardware and software began with abstraction being used to deal with the complexity of computing. Programming languages started to appear in the early 1950s and this was another major step in abstraction. Major languages such as Fortran, ALGOL, and COBOL were released in the late 1950s to deal with scientific, algorithmic, the conference was attended by international experts on software who agreed on defining best practices for software grounded in the application of engineering. The result of the conference is a report that defines how software should be developed, the original report is publicly available. Engineering already addresses all issues, hence the same principles used in engineering can be applied to software. The widespread lack of best practices for software at the time was perceived as a software crisis, barry W. Boehm documented several key advances to the field in his 1981 book, Software Engineering Economics. These include his Constructive Cost Model, which relates software development effort for a program, in man-years T, T = k ∗ The book analyzes sixty-three software projects and concludes the cost of fixing errors escalates as the project moves toward field use. The book also asserts that the key driver of software cost is the capability of the development team. Watts Humphrey founded the SEI Software Process Program, aimed at understanding and managing the software engineering process and his 1989 book, Managing the Software Process, asserts that the Software Development Process can and should be controlled, measured, and improved. Modern, generally accepted best-practices for software engineering have been collected by the ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC7 subcommittee, Software engineering can be divided into 15 sub-disciplines. They are, Software requirements, The elicitation, analysis, specification, Software design, The process of defining the architecture, components, interfaces, and other characteristics of a system or component. It is also defined as the result of that process, Software construction, The detailed creation of working, meaningful software through a combination of coding, verification, unit testing, integration testing, and debugging. Software testing, An empirical, technical investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the quality of the product or service under test, Software maintenance, The totality of activities required to provide cost-effective support to software. Software development process, The definition, implementation, assessment, measurement, management, change, many software engineers enter the profession by obtaining a university degree or training at a vocational school. One standard international curriculum for undergraduate software engineering degrees was defined by the CCSE, in addition to university education, many companies sponsor internships for students wishing to pursue careers in information technology. These internships can introduce the student to interesting real-world tasks that typical software engineers encounter every day, similar experience can be gained through military service in software engineering. Legal requirements for the licensing or certification of professional software engineers vary around the World, in Canada, there is a legal requirement to have P. Eng when one wants to use the title engineer or practice software engineering
13.
Kernel (operating system)
–
The kernel is a computer program that is the core of a computers operating system, with complete control over everything in the system. It is the first program loaded on start-up and it handles the rest of start-up as well as input/output requests from software, translating them into data-processing instructions for the central processing unit. It handles memory and peripherals like keyboards, monitors, printers, the critical code of the kernel is usually loaded into a protected area of memory, which prevents it from being overwritten by applications or other, more minor parts of the operating system. The kernel performs its tasks, such as running processes and handling interrupts, in contrast, everything a user does is in user space, writing text in a text editor, running programs in a GUI, etc. This separation prevents user data and kernel data from interfering with other and causing instability. The kernels interface is an abstraction layer. When a process makes requests of the kernel, it is called a system call, Kernel designs differ in how they manage these system calls and resources. A monolithic kernel runs all the operating instructions in the same address space. A microkernel runs most processes in space, for modularity. The kernel takes responsibility for deciding at any time which of the running programs should be allocated to the processor or processors. Random-access memory Random-access memory is used to both program instructions and data. Typically, both need to be present in memory in order for a program to execute, often multiple programs will want access to memory, frequently demanding more memory than the computer has available. The kernel is responsible for deciding which memory each process can use, input/output devices I/O devices include such peripherals as keyboards, mice, disk drives, printers, network adapters, and display devices. The kernel allocates requests from applications to perform I/O to an appropriate device, key aspects necessary in resource management are the definition of an execution domain and the protection mechanism used to mediate the accesses to the resources within a domain. Kernels also usually provide methods for synchronization and communication between processes called inter-process communication, finally, a kernel must provide running programs with a method to make requests to access these facilities. The kernel has full access to the memory and must allow processes to safely access this memory as they require it. Often the first step in doing this is virtual addressing, usually achieved by paging and/or segmentation, virtual addressing allows the kernel to make a given physical address appear to be another address, the virtual address. This allows every program to behave as if it is the one running
14.
Android (operating system)
–
Android is a mobile operating system developed by Google, based on the Linux kernel and designed primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. In addition to devices, Google has further developed Android TV for televisions, Android Auto for cars. Variants of Android are also used on notebooks, game consoles, digital cameras, beginning with the first commercial Android device in September 2008, the operating system has gone through multiple major releases, with the current version being 7.0 Nougat, released in August 2016. Android applications can be downloaded from the Google Play store, which features over 2.7 million apps as of February 2017, Android has been the best-selling OS on tablets since 2013, and runs on the vast majority of smartphones. In September 2015, Android had 1.4 billion monthly active users, Android is popular with technology companies that require a ready-made, low-cost and customizable operating system for high-tech devices. The success of Android has made it a target for patent, Android Inc. was founded in Palo Alto, California in October 2003 by Andy Rubin, Rich Miner, Nick Sears, and Chris White. Rubin described the Android project as tremendous potential in developing smarter mobile devices that are aware of its owners location. The early intentions of the company were to develop an operating system for digital cameras. Despite the past accomplishments of the founders and early employees, Android Inc. operated secretly and that same year, Rubin ran out of money. Steve Perlman, a friend of Rubin, brought him $10,000 in cash in an envelope. In July 2005, Google acquired Android Inc. for at least $50 million and its key employees, including Rubin, Miner and White, joined Google as part of the acquisition. Not much was known about Android at the time, with Rubin having only stated that they were making software for mobile phones, at Google, the team led by Rubin developed a mobile device platform powered by the Linux kernel. Google marketed the platform to handset makers and carriers on the promise of providing a flexible, upgradeable system, Google had lined up a series of hardware components and software partners and signaled to carriers that it was open to various degrees of cooperation. Speculation about Googles intention to enter the communications market continued to build through December 2006. In September 2007, InformationWeek covered an Evalueserve study reporting that Google had filed several patent applications in the area of mobile telephony, the first commercially available smartphone running Android was the HTC Dream, also known as T-Mobile G1, announced on September 23,2008. Since 2008, Android has seen numerous updates which have improved the operating system, adding new features. Each major release is named in order after a dessert or sugary treat, with the first few Android versions being called Cupcake, Donut, Eclair. In 2010, Google launched its Nexus series of devices, a lineup in which Google partnered with different device manufacturers to produce new devices and introduce new Android versions
15.
Chrome OS
–
Chrome OS is an operating system designed by Google that is based on the Linux kernel and uses the Google Chrome web browser as its principal user interface. As a result, Chrome OS primarily supports web applications, Google announced the project in July 2009, conceiving it as an operating system in which both applications and user data reside in the cloud, hence Chrome OS primarily runs web applications. Source code and a public demo came that November, the first Chrome OS laptop, known as a Chromebook, arrived in May 2011. Initial Chromebook shipments from Samsung and Acer occurred in July 2011, Chrome OS has an integrated media player and file manager. It supports Chrome Apps, which resemble native applications, as well as access to the desktop. A few Android applications have been available for the system since 2014. Reception was initially skeptical, with some arguing that a browser running on any operating system was functionally equivalent. As more Chrome OS machines have entered the market, the system is now seldom evaluated apart from the hardware that runs it. Chrome OS is only available pre-installed on hardware from Google manufacturing partners, an open source equivalent, Chromium OS, can be compiled from downloaded source code. Early on, Google provided design goals for Chrome OS, but has not otherwise released a technical description, initially, Chrome OS was almost a pure web thin client operating system that rely primarily on servers to host web applications and related data storage. Google gradually began encouraging developers to create packaged applications, and later, the latter employs HTML5, CSS, Adobe Shockwave, and JavaScript to provide a user experience closer to a native application. Meanwhile, in September 2014, Google launched App Runtime for Chrome, Runtime was launched with four Android applications, Duolingo, Evernote, Sight Words, and Vine. Chrome OS is partially developed under the open source Chromium OS project, unlike Chromium OS, Chrome OS is automatically updated to the latest version. Google announced Chrome OS on July 7,2009, describing it as a system in which both applications and user data reside in the cloud. To ascertain marketing requirements, the company relied on informal metrics, developers also noted their own usage patterns. On November 19,2009, Google released Chrome OSs source code as the Chromium OS project, at a November 19,2009 news conference, Sundar Pichai, at the time Googles vice president overseeing Chrome, demonstrated an early version of the operating system. At the conference, the system booted up in seven seconds. The launch date for retail hardware featuring Chrome OS was delayed from late 2010 to June 15,2011, laptops running Chrome OS are known collectively as Chromebooks
16.
