1.
Linux distribution
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A Linux distribution is an operating system made from a software collection, which is based upon the Linux kernel and, often, a package management system. A typical Linux distribution comprises a Linux kernel, GNU tools and libraries, additional software, documentation, a system, a window manager. Most of the software is free and open-source software made available both as compiled binaries and in source code form, allowing modifications to the original software. Usually, Linux distributions optionally include some proprietary software that may not be available in source code form, the software is usually adapted to the distribution and then packaged into software packages by the distributions maintainers. The software packages are available online in so-called repositories, which are storage locations usually distributed around the world, almost six hundred Linux distributions exist, with close to five hundred out of those in active development. There are commercially backed distributions, such as Fedora, openSUSE and Ubuntu, most distributions come ready to use and pre-compiled for a specific instruction set, while some distributions are distributed mostly in source code form and compiled locally during installation. Linus Torvalds developed the Linux kernel and distributed its first version,0.01, since the installation procedure was complicated, especially in the face of growing amounts of available software, distributions sprang up to simplify this. Early distributions included the following, H. J, the SLS distribution was not well maintained, so in July 1993 a new distribution, called Slackware and based on SLS, was released by Patrick Volkerding. Also dissatisfied with SLS, Ian Murdock set to create a distribution by founding Debian. Most early adopters were familiar with Unix from work or school and they embraced Linux distributions for their low cost, and availability of the source code for most or all of the software included. Originally, the distributions were simply a convenience, but later became the usual choice even for Unix or Linux experts. To date, Linux has become popular in server and embedded devices markets than in the desktop market. For example, Linux is used on over 50% of web servers, many Linux distributions provide an installation system akin to that provided with other modern operating systems. Distributions are normally segmented into packages, each package contains a specific application or service. Examples of packages are a library for handling the PNG image format, the package is typically provided as compiled code, with installation and removal of packages handled by a package management system rather than a simple file archiver. Each package intended for such a PMS contains meta-information such as a description, version. Although Linux distributions typically contain much more software than proprietary operating systems, an example would be a newer version of a software application than that supplied with a distribution, or an alternative to that chosen by the distribution. If the additional software is distributed in form, this approach requires local compilation
2.
Linux Foundation
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In recent years, the Linux Foundation has expanded its services through events, training and certification and Collaborative Projects. The Linux Foundation promotes, protects, and standardizes Linux by providing a set of services to compete effectively with closed platforms. The origin of The Linux Foundation can be traced back to 2000 when the Open Source Development Labs was founded. In 2003, Linus Torvalds, the creator of the freely available Linux operating system announced he would join the organization as an OSDL Fellow to work full-time on future versions of Linux. In 2007, OSDL merged with the Free Standards Group, another organization promoting the adoption of Linux, at the time, Jim Zemlin, who headed FSG, took over as executive director of The Linux Foundation. Major parts including OpenPrinting were still offline on October 20,2011, the restoration was complete on January 4,2012. The Linux Foundation serves as a spokesperson for Linux and generates original content that advances the understanding of the Linux platform. It also fosters innovation by hosting collaboration events among the Linux technical community, application developers, industry, through the Linux Foundations community programs, end users, developers, and industry members collaborate on technical, legal, and promotional issues. In order for Linux Kernel creator Linus Torvalds and other key developers to remain independent. The Linux Foundation offers application developers standardization services and support that makes Linux an attractive target for their development efforts and these include, the Linux Standard Base and the Linux Developer Network. The Linux Foundation also provides services to key areas of the Linux community, including an open source developer travel fund, through its workgroups, members and developers can collaborate on key technical areas. There is also a program that is vendor-neutral, technically advanced. On March 3,2009, the Linux Foundation announced that they would take over management of Linux. com from its previous owners, SourceForge and it also includes a directory of Linux software and hardware. Much like Linux itself, Linux. com plans to rely on the community to create and drive the content, the Linux Foundation hosts a Linux video forum where users, developers and vendors can create and share Linux video tutorials. It also includes videos from recent Linux Foundation events, as well as other industry forums and it is the home for the annual Linux Foundation Video Contest. The Linux Foundation plans to add commissioned series of Linux video tutorials on Linux. com in the months ahead, the Linux Developer Network is an online community for Linux application developers and independent software vendors who want to start or continue to develop applications for the Linux platform. The Linux Developer Networks goal is to empower developers to target the Linux platform, one of the ways the Linux Developer Network helps developers accomplish this is to help them build portable Linux applications. The Linux Developer Network also gives developers tools to create the best Linux apps possible, the Linux Foundation Training Program features instructors and content straight from the leaders of the Linux developer community
3.
Operating system
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An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
4.
Application binary interface
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In computer software, an application binary interface is the interface between two program modules, one of which is often a library or operating system, at the level of machine code. ABIs differ from application programming interfaces, which similarly define interfaces between components, but at the source code level. Other ABIs standardize details such as the C++ name mangling, exception propagation, developers writing their own assembly language code may also interface with assembly generated by a compliant compiler. EABIs are designed to optimize for performance within the resources of an embedded system. Therefore, EABIs omit most abstractions that are made between kernel and user code in complex operating systems, the choice of EABI can affect performance. Widely used EABIs include PowerPC, ARM EABI2 and MIPS EABI
5.
Library (computing)
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In computer science, a library is a collection of non-volatile resources used by computer programs, often to develop software. These may include data, documentation, help data, message templates, pre-written code. In IBMs OS/360 and its successors they are referred to as partitioned data sets, a library is also a collection of implementations of behavior, written in terms of a language, that has a well-defined interface by which the behavior is invoked. For instance, people who want to write a higher level program can use a library to make system calls instead of implementing those system calls over and over again, in addition, the behavior is provided for reuse by multiple independent programs. A program invokes the library-provided behavior via a mechanism of the language, for example, in a simple imperative language such as C, the behavior in a library is invoked by using Cs normal function-call. What distinguishes the call as being to a library, versus being to function in the same program, is the way that the code is organized in the system. This distinction can gain a hierarchical notion when a program grows large, in that case, there may be internal libraries that are reused by independent sub-portions of the large program. The value of a lies in the reuse of the behavior. When a program invokes a library, it gains the behavior implemented inside that library without having to implement that behavior itself, libraries encourage the sharing of code in a modular fashion, and ease the distribution of the code. The behavior implemented by a library can be connected to the program at different program lifecycle phases. If the code of the library is accessed during the build of the invoking program, an alternative is to build the executable of the invoking program and distribute that, independently of the library implementation. The library behavior is connected after the executable has been invoked to be executed, either as part of the process of starting the execution, in this case the library is called a dynamic library. A dynamic library can be loaded and linked when preparing a program for execution, alternatively, in the middle of execution, an application may explicitly request that a module be loaded. Most compiled languages have a library although programmers can also create their own custom libraries. Most modern software systems provide libraries that implement the majority of the system services, such libraries have commoditized the services which a modern application requires. As such, most code used by modern applications is provided in these system libraries, the earliest programming concepts analogous to libraries were intended to separate data definitions from the program implementation. JOVIAL brought the COMPOOL concept to popular attention in 1959, although it adopted the idea from the large-system SAGE software, COBOL also included primitive capabilities for a library system in 1959, but Jean Sammet described them as inadequate library facilities in retrospect. Another major contributor to the library concept came in the form of the subprogram innovation of FORTRAN
6.
Spooling
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In computing, spooling is a specialized form of multi-programming for the purpose of copying data between different devices. In contemporary systems it is used for mediating between a computer application and a slow peripheral, such as a printer. Spooling allows programs to hand off work to be done by the peripheral and then proceed to other tasks, a dedicated program, the spooler, maintains an orderly sequence of jobs for the peripheral and feeds it data at its own rate. The spool itself refers to the sequence of jobs, or the area where they are held. In many cases the spooler is able to drive devices at their full rated speed with minimal impact on other processing, spooling is a combination of buffering and queueing. Nowadays, the most common use of spooling is printing, documents formatted for printing are stored in a queue at the speed of the computer, then retrieved and printed at the speed of the printer. Multiple processes can write documents to the spool without waiting, and can perform other tasks. For example, when a large organization prepares payroll checks, the computation takes only a few minutes or even seconds, if the payroll program printed checks directly, it would be unable to proceed to other computations until all the checks were printed. Similarly, before spooling was added to PC operating systems, word processors were unable to do anything else, including interact with the user, a print server applies spooling techniques to allow many computers to share the same printer or group of printers. Print spoolers can often be configured to add a banner page to the front of each document and these separate documents from each other, identify each document and often also state who printed it. Banner pages are valuable in office environments where people share a small number of printers. Depending on the configuration, banner pages might be generated on each client computer, or on a print server. On printers using fanfold continuous forms a leading banner page would often be printed twice, the page might include lines printed over the fold, which would be visible along the edge of a stack of printed output, allowing the operator to easily separate the jobs. Some systems would also print a page at the end of each job. Spooling is also used to access to punched card readers and punches, magnetic tape drives. A batch processing system uses spooling to maintain a queue of ready-to-run tasks, peripherals device have always been much slower than core processing units. This was a severe problem for early mainframes. For example, a job which read punched cards or generated printed output directly was forced to run at the speed of the mechanical devices
7.