Distributed revision control
–
The software revisions are stored in a distributed revision control system, also known as a distributed version control system. Distributed revision control takes an approach to version control, as opposed to the client-server approach of centralized systems. Rather than a single, central repository on which clients synchronize, distributed revision control synchronizes repositories by exchanging patches from peer to peer. This results in some important differences from a system, No canonical, reference copy of the codebase exists by default. Common operations are fast, because there is no need to communicate with a central server, communication is only necessary when sharing changes among other peers. Each working copy effectively functions as a backup of the codebase and of its change-history. Other differences include, Multiple central repositories, Code from disparate repositories is merged based on a web of trust, i. e. historical merit or quality of changes. Lieutenants are project members who have the power to decide which branches to merge. Network is not involved for common operations, a separate set of sync operations are available for committing or receiving changes with remote repositories. DVCS proponents point to several advantages of distributed control systems over the traditional centralised model. Allows participation in projects without requiring permissions from authorities. Allows private work, so users can use their changes even for early drafts they do not want to publish, avoids relying on one physical machine as a single point of failure. Software development author Joel Spolsky, the owner of a commercial DVCS, a disadvantage is that initial cloning of a repository is slower as compared to centralized checkout, because all branches and revision history are copied to your local machine. This may be significant if access speed is slow and the size is large enough. Another problem with DVCS is the lack of locking mechanisms that is part of most centralized VCS, an open system of distributed revision control is characterized by its support for independent branches, and its reliance on merge operations. Its general characteristics include, Every working copy is effectively a fork, the system implements each branch as a working copy, with merges conducted by ordinary patch exchange, from branch to branch. Code forking therefore occurs more readily, where desired, because every working copy is a fork and it may be possible to cherry-pick single changes, selectively pulling them from peer to peer. New peers can freely join, without applying for access to a server, for a list of distributed revision control systems, see the comparison of revision control software
17.
Shinya Yamanaka
–
Shinya Yamanaka is a Japanese Nobel Prize-winning stem cell researcher. David Gladstone Institutes in San Francisco, California, and as a professor of anatomy at University of California, Yamanaka is also a past president of the International Society for Stem Cell Research. He received the 2010 BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award in Biomedicine category, also he received the Wolf Prize in Medicine in 2011 with Rudolf Jaenisch, the Millennium Technology Prize in 2012 together with Linus Torvalds. In 2012 he and John Gurdon were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for the discovery that mature cells can be converted to stem cells, in 2013 he was awarded the $3 million Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences for his work. Yamanaka was born in Higashiōsaka Japan in 1962, after graduating from Tennōji High School attached to Osaka Kyoiku University, he received his M. D. at Kobe University in 1987 and his PhD at Osaka City University Graduate School in 1993. After this, he went through a residency in surgery at National Osaka Hospital. Afterwards he worked at the Gladstone Institutes in San Francisco, USA and Nara Institute of Science, Yamanaka is currently a Professor at Kyoto University, where he directs its Center for iPS Research and Application. He is also an investigator at the Gladstone Institutes as well as the director of the Center for iPS Cell Research. Between 1987 and 1989, Yamanaka was a resident in surgery at the National Osaka Hospital. His first operation was to remove a tumor from his friend Shuichi Hirata. Some seniors referred to him as Jamanaka, a pun on the Japanese word for obstacle, from 1993 to 1996, he was at the Gladstone Institute of Cardiovascular Disease. Between 1996 and 1999, he was an assistant professor at Osaka City University Medical School and his wife advised him to become a practicing doctor, but instead he applied for a position at the Nara Institute of Science and Technology. He stated that he could and would clarify the characteristics of embryonic cells. From 1999–2003, he was a professor there, and started the research that would later win him the 2012 Nobel Prize. He became a professor and remained at the institute in that position from 2003–2005. Between 2004 and 2010, Yamanaka was a professor at the Institute for Frontier Medical Sciences, currently, Yamanaka is the director and a professor at the Center for iPS Cell Research and Application at Kyoto University. In 2006, he and his team generated induced pluripotent stem cells from mouse fibroblasts. IPS cells closely resemble embryonic stem cells, the in vitro equivalent of the part of the blastocyst which grows to become the embryo proper and they could show that his iPS cells were pluripotent, i. e. capable of generating all cell lineages of the body
18.
Swedish-speaking population of Finland
–
The Swedish-speaking population of Finland is a linguistic minority in Finland. They maintain an identity and are seen either as a separate ethnic group, while still being Finns. Swedish-speakers comprise 5. 4% of the total Finnish population or about 4. 9% without Åland, the proportion has been steadily diminishing since the early 19th century, when Swedish was the mother tongue of approximately 15% of the population and considered a prestige language. It is estimated that 70% of bilingual families—that is, ones with one parent Finnish-speaking, the Swedish term finlandssvensk, which is used by the group itself, does not have an established English translation. The Research Institute for the Languages of Finland proposes Swedish-speaking Finns, Swedish Finns, or Finland-Swedes, the expressions Swedish-speaking Finns, Swedes of Finland, Finland Swedes, Finnish Swedes, and Swedish Finns are all used in academic literature. The age of the Swedish-speaking population in the territory that today constitutes Finland was a subject of debate in early 20th century as a part of the Finlands language strife. Some Finland-Swede scholars like Ralf Saxén, Knut Hugo Pipping and Tor Karsten used place names trying to prove that the Swedish settlement in Finland dates back to prehistoric times and their views where opposed mainly by Heikki Ojansuu in 1920s. In 1966, the historian Hämäläinen addressed the strong correlation between the scholars mother-tongue and the views on the age and continuity of the Scandinavian settlement history of Finland. During the recent decades several Swedish-speaking philologists, archaeologists and historians from Finland have criticized the theories of Germanic/Scandinavian continuity in Finland, simultaneously the growth of population in Sweden, together with lack of land, resulted in Swedish settlements in Southern and Western coastal areas of Finland. The Second Swedish Crusade against the Tavastians in 13th century extended the Swedish settlements to Uusimaa and their departure from Sweden proper to Finland was encouraged and organized by the Swedish authorities. The proportion of Swedish speakers in Finland has declined since the 18th century, when the Grand Duchy of Finland was formed and Karelia was reunited with Finland, the share of Swedish speakers was 15% of the population. During the 19th century a national awakening occurred in Finland and it was supported by the Russian central administration for practical reasons, as a security measure to weaken Swedish influence in Finland. This trend was reinforced by the wave of nationalism in Europe in the mid-19th century. As a result, under the influence of the German idea of one national language, many influential Swedish-speaking families learned Finnish, fennicized their names and changed their everyday language to Finnish, sometimes not a very easy task. As the educated class in Finland was almost entirely Swedish-speaking, the first generation of the Finnish nationalists, the language issue was not primarily an issue of ethnicity, but an ideological and philosophical issue as to what language policy would best preserve Finland as a nation. This also explains why so many academically educated Swedish speakers changed to Finnish, both parties had the same patriotic objectives, but their methods were completely the opposite. The language strife would continue up until World War II, the majority of the population – both Swedish and Finnish speakers – were farmers, fishermen and other workers. The farmers lived mainly in areas, while the other workers lived in bilingual areas such as Helsinki
19.
Linus Pauling
–
Linus Carl Pauling was an American chemist, biochemist, peace activist, author, and educator. He published more than 1,200 papers and books, of which about 850 dealt with scientific topics, new Scientist called him one of the 20 greatest scientists of all time, and as of 2000, he was rated the 16th most important scientist in history. Pauling was one of the founders of the fields of quantum chemistry, for his scientific work, Pauling was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954. In 1962, for his activism, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. This makes him the person to be awarded two unshared Nobel Prizes. He is one of four individuals to have won more than one Nobel Prize. Pauling is also one of two people to be awarded Nobel Prizes in different fields, the other being Marie Curie. Pauling also worked on DNAs structure, a problem which was solved by James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, in his later years he promoted nuclear disarmament, as well as orthomolecular medicine, megavitamin therapy, and dietary supplements. None of the latter have gained acceptance in the scientific community. Pauling was born in Portland, Oregon, the child of Herman Henry William Pauling. He was named Linus Carl, in honor of Lucys father, Linus, in 1902, after his sister Pauline was born, Paulings parents decided to move out of Portland, to find more affordable and spacious living quarters than their one-room apartment. Lucy stayed with her husbands parents in Lake Oswego until Herman brought the family to Salem, within a year of Luciles birth in 1904, Herman Pauling moved his family to Oswego, where he opened his own drugstore. He moved his family to Condon, Oregon in 1905, by 1906, Herman Pauling was suffering from recurrent abdominal pain. He died of an ulcer on June 11,1910, leaving Lucy to care for Linus, Lucile. Pauling attributes his interest in becoming a chemist to being amazed by experiments conducted by a friend, Lloyd A. Jeffress, in high school, Pauling conducted chemistry experiments by scavenging equipment and material from an abandoned steel plant. With an older friend, Lloyd Simon, Pauling set up Palmon Laboratories in Simons basement and they approached local dairies offering to perform butterfat samplings at cheap prices but dairymen were wary of trusting two boys with the task, and the business ended in failure. At age 15, the high school senior had enough credits to enter Oregon State University, lacking two American history courses required for his high school diploma, Pauling asked the school principal if he could take the courses concurrently during the spring semester. Denied, he left Washington High School in June without a diploma, the school awarded him a diploma 45 years later, after he had won two Nobel Prizes
20.
Nobel Prize
–
The Nobel Prize is a set of annual international awards bestowed in a number of categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, or scientific advances. The will of the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895, the prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics, and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold, between 1901 and 2016, the Nobel Prizes and the Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 579 times to 911 people and organisations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 23 organisations, the prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm, Sweden. Each recipient, or laureate, receives a medal, a diploma. The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature, medicine, physics, chemistry, peace, and economics. The prize is not awarded posthumously, however, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century, a prize may not be shared among more than three people. Alfred Nobel was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden and he was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill and this invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite, Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous. In 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, as it was Alfreds brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered and this inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895, Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets,31 million SEK, to establish the five Nobel Prizes. Because of skepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway. The executors of Nobels will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobels fortune, Nobels instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organisations were designated or established and these were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded, and, in 1900, in 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved
21.
Linus van Pelt
–
Linus van Pelt is a character in Charles M. Schulzs comic strip Peanuts. The best friend of Charlie Brown, Linus is also the brother of Lucy van Pelt. He first appeared on September 19,1952, but was not mentioned by name until three days later and he was first referred to two months earlier, on July 14. Linus spoke his first words in 1954, the year he was shown with his security blanket. He invented his own legendary being, the Great Pumpkin, who, Linus claims, appears every Halloween at the most sincere pumpkin patch, bearing gifts. On one occasion, Linus had a lead in the polls for school president—until he brought up the subject of the Great Pumpkin. A similar occurrence was featured in a strip with the storyline, Charlie Brown asks him why he had to bring up the Great Pumpkin. After Linus says that Charlie Brown is looking at him as if he was crazy, Charlie Brown responds, Linus is almost never seen without his blue security blanket, which debuted in the June 1,1954, strip. He holds it over his shoulder while sucking his thumb, ridicule of the habit is not a major concern for him. The blanket, it out, is an autonomous entity. In the special A Boy Named Charlie Brown, it performed a dance routine with Linus upon being reunited with its owner. Linus had lost the blanket, causing him depression, panic attacks, sweating, in the earlier strips, Linuss relationship to his blanket was one of intense emotional attachment to the point of manifesting physical symptoms if he was deprived of it even for a short while. He suffered weakness and dizziness, for example, when Lucy took it from him long enough to have it laundered. In A Boy Named Charlie Brown, Linus manifested similar symptoms when he gave his blanket to Charlie Brown, on another occasion, Lucy snatched his blanket away and buried it in an effort to break Linus of his habit. Linus literally dug up the neighborhood for days trying to find it until Snoopy finally dug it up. Possession of the blanket is often sought by Snoopy, who has used many tricks and subterfuges to relieve Linus of it, even at one point having the blanket delivered to his doghouse. Snoopy commonly runs up, quickly grabs the blanket in his mouth, and drags Linus along with it, then swings him, once, Linus was so angry at Snoopy for snatching his blanket again and again that he retaliated by threatening Snoopys supper dish. Upon hearing that Linus had possession of his most prized possession, Snoopy gave Linus back the blanket fairly quickly, thinking, I never dreamed he would fight so dirty
22.
Peanuts
–
Peanuts is a syndicated daily and Sunday American comic strip written and illustrated by Charles M. Schulz, which ran from October 2,1950, to February 13,2000, continuing in reruns afterward. The comic strip is the most popular and influential in the history of comic strips, with 17,897 strips published in all, making it arguably the longest story ever told by one human being. At its peak, Peanuts ran in over 2,600 newspapers, with a readership of 355 million in 75 countries and it helped to cement the four-panel gag strip as the standard in the United States, and together with its merchandise earned Schulz more than $1 billion. Reprints of the strip are still syndicated and run in almost every U. S. newspaper, the strip focuses entirely on a social circle of young children, where adults exist but are never seen or heard. The main character, Charlie Brown, is meek, nervous and he is unable to fly a kite, win a baseball game, or kick a football. Peanuts is one of the strips with philosophical, psychological. The strips humor is psychologically complex, and the characters interactions formed a tangle of relationships that drove the strip, the holiday specials remain popular and are currently broadcast on ABC in the U. S. during the corresponding seasons. The Peanuts franchise met acclaim in theatre, with the stage musical Youre a Good Man, Charlie Brown being a successful, in 2013, TV Guide ranked the Peanuts television specials the fourth Greatest TV Cartoon of All Time. A computer-animated feature film based on the strip, The Peanuts Movie, was released on November 6,2015, Peanuts had its origin in Lil Folks, a weekly panel comic that appeared in Schulzs hometown paper, the St. Paul Pioneer Press, from 1947 to 1950. He first used the name Charlie Brown for a character there, the series also had a dog that looked much like the early 1950s version of Snoopy. In 1948, Schulz sold a cartoon to The Saturday Evening Post which published 17 single-panel cartoons by Schulz, the first of these was of a boy sitting with his feet on an ottoman. In 1948, Schulz tried to have Lil Folks syndicated through the Newspaper Enterprise Association, Schulz would have been an independent contractor for the syndicate, unheard of in the 1940s, but the deal fell through. Lil Folks was dropped in early 1950, later that year, Schulz approached the United Feature Syndicate - also operated by Scripps-Howard - with his best work from Lil Folks. When his work was picked up by United Feature Syndicate, they decided to run the new comic strip he had working on. This strip was similar in spirit to the comic, but it had a set cast of characters. The name Lil Folks was too close to the names of two comics of the time, Al Capps Lil Abner and a strip titled Little Folks. To avoid confusion, the settled on the name Peanuts. Peanuts was a title Schulz always disliked, in a 1987 interview, Schulz said of the title Peanuts, Its totally ridiculous, has no meaning, is simply confusing, and has no dignity—and I think my humor has dignity
23.
Computer science
–
Computer science is the study of the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. An alternate, more succinct definition of science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems and its fields can be divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as computational complexity theory, are highly abstract, other fields still focus on challenges in implementing computation. Human–computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, the earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital computer. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, further, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the first working mechanical calculator in 1623, in 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner. He may be considered the first computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons and he started developing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he had sketched out many of the salient features of the modern computer. A crucial step was the adoption of a card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used punched cards to process statistical information, when the machine was finished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true. During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing machines were developed, as it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study computation in general. Computer science began to be established as an academic discipline in the 1950s. The worlds first computer science program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science. The first computer science program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962. Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights and it is the now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM released the IBM704 and later the IBM709 computers, still, working with the IBM was frustrating if you had misplaced as much as one letter in one instruction, the program would crash, and you would have to start the whole process over again. During the late 1950s, the science discipline was very much in its developmental stages. Time has seen significant improvements in the usability and effectiveness of computing technology, modern society has seen a significant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base
24.