CUPS
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CUPS is a modular printing system for Unix-like computer operating systems which allows a computer to act as a print server. A computer running CUPS is a host that can accept print jobs from client computers, process them, CUPS uses the Internet Printing Protocol as the basis for managing print jobs and queues. System administrators can configure the device drivers which CUPS supplies by editing text files in Adobes PostScript Printer Description format, there are a number of user interfaces for different platforms that can configure CUPS, and it has a built-in web-based interface. CUPS is free software, provided under the GNU General Public License and GNU Lesser General Public License, Michael Sweet, who owned Easy Software Products, started developing CUPS in 1997 and the first public betas appeared in 1999. The original design of CUPS used the LPD protocol, but due to limitations in LPD and vendor incompatibilities, CUPS was quickly adopted as the default printing system for most Linux distributions. In March 2002, Apple Inc. adopted CUPS as the system for Mac OS X10.2. In February 2007, Apple Inc. hired chief developer Michael Sweet, CUPS provides a mechanism that allows print jobs to be sent to printers in a standard fashion. The print-data goes to a scheduler which sends jobs to a system that converts the print job into a format the printer will understand. The filter system then passes the data on to a special filter that sends print data to a device or network connection. The system makes use of PostScript and rasterization of data to convert the data into a format suitable for the destination printer. CUPS offers a standard and modularised printing system that can process numerous data formats on the print server, before CUPS, it was difficult to find a standard printer management system that would accommodate the very wide variety of printers on the market using their own printer languages and formats. They often could not detect the file format that was being sent to the printer, additionally, data conversion was performed on individual workstations rather than a central server. CUPS allows printer manufacturers and printer-driver developers to easily create drivers that work natively on the print server. Processing occurs on the server, allowing for easier network-based printing than with other Unix printing systems, with Samba installed, users can address printers on remote Windows computers, and generic PostScript drivers can be used for printing across the network. The CUPS scheduler implements Internet Printing Protocol over HTTP/1.1, a helper application converts Line Printer Daemon protocol requests to IPP. The scheduler also provides an interface for managing print jobs, the configuration of the server. An authorization module controls which IPP and HTTP messages can pass through the system, once the IPP/HTTP packets are authorized they are sent to the client module, which listens for and processes incoming connections. The client module is responsible for executing external CGI programs as needed to support web-based printers, classes
8.
Foomatic
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Foomatic is a configurable printing filter. It uses PPD files as configuration to generate appropriate output for a given printer and it is spooler independent which means it can be used with Common Unix Printing System, LPRng and others. It uses Ghostscript in the background, using options according to the PPD file of the printer, currently it is developed by the OpenPrinting workgroup of the Linux Foundation. Like CUPS, foomatic supposes that applications will produce output in PostScript, if the output spools to a PostScript printer, no further action is needed. The components of the package are, foomatic-filters It transforms PostScript data to raster and it needs a low level driver to generate the final code. Foomatic-tools foomatic-db-engine, A tool that generates PPD files from the data in Foomatics database and it also contains scripts to directly configure print queues and handle jobs. Foomatic-db, The collected knowledge about printers, drivers, and driver options in XML files, foomatic-db-hpijs, Foomatic XML data generators for HPs HPIJS driver
9.
X Window System
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The X Window System is a windowing system for bitmap displays, common on UNIX-like computer operating systems. X provides the framework for a GUI environment, drawing and moving windows on the display device and interacting with a mouse. X does not mandate the user interface – this is handled by individual programs, as such, the visual styling of X-based environments varies greatly, different programs may present radically different interfaces. X originated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1984, the protocol has been version 11 since September 1987. The X. Org Foundation leads the X project, with the current reference implementation, X. Org Server, available as free and open source software under the MIT License, X is an architecture-independent system for remote graphical user interfaces and input device capabilities. Each person using a terminal has the ability to interact with the display with any type of user input device. X provides the framework, or primitives, for building such GUI environments, drawing and moving windows on the display and interacting with a mouse. X does not mandate the user interface, individual client programs handle this, programs may use Xs graphical abilities with no user interface. As such, the styling of X-based environments varies greatly. Unlike most earlier display protocols, X was specifically designed to be used over network connections rather than on an integral or attached display device. X features network transparency, which means an X program running on a computer somewhere on a network can display its user interface on an X server running on other computer on the network. The fact that the server is applied to the software in front of the user is often surprising to users accustomed to their programs being clients to services on remote computers. Xs network protocol is based on X command primitives and this approach allows both 2D and 3D operations by an X client application which might be running on a different computer to still be fully accelerated on the X servers display. X provides no support for audio, several projects exist to fill this niche. X uses a model, an X server communicates with various client programs. The server accepts requests for graphical output and sends back user input, a client and server can even communicate securely over the Internet by tunneling the connection over an encrypted network session. An X client itself may emulate an X server by providing services to other clients. This is known as X nesting, open-source clients such as Xnest and Xephyr support such X nesting
10.
Red Hat
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Red Hat, Inc. is an American multinational software company providing open-source software products to the enterprise community. Founded in 1993, Red Hat has its headquarters in Raleigh, North Carolina. Red Hat has become associated to an extent with its enterprise operating system Red Hat Enterprise Linux. Red Hat also offers Red Hat Virtualization, a virtualization product. Red Hat provides storage, operating system platforms, middleware, applications, management products, and support, training, Red Hat creates, maintains, and contributes to many free software projects. It has acquired several proprietary software product codebases through corporate mergers, as of March 2016, Red Hat is the second largest corporate contributor to the Linux kernel version 4.5 after Intel. In 1993, Bob Young incorporated the ACC Corporation, a business that sold Linux. In 1994, Marc Ewing created his own Linux distribution, which he named Red Hat Linux, Ewing released the software in October, and it became known as the Halloween release. Young bought Ewings business in 1995, and the two merged to become Red Hat Software, with Young serving as executive officer. Red Hat went public on August 11,1999, achieving the eighth-biggest first-day gain in the history of Wall Street, matthew Szulik succeeded Bob Young as CEO in December of that year. Bob Young went on to found the print on demand and self-publishing company. Before its IPO, Red Hat had received funding from Joyce Young. When Red Hat went public, she cashed in enough stock to recoup her initial investment, then left the remaining stock to linger, for fun. Her return on investment was so great that, by January 2000 she was a millionaire, on November 15,1999, Red Hat acquired Cygnus Solutions. Cygnus provided commercial support for software and housed maintainers of GNU software products such as the GNU Debugger. One of the founders of Cygnus, Michael Tiemann, became the technical officer of Red Hat. Later Red Hat acquired WireSpeed, C2Net and Hells Kitchen Systems, in February 2000, InfoWorld awarded Red Hat its fourth consecutive Operating System Product of the Year award for Red Hat Linux 6.1. Red Hat acquired Planning Technologies, Inc in 2001 and AOLs iPlanet directory, Red Hat moved its headquarters from Durham to North Carolina State Universitys Centennial Campus in Raleigh, North Carolina in February 2002
11.