Finnish Army
–
The Finnish Army is the land forces branch of the Finnish Defence Forces. Todays Army is divided into six branches, the infantry, field artillery, anti-aircraft artillery, engineers, signals, Finnish Army commander since 1 August 2014 is Lieutenant General Seppo Toivonen. The duties of the Finnish Army are three-fold, because Finland is not under direct military threat, the current Army is, as it has been since the end of Second World War, in peace-time training formation. This means that its brigades are not meant to be operational combat units, according to the troop production doctrine, peace-time units will train each batch of conscripts they receive for a specific war-time unit. After the end of training, the conscripts are demobilised into reserve, during regular refresher exercises and in case of a crisis, the reserve unit will be activated and deployed in the formation it trained in during conscription. Thus, the structure of the Army does not give any meaningful information about the mobilised structure or about the areas where the units would be used. Between 1809 and 1917 Finland was a part of the Russian Empire as the Grand Duchy of Finland. Between 1881 and 1901 the Grand Duchy had its own army, before that several other military units had also been formed while Finland belonged to Sweden. The Grand Duchy inherited its allotment system from the Swedish military organization, however, for several decades, Russian rulers did not require military service from Finland—operations and defence were mostly taken care by Russian troops based in the Grand Duchy. As a result, officer benefits of the allotment system became practically pensions, as payment was based on passive availability, during the Napoleonic Wars three 1200 men regiments were formed in Finland and Topographic corps in Hamina. In 1821 the Topographic corps was transformed into cadet officers school, in 1829 one of the training battalions was transformed into Young Guard Battalion, the Finnish Guard. During the Crimean War,1854, Finland set up nine sharpshooter battalions based on rote system, conscription was introduced in Finland in 1878. The Finnish army was broken up during the oppression years just after the turn of the century. As Finnish conscripts refused to serve in Russian Army, conscription ended in Finland, at the turn of the 20th century, the Russian empire was weakening, and this was reflected in a reduced capacity of the Russian troops to keep public order. Voluntary defence organizations disguised as fire brigades were formed by the Finnish people, especially during the strikes during, there were socialist Red Guards and conservative, anti-socialist Protection Guards. Also, during the First World War activists secretly travelled to Germany to receive military training, after the war in 1919, the Protection Guards became a separate organization. Therefore, strictly speaking, there is no continuity between the White Guards, which became an organization, and the Finnish army, which was a cadre army based on conscription. However, Jägers gained important positions in the army, and German tactics, the Finnish Army consisted of 9 field divisions,4 brigades and a number of small independent battalions and companies at the beginning of the Winter War in 1939
25.
Uusimaa
–
Uusimaa or Nyland is a region in Finland. It borders the regions Southwest Finland, Tavastia Proper, Päijänne Tavastia, finland’s capital Helsinki, its second largest city Espoo and its fourth largest city Vantaa are all located centrally in Uusimaa, making it by far the most populous region. Uusimaa was, along with the rest of Southern and Western Finland, the Swedish placenames of Uusimaa date back to this period. However, there are traces of the older Tavastian placenames left in some names, the names Uusimaa and Nyland mean “new land” in English. The Swedish-language name Nyland appears in the documents from the 14th century, the Finnish-language name Uusimaa appears for the first time in 1548 as Wsimaa in the first translation of the New Testament to Finnish by Mikael Agricola. The Finnish provinces were ceded to Imperial Russia in the War of Finland in 1809, after this, Uusimaa became the Province of Uusimaa of the old lääni system. From 1997 to 2010, Uusimaa was a part of the Province of Southern Finland and it has been divided in the regions of Uusimaa and Eastern Uusimaa. In 2011, two regions were merged, Uusimaa is an officially bilingual region, with both Finnish and Swedish having the same status. Helsinkis slang, stadin slangi, first evolved in the late 19th century,8. 5% of population of the region speak Swedish language as native. Is the main governing body for region and focueses primarily on urban planning, like all regional councils it is mandated by law. The region of Uusimaa is made up of 26 municipalities, of which 13 have city status, also two popular tabloid newspapers, Iltalehti and Ilta-Sanomat, are published there. The coat of arms of the shows a yellow boat which is a symbol for the coastal areas. Uusimaa received its coat of arms at the end of the 16th century, there is an image of the coat of arms made in 1599. In 1997, the coat of arms became the official coat of arms of the region
26.
Conscription in Finland
–
Conscription in Finland is part of a general compulsion for national military service for all adult males defined in the 127§ of the Constitution of Finland. Conscription can take the form of military or of civilian service, according to Finnish Defence Forces 2011 data slightly under 80% of Finnish males turned 30 had entered and finished the military service. The number of volunteers to annually enter armed service had stabilised at approximately 300. The service period is 165,255 or 347 days for the rank, the length of civilian service is always twelve months. Those electing to serve unarmed in duties where unarmed service is possible serve either nine or twelve months, any Finnish citizen who refuses to perform both military and civilian service faces a penalty of 173 days in prison, minus any served days. Such sentences are usually served fully in prison, with no parole, providing they are still an active member 3 years later, there is nothing to stop them getting a further certificate and deferment. The inhabitants of the demilitarized Åland Islands are exempt from military service, by the Conscription Act of 1951, they are, however, required to serve a time at a local institution, like the coast guard. However, until such service has been arranged, they are freed from service obligation, the non-military service of Åland islands has not been arranged since the introduction of the act, and there are no plans to institute it. The inhabitants of islands can also volunteer for military service on the mainland. As of 1995, women are permitted to serve on a voluntary basis, the military service takes place in Finnish Defence Forces or in the Finnish Border Guard. All services of the Finnish Defence Forces train conscripts, however, the Border Guard trains conscripts only in land-based units, not in coast guard detachments or in the Border Guard Air Wing. Civilian service may take place in the Civilian Service Center in Lapinjärvi or in an accepted non-profit organization of educational, social or medical nature, the Finnish Defence Forces is based on a universal male conscription. All men above 18 years of age are liable to serve either 165,255 or 347 days, yearly about 27,000 conscripts are trained. About 80% of Finnish male citizens complete the service, thus, Finland has one of the highest rates of conscription, along with such countries as Israel, Armenia, South Korea, Turkey, Estonia, and North Korea. The conscripts first receive basic training, after which they are assigned to units for special training. Privates who are trained for tasks not requiring special skills serve for five, in technically demanding tasks the time of service is eight and half or eleven and half months. All males are liable to report at the event of their municipality of domicile in the autumn of the year they turn 18. The Finnish Defence Forces sends the youth an official invitation to the event along with an information package, prior to the drafting event, the male is required to visit a municipal doctor for a physical examination
27.
Second lieutenant
–
Second lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer military rank in many armed forces, comparable to NATO OF-1b rank. Like the United Kingdom, the rank of second lieutenant replaced the rank of ensign, the rank of second lieutenant was phased out in the Australian Regular Army in 1986. The Canadian Forces adopted the rank insignia of a single gold ring around the service dress uniform cuff for both army and air personnel upon unification in 1968 until the late 2000s. For a time, naval personnel used this rank but reverted to the Royal Canadian Navy rank of acting sub-lieutenant, currently, the Canadian Army insignia for second lieutenant is a pip and the Royal Canadian Air Force insignia for lieutenant is one thick braid. The equivalent rank for the Royal Canadian Navy is acting sub-lieutenant, also known as an Ensign in the Foot Guards units. The insignia consists of a bar in accordance with the color of the ceremonial uniform buttons. For cavalry or forest rangers, ceremonial dress buttons were silver, as was the horn on the forest commissioned officers képi. The insignia consists of a silver star. Officers holding this rank should be addressed as Kyrie Anthypolochage by their subordinates, in Indonesia, Second lieutenant is known as Letnan Dua which is the most junior ranked officer in the Indonesian Military. Cadets who graduate from the Indonesian Military Academy achieve this rank as young officers, senior Non-commissioned officers promoted to becoming commissioned officers go to the Officers Candidate School in Bandung for achieving the Second Lieutenant rank. The Lieutenant rank has two levels, which are Second lieutenant and First lieutenant, lieutenants in Indonesia usually command a Platoon level of troops and are referred to as Danton abbreviated from Komandan Pleton in Indonesian. Since 1951 in the Israel Defense Forces (סגן-משנה (סגמ segen mishne has been equivalent to a second lieutenant, from 1948 –1951 the corresponding rank was that of a segen, which since 1951 has been equivalent to lieutenant. Segen mishne means junior lieutenant and segen literally translates as assistant, typically it is the rank of a platoon commander. Note that the IDF uses this rank across all three of its services, the equivalent rank in Norway is fenrik. This is the first rank, where they are commanding officer, Fenriks are usually former experienced sergeants but to become a fenrik one has to go through officers training and education. Fenriks fill roles as second in command within a platoon, Fenriks are in some cases executive officers. Most fenriks have finished the War Academy as well, and are fully trained officers, to qualify for the Military Academy, Fenriks are required to do minimum 6 months service in international missions, before or after graduation. The Pakistan Army follows the British pattern of ranks, a second lieutenant is represented by one metal pip on each shoulder in case of khaki uniform and one four quadric printed star on the chest in case of camouflage combat dress
28.
Andrew S. Tanenbaum
–
Andrew Stuart Andy Tanenbaum is an American computer scientist and professor emeritus of computer science at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam in the Netherlands. He is best known as the author of MINIX, a free Unix-like operating system for teaching purposes and he regards his teaching job as his most important work. Since 2004 he has operated Electoral-vote. com, a dedicated to analysis of polling data in federal elections in the United States. Tanenbaum was born in New York City and grew up in suburban White Plains and he received his bachelor of Science degree in Physics from MIT in 1965 and his Ph. D. degree in astrophysics from the University of California, Berkeley in 1971. Tanenbaum also served as a lobbyist for the Sierra Club and he moved to the Netherlands to live with his wife, who is Dutch, but he retains his United States citizenship. He teaches courses about Computer Organization and Operating Systems and supervises the work of Ph. D. candidates at the VU University Amsterdam, on 9 July 2014, he announced his retirement. Tanenbaum is well recognized for his textbooks on computer science and they include, Computer Networks, co-authored with David J. In his autobiography Just for Fun, Torvalds describes it as the book that launched me to new heights and they have appeared in over 175 editions and are used at universities around the world. These schools were intended to bring professors and Ph. D. students from different Dutch universities together to help them cooperate, Tanenbaum was one of the cofounders and first Dean of the Advanced School for Computing and Imaging. This school initially consisted of nearly 200 faculty members and Ph. D. students from the Vrije Universiteit, University of Amsterdam, Delft University of Technology and they were especially working on problems in advanced computer systems such as parallel computing and image analysis and processing. ASCI has since grown to include researchers from nearly a dozen universities in The Netherlands, Belgium, ASCI offers Ph. D. level courses, has an annual conference, and runs various workshops every year. The Amsterdam Compiler Kit is a toolkit for producing portable compilers and it was started sometime before 1981 and Andrew Tanenbaum was the architect from the start until version 5.5. In 1987, Tanenbaum wrote a clone of UNIX, called MINIX and it was targeted at students and others who wanted to learn how an operating system worked. Consequently, he wrote a book listed the source code in an appendix. The source code itself was available on a set of floppy disks, within three months, a Usenet newsgroup, comp. os. minix, had sprung up with over 40,000 subscribers discussing and improving the system. One of these subscribers was a Finnish student named Linus Torvalds who began adding new features to MINIX, on October 5,1991, Torvalds announced his own kernel, called Linux, which originally used the MINIX file system, but it is not based on MINIX code. Although MINIX and Linux have diverged, MINIX continues to be developed, the focus is on building a highly modular, reliable, and secure, operating system. The system is based on a microkernel, with only 5000 lines of running in kernel mode
29.
MINIX
–
MINIX is a POSIX-compliant, Unix-like computer operating system based on a microkernel architecture. Early versions of MINIX were created by Andrew S. Tanenbaum for educational purposes, starting with MINIX3, the primary aim of development shifted from education to the creation of a highly reliable and self-healing microkernel OS. MINIX is now developed as open-source software, MINIX was first released in 1987, with its complete source code made available to universities for study in courses and research. It has been free and open source software since it was re-licensed under the BSD license in April 2000, Andrew S. Tanenbaum created MINIX at Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam to exemplify the principles conveyed in his textbook, Operating Systems, Design and Implementation. An abridged 12,000 lines of the C source code of the kernel, memory manager, prentice-Hall also released MINIX source code and binaries on floppy disk with a reference manual. MINIX1 was system-call compatible with Seventh Edition Unix, Tanenbaum originally developed MINIX for compatibility with the IBM PC and IBM PC/AT microcomputers available at the time. There were also ports to Intel 386 PC compatibles, National Semiconductor NS32532, ARM. Meiko Scientific used a version of MINIX as the basis for the MeikOS operating system for its transputer-based Computing Surface parallel computers. A version of MINIX running as a process under SunOS and Solaris was also available. Demand for the 68k-based architectures waned, however, and MINIX2.0, released in 1997, was available for the x86. It was the subject of the edition of Tanenbaums textbook. MINIX2.0 added POSIX.1 compliance, support for 386 and later processors in 32-bit mode, unofficial ports of MINIX2.0.2 to the 68020-based ISICAD Prisma 700 workstation and the Hitachi SH3-based HP Jornada 680/690 PDA were also developed. Minix-vmd is a variant of MINIX2 for Intel IA-32-compatible processors, MINIX3 was publicly announced on 24 October 2005 by Andrew Tanenbaum during his keynote speech on top of the ACM Symposium Operating Systems Principles conference. MINIX3 currently supports IA-32 and ARM architecture systems, version 3.1.5 was released 5 November 2009. It contains X11, emacs, vi, cc, gcc, perl, python, ash, bash, zsh, ftp, ssh, telnet, pine, with the addition of X11, this version marks the transition away from a text-only system. It can also withstand driver crashes, in many cases it can automatically restart drivers without affecting running processes. In this way, MINIX is self-healing and can be used in applications demanding high reliability, MINIX3 also has support for virtual memory management, making it suitable for desktop OS use. Desktop applications such as Firefox and OpenOffice. org are not yet available for MINIX3 however
30.
Unix
–
Among these is Apples macOS, which is the Unix version with the largest installed base as of 2014. Many Unix-like operating systems have arisen over the years, of which Linux is the most popular, Unix was originally meant to be a convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmer users. The system grew larger as the system started spreading in academic circles, as users added their own tools to the system. Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time-sharing configuration and these concepts are collectively known as the Unix philosophy. By the early 1980s users began seeing Unix as a universal operating system. Under Unix, the system consists of many utilities along with the master control program. To mediate such access, the kernel has special rights, reflected in the division between user space and kernel space, the microkernel concept was introduced in an effort to reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a system in which most tasks were completed by smaller utilities. In an era when a standard computer consisted of a disk for storage and a data terminal for input and output. However, modern systems include networking and other new devices, as graphical user interfaces developed, the file model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as those generated by a mouse. In the 1980s, non-blocking I/O and the set of inter-process communication mechanisms were augmented with Unix domain sockets, shared memory, message queues, and semaphores. In microkernel implementations, functions such as network protocols could be moved out of the kernel, Multics introduced many innovations, but had many problems. Frustrated by the size and complexity of Multics but not by the aims and their last researchers to leave Multics, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, M. D. McIlroy, and J. F. Ossanna, decided to redo the work on a much smaller scale. The name Unics, a pun on Multics, was suggested for the project in 1970. Peter H. Salus credits Peter Neumann with the pun, while Brian Kernighan claims the coining for himself, in 1972, Unix was rewritten in the C programming language. Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are referred to as Research Unix. In 1975, the first source license for UNIX was sold to faculty at the University of Illinois Department of Computer Science, UIUC graduate student Greg Chesson was instrumental in negotiating the terms of this license. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to adoption of Unix by commercial startups, including Sequent, HP-UX, Solaris, AIX. In the late 1980s, AT&T Unix System Laboratories and Sun Microsystems developed System V Release 4, in the 1990s, Unix-like systems grew in popularity as Linux and BSD distributions were developed through collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers
31.