Fedora (operating system)
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Fedora /fᵻˈdɒr. ə/ is an operating system based on the Linux kernel, developed by the community-supported Fedora Project and sponsored by Red Hat. Fedora contains software distributed under a free and open-source license and aims to be on the edge of such technologies. As of February 2016, Fedora has an estimated 1.2 million users, including Linus Torvalds, Fedora has a reputation for focusing on innovation, integrating new technologies early on and working closely with upstream Linux communities. Making changes upstream instead of specifically in Fedora ensures that the changes are available to all Linux distributions, Fedora users can upgrade from version to version without reinstalling. The default desktop environment in Fedora is GNOME and the user interface is the GNOME Shell. Other desktop environments, including KDE Plasma, Xfce, LXDE, MATE and Cinnamon, are available, Fedora uses the RPM package management system. Flatpak is also supported by default, and support for Ubuntus snaps can also be added, Fedora uses Delta RPMs when updating installed packages. A Delta RPM contains the difference between an old and new version of a package and this means that only the changes between the installed package and the new one are downloaded reducing network traffic and bandwidth consumption. Fedora provides hardening wrapper, and does hardening for all of its packages by using features such as position-independent executable. Fedora comes installed with a range of software such as LibreOffice. Additional software is available from the repositories and can be installed using the DNF package manager or GNOME Software. Additionally, extra repositories can be added to the system, so that software not available in Fedora can be installed, popular third-party repositories include RPM Fusion free and non-free repositories. Fedora also provides users with a build system for creating their own repositories called Copr. It comes with GNOME by default but other desktops can be installed or can be installed as Spins. Fedora Server – Its target usage is for servers, and it includes the latest data center technologies and this edition doesnt come with a desktop environment, but one can be installed. Fedora Cloud – It provides an image of Fedora which includes just the bare essentials. It is meant for deployment in cloud computing and it also provides Fedora Atomic Host images which are optimized minimal images for container uses. A Live USB drive can be created using Fedora Live USB creator or the dd command and it allows the users to try Fedora without making changes to the hard disk
12.
PowerPC
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PowerPC is a RISC instruction set architecture created by the 1991 Apple–IBM–Motorola alliance, known as AIM. PowerPC was the cornerstone of AIMs PReP and Common Hardware Reference Platform initiatives in the 1990s and it has since become niche in personal computers, but remain popular as embedded and high-performance processors. Its use in game consoles and embedded applications provided an array of uses. In addition, PowerPC CPUs are still used in AmigaOne and third party AmigaOS4 personal computers, the history of RISC began with IBMs 801 research project, on which John Cocke was the lead developer, where he developed the concepts of RISC in 1975–78. 801-based microprocessors were used in a number of IBM embedded products, the RT was a rapid design implementing the RISC architecture. The result was the POWER instruction set architecture, introduced with the RISC System/6000 in early 1990, the original POWER microprocessor, one of the first superscalar RISC implementations, was a high performance, multi-chip design. IBM soon realized that a microprocessor was needed in order to scale its RS/6000 line from lower-end to high-end machines. Work on a one-chip POWER microprocessor, designated the RSC began, in early 1991, IBM realized its design could potentially become a high-volume microprocessor used across the industry. IBM approached Apple with the goal of collaborating on the development of a family of single-chip microprocessors based on the POWER architecture and this three-way collaboration became known as AIM alliance, for Apple, IBM, Motorola. In 1991, the PowerPC was just one facet of an alliance among these three companies. The PowerPC chip was one of joint ventures involving the three, in their efforts to counter the growing Microsoft-Intel dominance of personal computing. For Motorola, POWER looked like an unbelievable deal and it allowed them to sell a widely tested and powerful RISC CPU for little design cash on their own part. It also maintained ties with an important customer, Apple, and seemed to offer the possibility of adding IBM too, at this point Motorola already had its own RISC design in the form of the 88000 which was doing poorly in the market. Motorola was doing well with their 68000 family and the majority of the funding was focused on this, the 88000 effort was somewhat starved for resources. However, the 88000 was already in production, Data General was shipping 88000 machines, the 88000 had also achieved a number of embedded design wins in telecom applications. The result of various requirements was the PowerPC specification. The differences between the earlier POWER instruction set and PowerPC is outlined in Appendix E of the manual for PowerPC ISA v.2.02, when the first PowerPC products reached the market, they were met with enthusiasm. In addition to Apple, both IBM and the Motorola Computer Group offered systems built around the processors, Microsoft released Windows NT3.51 for the architecture, which was used in Motorolas PowerPC servers, and Sun Microsystems offered a version of its Solaris OS
13.
Itanium
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Itanium is a family of 64-bit Intel microprocessors that implement the Intel Itanium architecture. Intel markets the processors for servers and high-performance computing systems. The Itanium architecture originated at Hewlett-Packard, and was jointly developed by HP. Itanium-based systems have produced by HP and several other manufacturers. In 2008, Itanium was the fourth-most deployed microprocessor architecture for enterprise-class systems, behind x86-64, Power Architecture, the currently shipping Itanium processor generation, Poulson, was released on November 8,2012. In February 2017, Intel began releasing its successor, Kittson, to test customers, as Intel has not provided a roadmap beyond it and Hewlett-Packard is the only remaining major Itanium vendor, press and analysts have speculated that it will be the last Itanium generation. In 1989, HP determined that Reduced Instruction Set Computing architectures were approaching a processing limit at one instruction per cycle, HP researchers investigated a new architecture, later named Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing, that allows the processor to execute multiple instructions in each clock cycle. EPIC implements a form of very long instruction word architecture, in which a single instruction word contains multiple instructions, Intel was willing to undertake a very large development effort on IA-64 in the expectation that the resulting microprocessor would be used by the majority of enterprise systems manufacturers. HP and Intel initiated a joint development effort with a goal of delivering the first product, Merced. Compaq and Silicon Graphics decided to further development of the Alpha. Several groups developed operating systems for the architecture, including Microsoft Windows, OpenVMS, Linux, and UNIX variants such as HP-UX, Solaris, Tru64 UNIX, and Monterey/64. By 1997, it was apparent that the IA-64 architecture and the compiler were much more difficult to implement than originally thought, technical difficulties included the very high transistor counts needed to support the wide instruction words and the large caches. There were also structural problems within the project, as the two parts of the joint team used different methodologies and had different priorities. Since Merced was the first EPIC processor, the development effort encountered more unanticipated problems than the team was accustomed to, in addition, the EPIC concept depends on compiler capabilities that had never been implemented before, so more research was needed. Intel announced the name of the processor, Itanium, on October 4,1999. Within hours, the name Itanic had been coined on a Usenet newsgroup, a reference to Titanic, by the time Itanium was released in June 2001, its performance was not superior to competing RISC and CISC processors. Itanium competed at the low-end with servers based on x86 processors, Intel repositioned Itanium to focus on high-end business and HPC computing, attempting to duplicate x86s successful horizontal market. POWER and SPARC remained strong, while the 32-bit x86 architecture continued to grow into the enterprise space, only a few thousand systems using the original Merced Itanium processor were sold, due to relatively poor performance, high cost and limited software availability
14.
Internationalization and localization
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In computing, internationalization and localization are means of adapting computer software to different languages, regional differences and technical requirements of a target market. Internationalization is the process of designing a software application so that it can potentially be adapted to various languages, localization is the process of adapting internationalized software for a specific region or language by adding locale-specific components and translating text. Localization uses the infrastructure or flexibility provided by internationalization, the terms are frequently abbreviated to the numeronyms i18n and L10n for localization, due to the length of the words. Some companies, like IBM and Sun Microsystems, use the term globalization, g11n, Microsoft defines Internationalization as a combination of World-Readiness and localization. World-Readiness is a task, which enables a product to be used with multiple scripts and cultures. Hewlett-Packard and HP-UX created the system called NLS to produce localizable software, translation is typically the most time-consuming component of language localization. These differences may need to be taken account by the internationalization process in preparation for translation. Many of these differences are so regular that a conversion between languages can be easily automated, the Common Locale Data Repository by Unicode provides a collection of such differences. Its data is used by operating systems, including Microsoft Windows, OS X and Debian, and by major internet companies or projects such as Google. Examples of such include, Different scripts in different writing systems use different characters - a different set of letters, syllograms, logograms. Modern system use the Unicode standard to represent many different languages with a character encoding. Writing direction is left to right in most European languages, right-to-left in Hebrew and Arabic, complex text layout, for languages where characters change shape depending on context. Capitalization exists in some scripts and not in others, other grammar rules might also vary, e. g. genitive. Keyboard shortcuts can only use of buttons actually on the keyboard layout which is being localized for. If a shortcut corresponds to a word in a particular language, other areas often follow one of these. Specific third-party services, such as maps, weather reports, or payment service providers, might not be available worldwide from the same carriers. Time zones vary across the world, and this must be taken into account if a product originally only interacted with people in a time zone. For internationalization, UTC is often used internally and then converted into a time zone for display purposes
15.