Digital Equipment Corporation
–
Digital Equipment Corporation, also known as DEC and using the trademark Digital, was a major American company in the computer industry from the 1950s to the 1990s. DEC was a vendor of computer systems, including computers, software. Their PDP and successor VAX products were the most successful of all minicomputers in terms of sales, DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq, in what was at that time the largest merger in the history of the computer industry. At the time, Compaq was focused on the market and had recently purchased several other large vendors. DEC was a major player overseas where Compaq had less presence, however, Compaq had little idea what to do with its acquisitions, and soon found itself in financial difficulty of its own. The company subsequently merged with Hewlett-Packard in May 2002, as of 2007 some of DECs product lines were still produced under the HP name. From 1957 until 1992, DECs headquarters were located in a wool mill in Maynard. DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq, which merged with Hewlett-Packard in May 2002. Some parts of DEC, notably the business and the Hudson. Initially focusing on the end of the computer market allowed DEC to grow without its potential competitors making serious efforts to compete with them. Their PDP series of machines became popular in the 1960s, especially the PDP-8, looking to simplify and update their line, DEC replaced most of their smaller machines with the PDP-11 in 1970, eventually selling over 600,000 units and cementing DECs position in the industry. Originally designed as a follow-on to the PDP-11, DECs VAX-11 series was the first widely used 32-bit minicomputer and these systems were able to compete in many roles with larger mainframe computers, such as the IBM System/370. The VAX was a best-seller, with over 400,000 sold, at its peak, DEC was the second largest employer in Massachusetts, second only to the Massachusetts State Government. The rapid rise of the business microcomputer in the late 1980s, DECs last major attempt to find a space in the rapidly changing market was the DEC Alpha 64-bit RISC instruction set architecture. DEC initially started work on Alpha as a way to re-implement their VAX series, DEC was acquired in June 1998 by Compaq, in what was at that time the largest merger in the history of the computer industry. At the time, Compaq was focused on the market and had recently purchased several other large vendors. DEC was a major player overseas where Compaq had less presence, however, Compaq had little idea what to do with its acquisitions, and soon found itself in financial difficulty of its own. The company subsequently merged with Hewlett-Packard in May 2002, as of 2007 some of DECs product lines were still produced under the HP name
32.
MicroVAX
–
The MicroVAX was a family of low-cost minicomputers developed and manufactured by Digital Equipment Corporation. The first model, the MicroVAX I, was introduced in 1984, the MicroVAX family used processors that implemented the VAX instruction set architecture and was succeeded by the VAX4000. The MicroVAX I, code named Seahorse, introduced in October 1984, was one of DECs first VAX computers to use very-large-scale integration technology, the KA610 CPU module contained two custom chips which implemented the ALU and FPU while TTLs were used for everything else. Two variants of the floating point chips were supported, with the chips differing by the type of floating point instructions supported, F and G, the MicroVAX II, code named Mayflower, was a mid-range MicroVAX introduced in May 1985. It ran VAX/VMS or, alternatively, ULTRIX, the DEC native Unix operating system and it used the KA630-AA CPU module, a quad-height Q22-Bus module, which featured a MicroVAX78032 microprocessor and a MicroVAX78132 floating-point coprocessor operating at 5 MHz. Two gate arrays on the module implemented the external interface for the microprocessor, Q22-bus interface, the module also contained 1 MB of memory, an interval timer, two ROMs for the boot and diagnostic facility, a DZ console serial line unit and a time-of-year clock. A 50-pin connector for a ribbon cable near the top corner of the module provided the means by which more memory was added to the system. The MicroVAX II supported 1 to 16 MB of memory through zero, the MS630 memory expansion module was used for expanding memory capacity. Four variants of the MS630 existed, the 1 MB MS630-AA,2 MB MS630-BA,4 MB MS630-BB, the MS630-AA was a dual-height module, whereas the MS630-BA, MS630-BB and MS630-CA were quad-height modules. These modules used 256 Kb DRAMs and were protected by byte-parity, the modules connected to the CPU module via the backplane through the C and D rows and a 50-conductor ribbon cable. The backplane served as the bus and the ribbon cable as the data bus. The MicroVAX II came in three models of enclosure, BA23 BA123 630QE - A deskside enclosure, KA620 referred to a single-board MicroVAX II designed for automatic test equipment and manufacturing applications which only ran DECs real-time VAXELN operating system. A KA620 with 1 MB of memory bundled with the VAXELN Run-Time Package 2.3 was priced at US$5,000, mira referred to a fault-tolerant configuration of the MicroVAX II developed by DECs European Centre for Special Systems located in Annecy in France. The system consisted of two MicroVAX78032 microprocessors, an active and standby microprocessor in a box, connected by Ethernet. When a fault was detected in the microprocessor, the workload was switched over to the standby microprocessor. A MicroVAX II in BA213 enclosure, bA23- or BA123-enclosure MicroVAX upgraded with KA650 CPU module containing a CVAX chip set. BA23- or BA123-enclosure MicroVAX upgraded with KA655 CPU module, bA23- or BA123-enclosure MicroVAX upgraded with KA660 CPU module. The MicroVAX2000, code named TeamMate, was a low-cost MicroVAX introduced on 10 February 1987, in January 1987, the MicroVAX2000 was the first VAX system targeted at both universities and VAX programmers who wanted to work from remote locations
33.
Commodore VIC-20
–
The VIC-20 is an 8-bit home computer that was sold by Commodore Business Machines. The VIC-20 was announced in 1980, roughly three years after Commodores first personal computer, the PET, the VIC-20 was the first computer of any description to sell one million units. The VIC-20 was intended to be more economical than the PET computer and it was equipped with 5 KB of static RAM and used the same MOS6502 CPU as the PET. As the Apple II gained momentum with the advent of VisiCalc in 1979, Jack Tramiel wanted a product that would compete in the same segment, for this reason Chuck Peddle and Bill Seiler started to design a computer named TOI. The TOI computer failed to materialize, mostly because it required an 80-column character display which in turn required the MOS Technology 6564 chip, however, the chip could not be used in the TOI since it required very expensive static RAM to operate fast enough. The serial IEEE 488-derivative CBM-488 interface was designed by Glen Stark, some features, like the memory add-in board, were designed by Bill Seiler. Altogether, the VIC20 development team consisted of five people, wed swipe whatever equipment we needed to get our jobs done. There was no way to get the work done. Theyd discover it was missing and they would just order more stuff from the warehouse, at the time, Commodore had an oversupply of 1 kbit×4 SRAM chips, so Tramiel decided that these should be used in the new computer. The end result was closer to the PET or TOI computers than to Yannes prototype. The original Revision A system board found in all silver-label VIC-20s used 2114 SRAMs and due to their tiny size, ten of them were required to reach 5k of system RAM. The Revision B system board, found in rainbow logo VIC-20s switched to larger 2048 byte SRAMs which reduced the count to five chips,2 x 2048 bytes chips +3 x 2114 chips. VIC-20s went through several variations in their 3-1/2 years of production, first-year models had a PET-style keyboard with a blocky font while most VIC-20s made during 1982 had a slightly different keyboard also shared with early C64s. The rainbow logo VIC-20 was introduced in early 1983 and has the newer C64 keyboard with gray function keys and it has a similar power supply to the C64 PSU, although the amperage is slightly lower. Older Revision A VIC-20s cannot use a C64 PSU or vice versa as their power requirement is too high, in April 1980, at a meeting of general managers outside London, Jack Tramiel declared that he wanted a low-cost color computer. When most of the GMs argued against it, he said, The Japanese are coming and this was in keeping with Tramiels philosophy which was to make computers for the masses, not the classes. Then, the project was given to Commodore Japan, a team led by Yash Terakura created the VIC-1001 for the Japanese market. The VIC-20 was marketed in Japan as VIC-1001 before VIC-20 was introduced to the US, when they returned to California from that meeting, Tomczyk wrote a 30-page memo detailing recommendations for the new computer, and presented it to Tramiel
34.
BASIC
–
BASIC is a family of general-purpose, high-level programming languages whose design philosophy emphasizes ease of use. In 1964, John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz designed the original BASIC language at Dartmouth College in the U. S. state of New Hampshire and they wanted to enable students in fields other than science and mathematics to use computers. At the time, nearly all use of computers required writing custom software, versions of BASIC became widespread on microcomputers in the mid-1970s and 1980s. Microcomputers usually shipped with BASIC, often in the machines firmware, having an easy-to-learn language on these early personal computers allowed small business owners, professionals, hobbyists, and consultants to develop custom software on computers they could afford. In the 2010s, BASIC remains popular in many computing dialects and in new languages influenced by BASIC, before the mid-1960s, the only computers were huge mainframe computers. Users submitted jobs on punched cards or similar media to specialist computer operators, the computer stored these, then used a batch processing system to run this queue of jobs one after another, allowing very high levels of utilization of these expensive machines. As the performance of computing hardware rose through the 1960s, multi-processing was developed and this allowed a mix of batch jobs to be run together, but the real revolution was the development of time-sharing. The original BASIC language was released on May 1,1964 by John G. Kemeny and Thomas E. Kurtz, the acronym BASIC comes from the name of an unpublished paper by Thomas Kurtz. BASIC was designed to allow students to write computer programs for the Dartmouth Time-Sharing System. It was intended specifically for technical users who did not have or want the mathematical background previously expected. Being able to use a computer to support teaching and research was quite novel at the time, the language was based on FORTRAN II, with some influences from ALGOL60 and with additions to make it suitable for timesharing. Wanting use of the language to become widespread, its designers made the available free of charge. They also made it available to schools in the Hanover area. In the following years, as dialects of BASIC appeared, Kemeny. A version was a part of the Pick operating system from 1973 onward. During this period a number of computer games were written in BASIC. A number of these were collected by DEC employee David H. Ahl and he later collected a number of these into book form,101 BASIC Computer Games, published in 1973. During the same period, Ahl was involved in the creation of a computer for education use
35.