X86-64
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X86-64 is the 64-bit version of the x86 instruction set. It supports vastly larger amounts of memory and physical memory than is possible on its 32-bit predecessors. X86-64 also provides 64-bit general-purpose registers and numerous other enhancements and it is fully backward compatible with 16-bit and 32-bit x86 code. The original specification, created by AMD and released in 2000, has been implemented by AMD, Intel, the AMD K8 processor was the first to implement the architecture, this was the first significant addition to the x86 architecture designed by a company other than Intel. Intel was forced to suit and introduced a modified NetBurst family which was fully software-compatible with AMDs design. VIA Technologies introduced x86-64 in their VIA Isaiah architecture, with the VIA Nano, the x86-64 specification is distinct from the Intel Itanium architecture, which is not compatible on the native instruction set level with the x86 architecture. AMD64 was created as an alternative to the radically different IA-64 architecture, the first AMD64-based processor, the Opteron, was released in April 2003. AMDs processors implementing the AMD64 architecture include Opteron, Athlon 64, Athlon 64 X2, Athlon 64 FX, Athlon II, Turion 64, Turion 64 X2, Sempron, Phenom, Phenom II, FX, Fusion and Ryzen. The primary defining characteristic of AMD64 is the availability of 64-bit general-purpose processor registers, 64-bit integer arithmetic and logical operations, the designers took the opportunity to make other improvements as well. Some of the most significant changes are described below, pushes and pops on the stack default to 8-byte strides, and pointers are 8 bytes wide. Additional registers In addition to increasing the size of the general-purpose registers, AMD64 still has fewer registers than many common RISC instruction sets or VLIW-like machines such as the IA-64. However, an AMD64 implementation may have far more internal registers than the number of architectural registers exposed by the instruction set, additional XMM registers Similarly, the number of 128-bit XMM registers is also increased from 8 to 16. Larger virtual address space The AMD64 architecture defines a 64-bit virtual address format and this allows up to 256 TB of virtual address space. The architecture definition allows this limit to be raised in future implementations to the full 64 bits and this is compared to just 4 GB for the x86. This means that very large files can be operated on by mapping the entire file into the address space, rather than having to map regions of the file into. Larger physical address space The original implementation of the AMD64 architecture implemented 40-bit physical addresses, current implementations of the AMD64 architecture extend this to 48-bit physical addresses and therefore can address up to 256 TB of RAM. The architecture permits extending this to 52 bits in the future, for comparison, 32-bit x86 processors are limited to 64 GB of RAM in Physical Address Extension mode, or 4 GB of RAM without PAE mode. Any implementation therefore allows the physical address limit as under long mode
16.
International Organization for Standardization
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The International Organization for Standardization is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations. Founded on 23 February 1947, the organization promotes worldwide proprietary and it is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and as of March 2017 works in 162 countries. It was one of the first organizations granted general consultative status with the United Nations Economic, ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, is an independent, non-governmental organization, the members of which are the standards organizations of the 162 member countries. It is the worlds largest developer of international standards and facilitates world trade by providing common standards between nations. Nearly twenty thousand standards have been set covering everything from manufactured products and technology to food safety, use of the standards aids in the creation of products and services that are safe, reliable and of good quality. The standards help businesses increase productivity while minimizing errors and waste, by enabling products from different markets to be directly compared, they facilitate companies in entering new markets and assist in the development of global trade on a fair basis. The standards also serve to safeguard consumers and the end-users of products and services, the three official languages of the ISO are English, French, and Russian. The name of the organization in French is Organisation internationale de normalisation, according to the ISO, as its name in different languages would have different abbreviations, the organization adopted ISO as its abbreviated name in reference to the Greek word isos. However, during the meetings of the new organization, this Greek word was not invoked. Both the name ISO and the logo are registered trademarks, the organization today known as ISO began in 1926 as the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations. ISO is an organization whose members are recognized authorities on standards. Members meet annually at a General Assembly to discuss ISOs strategic objectives, the organization is coordinated by a Central Secretariat based in Geneva. A Council with a membership of 20 member bodies provides guidance and governance. The Technical Management Board is responsible for over 250 technical committees, ISO has formed joint committees with the International Electrotechnical Commission to develop standards and terminology in the areas of electrical and electronic related technologies. Information technology ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 was created in 1987 to evelop, maintain, ISO has three membership categories, Member bodies are national bodies considered the most representative standards body in each country. These are the members of ISO that have voting rights. Correspondent members are countries that do not have their own standards organization and these members are informed about ISOs work, but do not participate in standards promulgation. Subscriber members are countries with small economies and they pay reduced membership fees, but can follow the development of standards
17.
GNU C Library
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The GNU C Library, commonly known as glibc, is the GNU Projects implementation of the C standard library. Despite its name, it now also directly supports C++ and it was started in the early 1990s by the Free Software Foundation for their GNU operating system. Released under the GNU Lesser General Public License, glibc is free software, the Glibc project was initially written mostly by Roland McGrath, working for the Free Software Foundation in the 1980s. In February 1988, FSF described glibc as having completed the functionality required by ANSI C. By 1992, it had the ANSI C-1989 and POSIX. 1-1990 functions implemented, in September 1995 Ulrich Drepper made his first contribution to the glibc project and gradually became over the 1990s the core contributor and maintainer of glibc. Drepper held the position for many years and accumulated until 2012 63% of all commits of the project. In the early 1990s, the developers of the Linux kernel forked glibc and their fork, called Linux libc, was maintained separately for years and released versions 2 through 5. At this point, the Linux kernel developers discontinued their fork, the last used version of Linux libc used the internal name libc. so.5. Following on from this, glibc 2. x on Linux uses the soname libc. so.6, the *. so file name is often abbreviated as libc6 following the normal conventions for libraries. Starting in 2001 the librarys development had been overseen by a committee, with Ulrich Drepper kept as the lead contributor, the steering committee installation was surrounded by a public controversy as it was openly described by Ulrich Drepper as a failed hostile takeover maneuver by RMS. While previously in a CVS repository, in 2009 glibc was migrated to a Git repository on Sourceware, after the change in glibc maintainership Debian and other projects migrated back to the glibc, who before switched to alternatives. Also, since the beginning of 2014, the glibc fork EGLIBC is no longer being developed, for most systems, the version of glibc can be obtained by executing the lib file.2, with all extensions common to XSI compliant systems along with all X/Open UNIX extensions. In addition, glibc also provides extensions that have been deemed useful or necessary while developing GNU, Glibc is used in systems that run many different kernels and different hardware architectures. It officially supports the Hurd and Linux kernels, additionally, there are heavily patched versions that run on the kernels of FreeBSD and NetBSD, as well as a forked-version of OpenSolaris. It is also used and named libroot. so in BeOS, Glibc has been criticized as being bloated and slower than other libraries in the past, e. g. by Linus Torvalds and embedded Linux programmers. For this reason, several alternative C standard libraries have been created which emphasize a smaller footprint, however, many small-device projects use GNU libc over the smaller alternatives because of its application support, standards compliance, and completeness. Examples include Openmoko and Familiar Linux for iPaq handhelds, there are compatibility layers to allow programs written for other ecosystems, e. g. Googles Android and Microsofts Windows, to run on glibc interface offering systems. Libhybris is a compatibility layer for Androids Bionic and Wine can be seen as compatibility layer from Win32 API/ABI to glibc
18.
C++
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C++ is a general-purpose programming language. It has imperative, object-oriented and generic programming features, while also providing facilities for low-level memory manipulation and it was designed with a bias toward system programming and embedded, resource-constrained and large systems, with performance, efficiency and flexibility of use as its design highlights. C++ is a language, with implementations of it available on many platforms and provided by various organizations, including the Free Software Foundation, LLVM, Microsoft, Intel. C++ is standardized by the International Organization for Standardization, with the latest standard version ratified and published by ISO in December 2014 as ISO/IEC14882,2014. The C++ programming language was standardized in 1998 as ISO/IEC14882,1998. The current C++14 standard supersedes these and C++11, with new features, the C++17 standard is due in 2017, with the draft largely implemented by some compilers already, and C++20 is the next planned standard thereafter. Many other programming languages have influenced by C++, including C#, D, Java. In 1979, Bjarne Stroustrup, a Danish computer scientist, began work on C with Classes, the motivation for creating a new language originated from Stroustrups experience in programming for his Ph. D. thesis. When Stroustrup started working in AT&T Bell Labs, he had the problem of analyzing the UNIX kernel with respect to distributed computing, remembering his Ph. D. experience, Stroustrup set out to enhance the C language with Simula-like features. C was chosen because it was general-purpose, fast, portable, as well as C and Simulas influences, other languages also influenced C++, including ALGOL68, Ada, CLU and ML. Initially, Stroustrups C with Classes added features to the C compiler, Cpre, including classes, derived classes, strong typing, inlining, furthermore, it included the development of a standalone compiler for C++, Cfront. In 1985, the first edition of The C++ Programming Language was released, the first commercial implementation of C++ was released in October of the same year. In 1989, C++2.0 was released, followed by the second edition of The C++ Programming Language in 1991. New features in 2.0 included multiple inheritance, abstract classes, static functions, const member functions. In 1990, The Annotated C++ Reference Manual was published and this work became the basis for the future standard. Later feature additions included templates, exceptions, namespaces, new casts, after a minor C++14 update released in December 2014, various new additions are planned for 2017 and 2020. According to Stroustrup, the name signifies the nature of the changes from C. This name is credited to Rick Mascitti and was first used in December 1983, when Mascitti was questioned informally in 1992 about the naming, he indicated that it was given in a tongue-in-cheek spirit
19.
GNU Compiler Collection
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The GNU Compiler Collection is a compiler system produced by the GNU Project supporting various programming languages. GCC is a key component of the GNU toolchain and the compiler for most Unix-like Operating Systems. The Free Software Foundation distributes GCC under the GNU General Public License, GCC has played an important role in the growth of free software, as both a tool and an example. Originally named the GNU C Compiler, when it handled the C programming language. It was extended to compile C++ in December of that year, front ends were later developed for Objective-C, Objective-C++, Fortran, Java, Ada, and Go among others. Version 4.5 of the OpenMP specification is now supported in the C and C++ compilers, by default, the current version supports gnu++14, a superset of C++14 and gnu11, a superset of C11, with strict standard support also available. It also provides support for C++17 and later. GCC has been ported to a variety of instruction set architectures. GCC is also available for most embedded systems, including ARM-based, AMCC, the compiler can target a wide variety of platforms. Versions are also available for Microsoft Windows and other operating systems, GCC can compile code for Android and iOS. In an effort to bootstrap the GNU operating system, Richard Stallman asked Andrew S. Tanenbaum, when Tanenbaum told him that while the Free University was free, the compiler was not, Stallman decided to write his own. Stallmans initial plan was to rewrite an existing compiler from Lawrence Livermore Laboratory from Pastel to C with some help from Len Tower, none of the Pastel compiler code ended up in GCC, though Stallman did use the C front end he had written. GCC was first released March 22,1987, available by FTP from MIT, multiple forks proved inefficient and unwieldy, however, and the difficulty in getting work accepted by the official GCC project was greatly frustrating for many. In 1997, a group of developers formed Experimental/Enhanced GNU Compiler System to merge several experimental forks into a single project, the basis of the merger was a GCC development snapshot taken between the 2.7 and 2.81 releases. Projects merged included g77, PGCC, many C++ improvements, and many new architectures, with the release of GCC2.95 in July 1999 the two projects were once again united. GCC has since been maintained by a group of programmers from around the world under the direction of a steering committee. It has been ported to more kinds of processors and operating systems than any other compiler, GCC has been ported to a wide variety of instruction set architectures, and is widely deployed as a tool in the development of both free and proprietary software. GCC is also available for most embedded systems, including Symbian, ARM-based, AMCC, the compiler can target a wide variety of platforms, including video game consoles such as the PlayStation 2, Cell SPE of PlayStation 3 and Dreamcast
20.
GTK+
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GTK+ is a cross-platform widget toolkit for creating graphical user interfaces. It is licensed under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License and it is one of the most popular toolkits for the Wayland and X11 windowing systems, along with Qt. The GTK+ library contains a set of graphical elements, version 3.13.3 contains 203 active and 37 deprecated widgets. GTK+ is a widget toolkit written in the C programming language, it uses GObject. While GTK+ is primarily targeted at windowing systems based upon X11 and Wayland, it works on other platforms, including Microsoft Windows, there is also an HTML5 back-end called Broadway. GTK+ can be configured to change the look of the widgets drawn, several display engines exist which try to emulate the look of the native widgets on the platform in use. Starting with version 2.8, released in 2005, GTK+ began the transition to using Cairo to render the majority of its control elements. Since GTK+ version 3.0, all the rendering is done using Cairo, GDK acts as a wrapper around the low-level functions provided by the underlying windowing and graphics systems. GDK is found in the /gdk directory, GSK is the rendering and scene graph API for GTK+. GSK lies between the control elements and the rendering. GSK was finally merged into GTK+ version 3.90 released March 2017, GSK is found in the /gsk directory. GtkInspector has been introduced with version 3.14, gtkInspector can only be invoked after installing the development package libgtk-3-dev/gtk+-devel. There are several GUI designers for GTK+, the following projects are active as of July 2011, Glade, supports GtkBuilder, which is a GTK+ built-in GUI description format. Gazpacho, GUI builder for the GTK+ toolkit written in Python Crow Designer, relies on its own GuiXml format, Stetic, part of MonoDevelop, oriented towards Gtk#. GtkBuilder allows user interfaces to be designed without writing code, the interface is described in an Extensible Markup Language file, which is then loaded at runtime and the objects created automatically. The Glade Interface Designer allows creation of the interface in a WYSIWYG manner. The description of the interface is independent from the programming language being used. A library written in one programming language may be used in another language if bindings are written, Gtk# is a set of. NET bindings for the GTK+ GUI toolkit and assorted GNOME libraries
21.
Cairo (graphics)
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Cairo is an open source programming library that provides a vector graphics-based, device-independent API for software developers. It provides primitives for two-dimensional drawing across a number of different back ends, Cairo uses hardware acceleration when available. There is a proposal to standardize C++ 2D graphic API based on a mechanical transformation of Cairo. Since Cairo is only a library, it can be quite useful to integrate it with a graphical user interface toolkit. GNUstep currently uses Cairo as its primary backend on non-Windows systems. GTK+ has not only support for Cairo, but starting in 2005 with version 2.8, uses Cairo to render the majority of its graphical control elements. The Cairo development team maintains up-to-date instructions for rendering surfaces to SDL, Cairo supports output to a number of different back-ends, known as surfaces in its code. There are other back-ends in development targeting the graphics APIs OpenVG, Qt, Skia, the Cairo drawing model is somewhat unorthodox and relies on a three layer model. Any drawing process takes place in three steps, First a mask is created, which one or more vector primitives or forms, i. e. circles, squares, TrueType fonts, bézier curves. Finally the result is transferred to the destination or surface, which is provided by the back-end for the output and this constitutes a fundamentally different approach from Scalable Vector Graphics. GTK+, starting in 2005 with version 2.8, uses Cairo to render the majority of its control elements. Since GTK+ version 3, all the rendering is done using Cairo, the Mono Project, including Moonlight, has been using Cairo since very early in conception to power the backends of its GDI+ and System. Drawing namespaces. The Mozilla project has made use of Cairo in its Gecko layout engine, Gecko 1.8, the layout engine for Mozilla Firefox 2.0 and SeaMonkey 1.0, used Cairo to render SVG and <canvas> content. Gecko 1.9, the release of Gecko that serves as the basis of Firefox 3, the WebKit framework uses Cairo for all rendering in the GTK+ and EFL ports. Support has also added for SVG and <canvas> content using Cairo. The Poppler library uses Cairo to render PDF documents, Cairo enables the drawing of antialiased vector graphics and transparent objects. The vector graphics application Inkscape uses the Cairo library for its outline mode display, as well as for PDF, MorphOS2.5 features a shared library implementation of Cairo, which was available as stand-alone release for earlier MorphOS versions. AmigaOS4.1 supports a shared object library of Cairo in its default installation, fontForge enabled Cairo by default for rendering in mid-October 2008
22.