MOS Technology 6502
–
The MOS Technology 6502 is an 8-bit microprocessor that was designed by a small team led by Chuck Peddle for MOS Technology. When it was introduced in 1975, the 6502 was, by a considerable margin and it initially sold for less than one-sixth the cost of competing designs from larger companies, such as Motorola and Intel, and caused rapid decreases in pricing across the entire processor market. Along with the Zilog Z80, it sparked a series of projects that resulted in the computer revolution of the early 1980s. Popular home video consoles and computers, such as Atari, Apple II, Nintendo Entertainment System, Commodore PET and others. Soon after the 6502s introduction, MOS Technology was purchased outright by Commodore International, in the early days of the 6502, it was second-sourced by Rockwell and Synertek, and later licensed to other companies. The 6502 was designed by many of the engineers that had designed the Motorola 6800 microprocessor family. Motorola started the 6800 microprocessor project in 1971 with Tom Bennett as the main architect, the chip layout began in late 1972, the first 6800 chips were fabricated in February 1974 and the full family was officially released in November 1974. John Buchanan was the designer of the 6800 chip and Rod Orgill, Bill Mensch joined Motorola in June 1971 after graduating from the University of Arizona. His first assignment was helping define the peripheral ICs for the 6800 family, Motorolas engineers could run analog and digital simulations on an IBM 370-165 mainframe computer. Bennett hired Chuck Peddle in 1973 to do architectural work on the 6800 family products already in progress. He contributed in areas, including the design of the 6850 ACIA. Motorolas target customers were established electronics companies such as Hewlett-Packard, Tektronix, TRW, in May 1972, Motorolas engineers began visiting select customers and sharing the details of their proposed 8-bit microprocessor system with ROM, RAM, parallel and serial interfaces. In early 1974, they provided engineering samples of the chips so that customers could prototype their designs, Motorolas total product family strategy did not focus on the price of the microprocessor, but on reducing the customers total design cost. They offered development software on a computer, the EXORciser system debugging system, onsite training. Both Intel and Motorola had initially announced a price for a single microprocessor. The actual price for production quantities was much less, Motorola offered a design kit containing the 6800 with six support chips for $300. Peddle, who would accompany the people on customer visits. To lower the price, the IC chip size would have to shrink so that more chips could be produced on each silicon wafer and this could be done by removing inessential features in the 6800 and using a newer fabrication technology, depletion-mode MOS transistors
36.
Machine code
–
Machine code or machine language is a set of instructions executed directly by a computers central processing unit. Each instruction performs a specific task, such as a load. Every program directly executed by a CPU is made up of a series of such instructions, numerical machine code may be regarded as the lowest-level representation of a compiled or assembled computer program or as a primitive and hardware-dependent programming language. While it is possible to write directly in numerical machine code, it is tedious and error prone to manage individual bits and calculate numerical addresses. For this reason machine code is almost never used to programs in modern contexts. Almost all practical programs today are written in languages or assembly language. However, the interpreter itself, which may be seen as an executor or processor, performing the instructions of the source code, every processor or processor family has its own machine code instruction set. Instructions are patterns of bits that by physical design correspond to different commands to the machine, thus, the instruction set is specific to a class of processors using the same architecture. Successor or derivative processor designs often include all the instructions of a predecessor, systems may also differ in other details, such as memory arrangement, operating systems, or peripheral devices. Because a program normally relies on such factors, different systems will not run the same machine code. A machine code instruction set may have all instructions of the same length, how the patterns are organized varies strongly with the particular architecture and often also with the type of instruction. Not all machines or individual instructions have explicit operands, an accumulator machine has a combined left operand and result in an implicit accumulator for most arithmetic instructions. Other architectures have accumulator versions of common instructions, with the accumulator regarded as one of the general registers by longer instructions, a stack machine has most or all of its operands on an implicit stack. Special purpose instructions also often lack explicit operands and this distinction between explicit and implicit operands is important in machine code generators, especially in the register allocation and live range tracking parts. A good code optimizer can track implicit as well as explicit operands which may allow more frequent constant propagation, constant folding of registers, a computer program is a sequence of instructions that are executed by a CPU. While simple processors execute instructions one after another, superscalar processors are capable of executing several instructions at once, program flow may be influenced by special jump instructions that transfer execution to an instruction other than the numerically following one. Conditional jumps are taken or not depending on some condition, a much more readable rendition of machine language, called assembly language, uses mnemonic codes to refer to machine code instructions, rather than using the instructions numeric values directly. For example, on the Zilog Z80 processor, the machine code 00000101, the MIPS instruction set provides a specific example for a machine code whose instructions are always 32 bits long
37.
Assembly language
–
Each assembly language is specific to a particular computer architecture. In contrast, most high-level programming languages are generally portable across multiple architectures, Assembly language may also be called symbolic machine code. Assembly language is converted into machine code by a utility program referred to as an assembler. The conversion process is referred to as assembly, or assembling the source code, Assembly time is the computational step where an assembler is run. Assembly language uses a mnemonic to represent each low-level machine instruction or opcode, typically also each architectural register, flag, depending on the architecture, these elements may also be combined for specific instructions or addressing modes using offsets or other data as well as fixed addresses. Many assemblers offer additional mechanisms to facilitate development, to control the assembly process. A macro assembler includes a facility so that assembly language text can be represented by a name. A cross assembler is an assembler that is run on a computer or operating system of a different type from the system on which the code is to run. Cross-assembling facilitates the development of programs for systems that do not have the resources to support software development, a microassembler is a program that helps prepare a microprogram, called firmware, to control the low level operation of a computer. A meta-assembler is a used in some circles for a program that accepts the syntactic and semantic description of an assembly language. An assembler program creates object code by translating combinations of mnemonics and syntax for operations and this representation typically includes an operation code as well as other control bits and data. The assembler also calculates constant expressions and resolves symbolic names for memory locations, the use of symbolic references is a key feature of assemblers, saving tedious calculations and manual address updates after program modifications. Most assemblers also include facilities for performing textual substitution – e. g. to generate common short sequences of instructions as inline. Some assemblers may also be able to some simple types of instruction set-specific optimizations. One concrete example of this may be the ubiquitous x86 assemblers from various vendors, most of them are able to perform jump-instruction replacements in any number of passes, on request. Like early programming languages such as Fortran, Algol, Cobol and Lisp, assemblers have been available since the 1950s, however, assemblers came first as they are far simpler to write than compilers for high-level languages. There may be several assemblers with different syntax for a particular CPU or instruction set architecture, despite different appearances, different syntactic forms generally generate the same numeric machine code, see further below. A single assembler may also have different modes in order to support variations in syntactic forms as well as their exact semantic interpretations, there are two types of assemblers based on how many passes through the source are needed to produce the executable program
38.