Advanced Linux Sound Architecture
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Advanced Linux Sound Architecture is a software framework and part of the Linux kernel that provides an application programming interface for sound card device drivers. Some of the goals of the ALSA project at its inception were automatic configuration of sound-card hardware, ALSA is released under the GNU General Public License and the GNU Lesser General Public License. Some frameworks such as JACK use ALSA to allow performing low-latency professional-grade audio editing and mixing, ALSA was designed with some features which were not, at the time of its conception, supported by the Open Sound System, Hardware-based MIDI synthesis. ALSA has a larger and more complex API than OSS, so it can be difficult to develop an application that uses ALSA as its sound technology. While ALSA may be configured to provide an OSS emulation layer and this goal is achieved in part by using software plug-ins, for example, many modern sound cards or built-in sound chips do not have a master volume control. This section provides an overview of basic concepts pertaining to ALSA, typically, ALSA supports up to eight cards, numbered 0 through 7, each card is a physical or logical kernel device capable of input, output. Furthermore, each card may also be addressed by its id, a device may have subdevices, numbered starting at 0, a subdevice represents some relevant sound endpoint for the device, such as a speaker pair. If the subdevice is not specified, or if subdevice number −1 is specified, a cards interface is a description of an ALSA protocol for accessing the card, possible interfaces include, hw, plughw, default, and plug, dmix. The hw interface provides direct access to the device. The project to develop ALSA was led by Jaroslav Kysela, and was based on the Linux device driver for the Gravis Ultrasound sound card and it started in 1998 and was developed separately from the Linux kernel until it was introduced in the 2.5 development series in 2002. In the 2.6 version, it replaced the system, Open Sound System. ALSA includes several pieces of application software, including alsactl, amixer, arecord/aplay command-line tools/utilities, as well as the alsamixer. Open Sound System DSSI udev JACK Audio Connection Kit KMid LADSPA PulseAudio Alsamixer Official website
23.
IBM System z9
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IBM System z9 is a line of IBM mainframe computers. The first models were available on September 16,2005, the System z9 also marks the end of the previously used eServer zSeries naming convention. It was also the last mainframe computer that NASA ever used, System z9 is a mainframe using the z/Architecture, previously known as ESAME. The primary advantage of this arrangement is that memory intensive applications like DB2 are no longer bounded by 31-bit memory restrictions while older applications can run without modifications. With the announcement of the System z9 Business Class server, IBM has renamed the System z9109 as the System z9 Enterprise Class server, IBM documentation abbreviates them as the z9 BC and z9 EC, respectively. There are several enhancements in the System z9 compared to its zSeries predecessors. Some of the include, The Support Element is the most direct. It circumvents even the Hardware Management Console and the system running on the mainframe. The HMC is a PC connected to the mainframe and emulates the Support Element, all preceding zSeries mainframes used a modified version of OS/2 with custom software to provide the interface. System z9s HMC no longer uses OS/2, but instead uses a version of Linux with an OS/2 lookalike interface to ease transition as well as a new interface. Unlike the previous HMC application on OS/2, the new HMC is web-based which means that even local access is done via a web browser, remote HMC access is available, although only over an SSL encrypted HTTP connection. IBM refers to the new HMC as a platform which does not allow the user to install software or access the command line interface to increase security and stability. The HMC is also firewalled by default with a number of open ports for remote access. Program Directed Re-IPL is a new feature for Linux on System z9 and it allows Linux systems running in an LPAR to re-IPL themselves without operator intervention. This is accomplished by the System z9 storing the device and load parameters used to initially IPL the system, DB2, VSAM, and other data storage formats achieve greater I/O performance thanks to a new System z9 feature called a MIDAW. Also, the System z9 introduces the zIIP, a new type of processor that accelerates certain specific DB2 tasks, Java 1.4 and higher support both 32-bit and 64-bit operation on z9. The System z9 also supports the zAAP processor, which allows most of the Java workload to be offloaded from the normal instruction processors, Java workloads executed by the zAAP processor do not count towards the IBM-rated capacity of the z9. This reduces the z9s total cost of ownership compared with other IBM platforms, the zAAP also enables integration of new Java based Web applications with core z/OS backend database environment for high performance, reliability, availability, and security
24.
Red Flag Linux
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Red Flag Linux is a defunct Chinese Linux distribution developed by Red Flag Software. The distribution logo is Tux carrying a prominent red flag, as of 2009, the executive president of Red Flag Software is Jia Dong. Visually, the bears a high resemblance to that of Windows XP, ranging from its desktop theme to icons. Red Flag Linux first appeared in August 1999, when it was created by the Institute of Software Research at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, financial help came from government-owned Shanghai NewMargin Venture Capital. In March 2001, Bloomberg News reported that CCIDNET Investment, a capital arm of the Ministry of Industry. In January 2006, Red Flag Linux joined the Open Source Development Labs, on 10 February 2014, Red Flag Software terminated all employment contracts and closed down. The direct cause of the closure was cited as being the failure of the Chinese Academy of Sciences Software Research Institute to pay a 40 million yuan subsidy. The institute cited Red Flags failure to complete a specific project, according to a research manager with IDC in Beijing, its downfall resulted from a lack of brand awareness and sustained investments, coupled with the rise of rivals. Radio Free Asia claimed that Chinese internet cafes were being required to switch to Red Flag Linux even if they were using copies of the Windows OS. This system is provided with a support contract at the cost of 5000 yuan for all machines in the cafe. Canaima Asianux China Software Industry Association Inspur Nova Red Star OS Software industry in China Ubuntu Kylin VIT, official website Red Flag Linux at DistroWatch Red Flag, Chinas home-grown Linux distribution, is a good start. Raising the Red Flag Harvard Business School study of Red Flag Software
25.
Red Hat Enterprise Linux
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Red Hat Enterprise Linux is a Linux distribution developed by Red Hat and targeted toward the commercial market. Red Hat Enterprise Linux is released in versions for x86, x86-64, Itanium, PowerPC and IBM System z. All of the Red Hats official support and training, together with the Red Hat Certification Program, Red Hat Enterprise Linux is often abbreviated to RHEL, although this is not an official designation. The first version of Red Hat Enterprise Linux to bear the name originally came onto the market as Red Hat Linux Advanced Server. In 2003 Red Hat rebranded Red Hat Linux Advanced Server to Red Hat Enterprise Linux AS, Red Hat uses strict trademark rules to restrict free re-distribution of their officially supported versions of Red Hat Enterprise Linux, but still freely provides its source code. Third-party derivatives can be built and redistributed by stripping away non-free components like Red Hats trademarks, Red Hat Enterprise Linux Server subscription is available at no cost for development purposes. Developers need to register for the Red Hat Developer Program and agree to licensing terms forbidding production use and this free developer subscription was announced on March 31,2016. There are also Academic editions of the Desktop and Server variants and they are offered to schools and students, are less expensive, and are provided with Red Hat technical support as an optional extra. Web support based on number of contacts can be purchased separately. It is often assumed the branding ES, AS, and WS stand for Entry-level Server, Advanced Server and Work Station, the reason for this is that the ES product is indeed the companys base enterprise server product, while AS is the more advanced product. However, nowhere on its site or in its literature does Red Hat say what AS, ES, RHEL4,3, and prior releases had four variants, Red Hat Enterprise Linux AS for mission-critical/enterprise computer systems. Originally, Red Hat sold support for versions of Red Hat Linux Starting with RHEL2.1 AS in 2002 and it was based on Red Hat Linux, but used a much more conservative release cycle. Later versions included technologies from the Red Hat–sponsored Fedora community distribution project, Red Hat Enterprise Linux release schedules do not follow that of Fedora but are more conservative. Fedora serves as upstream for future versions of RHEL, RHEL trees are forked off the Fedora repository, and released after a substantial stabilization and quality assurance effort. For example, RHEL6 was forked from Fedora at the end of 2009, by the time RHEL6 was released, many features from Fedora 13 and 14 had already been backported into it. The Fedora Project lists the following lineages for older Red Hat Enterprise releases, the Fedora project provides the following explanation, Both Fedora and Red Hat Enterprise Linux are open source. Fedora is a distribution and community project and upstream for Red Hat Enterprise Linux. Fedora is a general purpose system that gives Red Hat and the rest of its contributor community the chance to innovate rapidly with new technologies
26.
SUSE Linux Enterprise
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SUSE Linux is a computer operating system. It is built on top of the open source Linux kernel and is distributed with system, SUSE Linux is of German origin, basically an acronym of “Software und System-Entwicklung”, and was mainly developed in Europe. The first version appeared in early 1994, making SUSE one of the oldest existing commercial distributions and it is known for its YaST configuration tool. Novell bought the SUSE brands and trademarks in 2003, Novell employed more than 500 developers working on SUSE in 2004. On 27 April 2011, Novell were acquired by The Attachmate Group, later, in October 2014, the entire Attachmate Group, including SUSE, was acquired by the British firm Micro Focus International. SUSE continues to operate as an independent business unit, gesellschaft für Software und System Entwicklung mbH was founded on 2 September 1992 in Nuremberg, Germany, by Roland Dyroff, Thomas Fehr, Burchard Steinbild, and Hubert Mantel. Three of the founders were still students at a university. The original idea was that the company would develop software and function as an advisory UNIX group, according to Mantel, the group decided to distribute Linux, offering support. Their name at founding was S. u. S. E and it was chosen as a German acronym for Software und System-Entwicklung, meaning Software and systems development. The full name has never used, however, and the company was known as S. u. S. E. The official logo and current mascot of the distribution is a veiled chameleon officially named, Geeko, as with the companys name, the Geeko logo design has evolved over time to reflect the name changes. The company started as a provider, which among other things regularly released software packages that included Softlanding Linux System. Also, they printed UNIX/Linux manuals and they offered technical assistance and this was distributed to people who wanted to get Linux via floppy disks. In 1993, Patrick Volkerding cleaned up the SLS Linux distribution, in 1994, in support with Patrick Volkerding, Slackware scripts were translated into German, which was marked as the first release of S. u. S. E. It was available first on floppies, and then on CDs, for building its very own distribution of Linux, S. u. S. E used the jurix distribution as starting point. This was created by Florian La Roche, who joined the S. u. S. E team and he began to develop YaST, the installer and configuration tool that would become the central point of the distribution. In 1996, the first distribution under the name S. u. S. E Linux was published as S. u. S. E Linux 4.2. The version number has caused much discussion, it should have been just a version 1.1, yaSTs first version number,0.42, was a similar reference
27.
Ubuntu version history
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Ubuntu releases are made semiannually by Canonical Ltd, the developers of the Ubuntu operating system, using the year and month of the release as a version number. The first Ubuntu release, for example, was Ubuntu 4.10 and was released on 20 October 2004, consequently, version numbers for future versions are provisional, if the release is delayed until a different month to that planned, the version number will change accordingly. However the desktop version of LTS releases before 12.04 were supported for three years. Releases 6.06,8.04,10.04,12.04,14.04, non-LTS releases prior to 13.04 have typically been supported for 18 months, and have always been supported until at least the date of the next LTS release. This has changed, however, for 13.04 and subsequent non-LTS releases, Ubuntu releases are also given code names, using an adjective and an animal with the same first letter. With the exception of the first two releases, code names are in order, allowing a quick determination of which release is newer. Names are occasionally chosen so that animal appearance or habits reflects some new feature, Ubuntu releases are often referred to using only the adjective portion of the code name. Ubuntu 4.10, released on 20 October 2004, was Canonicals first release of Ubuntu, building upon Debian, with plans for a new release every six months, Ubuntu 4. 10s support ended on 30 April 2006. Ubuntu 4.10 was offered as a download and. Ubuntu 5.04, released on 8 April 2005, was Canonicals second release of Ubuntu, Ubuntu 5. 04s support ended on 31 October 2006. Ubuntu 5.04 allowed installation from USB devices, beginning with Ubuntu 5.04, UTF-8 became the default character encoding. Ubuntu 5.10, released on 12 October 2005, was Canonicals third release of Ubuntu, Ubuntu 5. 10s support ended on 13 April 2007. Ubuntu 6.06, released on 1 June 2006, was Canonicals fourth release, Ubuntu 6.06 was released behind schedule, having been intended as 6.04. It is sometimes described as their first Late To Ship release. Development was not complete in April 2006 and Mark Shuttleworth approved slipping the release date to June, Ubuntu 6. 06s support ended on 14 July 2009 for desktops and ended in June 2011 for servers. Ubuntu 6.06 did not include a means to install from a USB device, Ubuntu 6.10, released on 26 October 2006, was Canonicals fifth release of Ubuntu. Ubuntu 6. 10s support ended on 25 April 2008, Ubuntu 6.10 added several new features including a heavily modified Human theme, Upstart init daemon, automated crash reports, Tomboy note taking application, and F-Spot photo manager. EasyUbuntu, a party program designed to make Ubuntu easier to use, was included in Ubuntu 6.10 as a meta-package
28.
Debian
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The Debian Project was first announced in 1993 by Ian Murdock, Debian 0.01 was released on September 15,1993, and the first stable release was made in 1996. The Debian stable release branch is one of the most popular for personal computers and network servers, new distributions are updated continually, and the next candidate is released after a time-based freeze. As one of the earliest Operating Systems based on the Linux kernel and this decision drew the attention and support of the Free Software Foundation, which sponsored the project for one year from November 1994 to November 1995. Upon the ending of the sponsorship, the Debian Project formed the non-profit organisation Software in the Public Interest, while Debians main port, Debian GNU/Linux, uses the Linux kernel, other ports exist based on BSD kernels and the HURD microkernel. All use the GNU userland and the GNU C library, Debian has access to online repositories that contain over 50,000 software packages making it one of the largest software compilations. Debian officially contains only free software, but non-free software can be downloaded from the Debian repositories, Debian includes popular free programs such as LibreOffice, Firefox web browser, Evolution mail, K3b disc burner, VLC media player, GIMP image editor, and Evince document viewer. Debian is a choice for web servers. Debian supports Linux officially, offered kFreeBSD for version 7 but not 8, GNU/kFreeBSD was released as a technology preview for IA-32 and x86-64 architectures, and lacked the amount of software available in Debians Linux distribution. Official support for kFreeBSD was removed for version 8, which did not provide a kFreeBSD-based distribution, several flavors of the Linux kernel exist for each port. For example, the port has flavors for IA-32 PCs supporting Physical Address Extension and real-time computing, for older PCs. The Linux kernel does not officially contain firmware without sources, although such firmware is available in non-free packages, Debian offers DVD and CD images for installation that can be downloaded using BitTorrent or jigdo. Physical disks can also be bought from retailers, Debian offers different network installation methods. A minimal install of Debian is available via the netinst CD, whereby Debian is installed with just a base, another option is to boot the installer from the network. Installation images are hybrid on some architectures and can be used to create a bootable USB drive, the default bootstrap loader is GNU GRUB version 2, though the package name is simply grub, while version 1 was renamed to grub-legacy. This conflicts with e. g. Fedora, where grub version 2 is named grub2, the default desktop may be chosen from the DVD boot menu among GNOME, KDE Software Compilation, Xfce and LXDE, and from special disc 1 CDs. Debian offers CD images specifically built for GNOME, KDE Software Compilation, Xfce, MATE is officially supported, while Cinnamon support was added with Debian 8.0 Jessie. Less common window managers such as Enlightenment, Openbox, Fluxbox, IceWM, Window Maker, the default desktop environment of version 7.0 Wheezy was temporarily switched to Xfce, because GNOME3 did not fit on the first CD of the set. The default for the version 8.0 Jessie was changed again to Xfce in November 2013, Debian releases live install images for CDs, DVDs and USB thumb drives, for IA-32 and x86-64 architectures, and with a choice of desktop environments
29.