Sinclair QL
–
The Sinclair QL, is a personal computer launched by Sinclair Research in 1984, as an upper-end counterpart to the Sinclair ZX Spectrum. The QL was aimed at the home user and professional and executive users markets from small to large businesses and higher educational establishments. Based on a Motorola 68008 processor clocked at 7.5 MHz, two built-in Microdrive tape-loop cartridge drives provided mass storage, in place of the more expensive floppy disk drives found on similar systems of the era. Interfaces included a slot, ROM cartridge socket, dual RS-232 ports, proprietary QLAN local area network ports, dual joystick ports. Both screen modes used a 32 kB framebuffer in main memory, the hardware is capable of switching between two different areas of memory for the framebuffer, thus allowing double buffering. However, this would have used 64 KB of the standard machines 128 kB of RAM, the alternative and much improved operating system Minerva does provide full support for the second framebuffer. When connected to a normally-adjusted TV or monitor, the QLs video output would overscan horizontally and this was reputed to have been due to the timing constants in the ZX8301 chip being optimised for the flat-screen CRT display originally intended for the QL. Internally, the QL comprised the CPU, two ULAs, and an Intel 8049 microcontroller, the ZX8301 or Master Chip implemented the video display generator and also provided DRAM refresh. The ZX8302, or Peripheral Chip, interfaced to the RS-232 ports Microdrives, QLAN ports, real-time clock, the 8049 ran at 11 MHz and acted as a keyboard/joystick interface, RS-232 receive buffer and audio generator. The QL was bundled with a suite written by Psion. The QL used British Telecom type 631W plugs for serial cables except for QLs built by Samsung for export markets, joysticks connected to the QL with similar type 630W plugs. The QL was originally conceived in 1981 under the code-name ZX83, as a computer for business users, with a built-in ultra-thin flat-screen CRT display, printer. As development progressed it became clear that the portability features were over-ambitious. The electronics were designed by David Karlin, who joined Sinclair Research in summer 1982. The industrial design was done by Rick Dickinson, who designed the ZX81. Sinclair had commissioned GST Computer Systems to produce the system for the machine. GSTs OS, designed by Tim Ward, was made available as 68K/OS. The tools developed by GST for the QL would later be used on the Atari ST, the QL was designed to be more powerful than the IBM Personal Computer, and comparable to Apples Macintosh
39.
Text editor
–
A text editor is a type of program used for editing plain text files. Such programs are known as notepad software, following the Microsoft Notepad. Text editors are provided with operating systems and software development packages, there are important differences between plain text files created by a text editor and document files created by word processors such as Microsoft Word or WordPerfect. A plain text file uses a character encoding such as UTF-8 or ASCII to represent numbers, letters, the only non-printing characters in the file that can be used to format the text are newline, tab, and formfeed. Plain text files are displayed using a monospace font so horizontal alignment. Although they are viewed with formatting, documents using markup languages are stored in plain text files that contain a combination of human-readable text. For example, web pages are plain text with HTML tags to achieve formatting when rendered by a web browser, many web pages also contain embedded JavaScript that is interpreted by the browser. When both formats are available, the user must select with care, saving a plain text file in a word-processor format adds formatting information that can make the text unreadable by a program that expects plain text. Conversely, saving a document as plain text removes any formatting information. Before text editors existed, computer text was punched into cards with keypunch machines, physical boxes of these thin cardboard cards were then inserted into a card-reader. Magnetic tape and disk card-image files created from such card decks often had no characters at all. An alternative to cards was punched paper tape and it could be created by some teleprinters, which used special characters to indicate ends of records. The first text editors were line editors oriented to teleprinter- or typewriter-style terminals without displays, commands effected edits to a file at an imaginary insertion point called the cursor. Edits were verified by typing a command to print a small section of the file, in some line editors, the cursor could be moved by commands that specified the line number in the file, text strings for which to search, and eventually regular expressions. Line editors were major improvements over keypunching, some line editors could be used by keypunch, editing commands could be taken from a deck of cards and applied to a specified file. Some common line editors supported a mode in which change commands displayed the altered lines. When computer terminals with video screens became available, screen-based text editors became common, one of the earliest full-screen editors was O26, which was written for the operator console of the CDC6000 series computers in 1967. Another early full-screen editor was vi, written in the 1970s, it is still a standard editor on Unix and Linux operating systems
40.
Pac-Man
–
Pac-Man, stylized as PAC-MAN, is an arcade game developed by Namco and first released in Japan in May 1980. It was created by Japanese video game designer Toru Iwatani and it was licensed for distribution in the United States by Midway and released in October 1980. Immensely popular from its release to the present day, Pac-Man is considered one of the classics of the medium. Pac-Man was popular in the 1980s and 1990s and is played in the 2010s. When Pac-Man was released, the most popular video games were space shooters, in particular, Space Invaders. The most visible minority were sports games that were derivatives of Pong. Pac-Man succeeded by creating a new genre, Pac-Man is often credited with being a landmark in video game history and is among the most famous arcade games of all time. It is also one of the video games of all time. The character has appeared in more than 30 officially licensed game spin-offs, as well as in numerous unauthorized clones, according to the Davie-Brown Index, Pac-Man has the highest brand awareness of any video game character among American consumers, recognized by 94 percent of them. Pac-Man is one of the longest running video game franchises from the age of video arcade games. It is part of the collection of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D. C. the player controls Pac-Man through a maze, eating pac-dots. When all pac-dots are eaten, Pac-Man is taken to the next stage, between some stages, one of three intermission animations plays. Four enemies roam the maze, trying to catch Pac-Man, if an enemy touches Pac-Man, he loses a life. Whenever Pac-Man occupies the same tile as an enemy, he is considered to have collided with that ghost, when all lives have been lost, the game ends. Pac-Man is awarded a bonus life at 10,000 points by default—DIP switches inside the machine can change the required points or disable the bonus life altogether. Near the corners of the maze are four larger, flashing dots known as Power Pellets that provide Pac-Man with the ability to eat the enemies. The enemies turn deep blue, reverse direction and usually move more slowly, when an enemy is eaten, its eyes remain and return to the center box where it is regenerated in its normal color. The enemies in Pac-Man are known variously as monsters and ghosts, despite the seemingly random nature of the enemies, their movements are strictly deterministic, which players have used to their advantage
41.
Intel 80386
–
The Intel 80386, also known as i386 or just 386, is a 32-bit microprocessor introduced in 1985. The first versions had 275,000 transistors and were the CPU of many workstations, the 32-bit 80386 can correctly execute most code intended for the earlier 16-bit processors such as 8088 and 80286 that were ubiquitous in early PCs. Over the years, successively newer implementations of the architecture have become several hundreds of times faster than the original 80386. A33 MHz 80386 was reportedly measured to operate at about 11.4 MIPS, the 80386 was introduced in October 1985, while manufacturing of the chips in significant quantities commenced in June 1986. Mainboards for 80386-based computer systems were cumbersome and expensive at first, in May 2006, Intel announced that 80386 production would stop at the end of September 2007. Although it had long been obsolete as a personal computer CPU, Intel, such systems using an 80386 or one of many derivatives are common in aerospace technology and electronic musical instruments, among others. Some mobile phones used the 80386 processor, such as BlackBerry 950. The processor was a significant evolution in the x86 architecture, the predecessor of the 80386 was the Intel 80286, a 16-bit processor with a segment-based memory management and protection system. The 80386 added a 32-bit architecture and a translation unit. It also offered support for register debugging, the 80386 featured three operating modes, real mode, protected mode and virtual mode. The protected mode which debuted in the 286 was extended to allow the 386 to address up to 4 GB of memory, the all new virtual 8086 mode made it possible to run one or more real mode programs in a protected environment, although some programs were not compatible. Several new instructions have been added to 386, BSF, BSR, BT, BTS, BTR, BTC, CDQ, CWDE, LFS, LGS, LSS, MOVSX, MOVZX, SETcc, SHLD, SHRD. Two new segment registers have been added for general purpose programs, debug registers DR0-DR7 were added for hardware breakpoints. New forms of MOV instruction are used to access them, chief architect in the development of the 80386 was John H. Crawford. He was responsible for extending the 80286 architecture and instruction set to 32-bit, the 80486 and P5 Pentium line of processors were descendants of the 80386 design. The following data types are supported and thus implemented by one or more 80386 machine instructions. Bit, bit field and bit string, 8-bit integer, either signed or unsigned. 16-bit integer, either signed or unsigned, 32-bit integer, either signed or unsigned
.jpg)
listen); born December 28, 1969) is a Finnish-American software engineer[2][6] who is the creator, and for a long time, principal developer of the Linux kernel, which became the kernel for operating systems such as the Linux operating systems, Android, and Chrome OS. He also created the distributed revision control system Git and the diving logging and planning software Subsurface, he was honored, along with Shinya Yamanaka, with the 2012 Millennium Technology Prize by the Technology Academy Finland "in recognition of his creation of a new open source operating system for computers leading to the widely used Linux kernel".[7] He is also the recipient of the 2014 IEEE Computer Society Computer Pioneer Award[8] and the 2018 IEEE Masaru Ibuka Consumer Electronics Award.[9]
Media from Wikimedia Commons
Quotations from Wikiquote
Data from Wikidata