Rpm (software)
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RPM Package Manager is a package management system. The name RPM refers to the following, the. rpm file format, files in the. rpm file format, software packaged in such files, RPM was intended primarily for Linux distributions, the file format is the baseline package format of the Linux Standard Base. Even though it was created for use in Red Hat Linux and it has also been ported to some other operating systems, such as Novell NetWare and IBMs AIX. An RPM package can contain a set of files. The larger part of RPM files encountered are “binary RPMs” containing the version of some software. There are also “source RPMs” files containing the code used to produce a package. These have a tag in the file header that distinguishes them from normal RPMs. SRPMs customarily carry the file extension “. src. rpm”, RPM was originally written in 1997 by Erik Troan and Marc Ewing, based on pms, rpp, and pm experiences. Pm preserves the Pristine Sources + patches paradigm of pms, while adding features, packages may come from within a particular distribution or be built for it by other parties. Circular dependencies among mutually dependent RPMs can be problematic, in such cases a single installation command needs to specify all the relevant packages, RPMs are often collected centrally in one or more repositories on the internet. A site often has its own RPM repositories which may act as local mirrors of such internet repositories or be locally maintained collections of useful RPMs. Several front-ends to RPM ease the process of obtaining and installing RPMs from repositories and help in resolving their dependencies. These include, yum used in Fedora, CentOS5, Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 and above, Scientific Linux, Yellow Dog Linux and Oracle Linux DNF, introduced in Fedora 18, default since 22. Rpmquery, a command-line utility available in Red Hat Enterprise Linux Working behind the scenes of the manager is the RPM database. It uses Berkeley DB as its back-end and it consists of a single database containing all of the meta information of the installed rpms. Multiple databases are created for indexing purposes, replicating data to speed up queries, the database is used to keep track of all files that are changed and created when a user installs a package, thus enabling the user to reverse the changes and remove the package later. If the database gets corrupted, the databases can be recreated with the rpm --rebuilddb command. Whilst the RPM format is the same across different Linux distributions, part is specified as src as in, libgnomeuimm-2. 0-2.0. 0-3. src. rpm RPMs with the noarch. rpm extension refer to packages which do not depend on a certain computers architecture
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Debian Project
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The Debian Project was first announced in 1993 by Ian Murdock, Debian 0.01 was released on September 15,1993, and the first stable release was made in 1996. The Debian stable release branch is one of the most popular for personal computers and network servers, new distributions are updated continually, and the next candidate is released after a time-based freeze. As one of the earliest Operating Systems based on the Linux kernel and this decision drew the attention and support of the Free Software Foundation, which sponsored the project for one year from November 1994 to November 1995. Upon the ending of the sponsorship, the Debian Project formed the non-profit organisation Software in the Public Interest, while Debians main port, Debian GNU/Linux, uses the Linux kernel, other ports exist based on BSD kernels and the HURD microkernel. All use the GNU userland and the GNU C library, Debian has access to online repositories that contain over 50,000 software packages making it one of the largest software compilations. Debian officially contains only free software, but non-free software can be downloaded from the Debian repositories, Debian includes popular free programs such as LibreOffice, Firefox web browser, Evolution mail, K3b disc burner, VLC media player, GIMP image editor, and Evince document viewer. Debian is a choice for web servers. Debian supports Linux officially, offered kFreeBSD for version 7 but not 8, GNU/kFreeBSD was released as a technology preview for IA-32 and x86-64 architectures, and lacked the amount of software available in Debians Linux distribution. Official support for kFreeBSD was removed for version 8, which did not provide a kFreeBSD-based distribution, several flavors of the Linux kernel exist for each port. For example, the port has flavors for IA-32 PCs supporting Physical Address Extension and real-time computing, for older PCs. The Linux kernel does not officially contain firmware without sources, although such firmware is available in non-free packages, Debian offers DVD and CD images for installation that can be downloaded using BitTorrent or jigdo. Physical disks can also be bought from retailers, Debian offers different network installation methods. A minimal install of Debian is available via the netinst CD, whereby Debian is installed with just a base, another option is to boot the installer from the network. Installation images are hybrid on some architectures and can be used to create a bootable USB drive, the default bootstrap loader is GNU GRUB version 2, though the package name is simply grub, while version 1 was renamed to grub-legacy. This conflicts with e. g. Fedora, where grub version 2 is named grub2, the default desktop may be chosen from the DVD boot menu among GNOME, KDE Software Compilation, Xfce and LXDE, and from special disc 1 CDs. Debian offers CD images specifically built for GNOME, KDE Software Compilation, Xfce, MATE is officially supported, while Cinnamon support was added with Debian 8.0 Jessie. Less common window managers such as Enlightenment, Openbox, Fluxbox, IceWM, Window Maker, the default desktop environment of version 7.0 Wheezy was temporarily switched to Xfce, because GNOME3 did not fit on the first CD of the set. The default for the version 8.0 Jessie was changed again to Xfce in November 2013, Debian releases live install images for CDs, DVDs and USB thumb drives, for IA-32 and x86-64 architectures, and with a choice of desktop environments
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Linux
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Linux is a Unix-like computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open-source software development and distribution. The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17,1991 by Linus Torvalds, the Free Software Foundation uses the name GNU/Linux to describe the operating system, which has led to some controversy. Linux was originally developed for computers based on the Intel x86 architecture. Because of the dominance of Android on smartphones, Linux has the largest installed base of all operating systems. Linux is also the operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe computers. It is used by around 2. 3% of desktop computers, the Chromebook, which runs on Chrome OS, dominates the US K–12 education market and represents nearly 20% of the sub-$300 notebook sales in the US. Linux also runs on embedded systems – devices whose operating system is built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system. This includes TiVo and similar DVR devices, network routers, facility automation controls, televisions, many smartphones and tablet computers run Android and other Linux derivatives. The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free, the underlying source code may be used, modified and distributed—commercially or non-commercially—by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License. Typically, Linux is packaged in a known as a Linux distribution for both desktop and server use. Distributions intended to run on servers may omit all graphical environments from the standard install, because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any intended use. The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&Ts Bell Laboratories in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, first released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in assembly language, as was common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, it was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie, the availability of a high-level language implementation of Unix made its porting to different computer platforms easier. Due to an earlier antitrust case forbidding it from entering the computer business, as a result, Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs, freed of the legal obligation requiring free licensing, the GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, has the goal of creating a complete Unix-compatible software system composed entirely of free software. Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software Foundation, by the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system were completed, although low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete. Linus Torvalds has stated that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time, although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Torvalds has also stated that if 386BSD had been available at the time, although the complete source code of MINIX was freely available, the licensing terms prevented it from being free software until the licensing changed in April 2000
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Linux kernel
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The Linux kernel is a monolithic Unix-like computer operating system kernel. The Android operating system for computers, smartphones and smartwatches is also based atop the Linux kernel. While the adoption on desktop computers is low, Linux-based operating systems dominate nearly every segment of computing. As of November 2016, all but two of the worlds 500 most powerful supercomputers run Linux, Linux rapidly attracted developers and users who adopted it as the kernel for other free software projects, notably the GNU Operating System. The Linux kernel has received contributions from nearly 12,000 programmers from more than 1,200 companies, the Linux kernel API, the application programming interface through which user programs interact with the kernel, is meant to be very stable and to not break userspace programs. As part of the functionality, device drivers control the hardware. However, the interface between the kernel and loadable kernel modules, unlike in many other kernels and operating systems, is not meant to be stable by design. The Linux kernel, developed by contributors worldwide, is a prominent example of free, day-to-day development discussions take place on the Linux kernel mailing list. The Linux kernel is released under the GNU General Public License version 2, in April 1991, Linus Torvalds, at the time a 21-year-old computer science student at the University of Helsinki, Finland, started working on some simple ideas for an operating system. He started with a task switcher in Intel 80386 assembly language, on 25 August 1991, Torvalds posted the following to comp. os. minix, a newsgroup on Usenet, Im doing a operating system for 386 AT clones. This has been brewing since April, and is starting to get ready, id like any feedback on things people like/dislike in minix, as my OS resembles it somewhat. Ive currently ported bash and gcc, and things seem to work and this implies that Ill get something practical within a few months Yes - its free of any minix code, and it has a multi-threaded fs. It is NOT portable, and it never will support anything other than AT-harddisks, as thats all I have. Its mostly in C, but most people wouldnt call what I write C and it uses every conceivable feature of the 386 I could find, as it was also a project to teach me about the 386. As already mentioned, it uses a MMU, for both paging and segmentation and its the segmentation that makes it REALLY386 dependent. Some of my C-files are almost as much assembler as C, unlike minix, I also happen to LIKE interrupts, so interrupts are handled without trying to hide the reason behind them. After that, many people contributed code to the project, early on, the MINIX community contributed code and ideas to the Linux kernel. At the time, the GNU Project had created many of the components required for an operating system
