Conglomerate (geology)
Conglomerate is a coarse-grained clastic sedimentary rock, composed of a substantial fraction of rounded to subangular gravel-size clasts, e.g. granules, pebbles and boulders, larger than 2 mm in diameter. Conglomerates form by the lithification of gravel. Conglomerates contain finer grained sediment, e.g. either sand, clay or combination of them, called matrix by geologists, filling their interstices and are cemented by calcium carbonate, iron oxide, silica, or hardened clay. The size and composition of the gravel-size fraction of a conglomerate may or may not vary in composition and size. In some conglomerates, the gravel-size class consist entirely of what were clay clasts at the time of deposition. Conglomerates can be found in sedimentary rock sequences of all ages but make up less than 1 percent by weight of all sedimentary rocks. In terms of origin and depositional mechanisms, they are related to sandstones and exhibit many of the same types of sedimentary structures, e.g. tabular and trough cross-bedding and graded bedding.
Conglomerates may be named and classified by the: Amount and type of matrix present Composition of gravel-size clasts they contain Size range of gravel-size clasts presentThe classification method depends on the type and detail of research being conducted. A sedimentary rock composed of gravel is first named according to the roundness of the gravel. If the gravel clasts that comprise it is well-rounded to subrounded, it is a conglomerate. If the gravel clasts that comprise it are angular, it is a breccia; such breccias can be called sedimentary breccias to differentiate them from other types of breccia, e.g. volcanic and fault breccias. Sedimentary rocks that contain a mixture of rounded and angular gravel clasts are sometimes called breccio-conglomerate. Conglomerates are composed of gravel-size clasts; the space between the gravel-size clasts is filled by a mixture composed of varying amounts of silt and clay, known as matrix. If the individual gravel clasts in a conglomerate are separated from each other by an abundance of matrix such that they are not in contact with each other and float within the matrix, it is called a paraconglomerate.
Paraconglomerates are often unstratified and can contain more matrix than gravel clasts. If the gravel clasts of a conglomerate are in contact with each other, it is called an orthoconglomerate. Unlike paraconglomerates, orthoconglomerates are cross-bedded and well-cemented and lithified by either calcite, quartz, or clay; the differences between paraconglomerates and orthoconglomerates reflect differences in how they are deposited. Paraconglomerates are either glacial tills or debris flow deposits. Orthoconglomerates are associated with aqueous currents. Conglomerates are classified according to the composition of their clasts. A conglomerate or any clastic sedimentary rock that consists of a single rock or mineral is known as either a monomict, oligomict, or oligomictic conglomerate. If the conglomerate consists of two or more different types of rocks, minerals, or combination of both, it is known as either a polymict or polymictic conglomerate. If a polymictic conglomerate contains an assortment of the clasts of metastable and unstable rocks and minerals, it called either a petromict or petromictic conglomerate.
In addition, conglomerates are classified by source as indicated by the lithology of the gravel-size clasts If these clasts consist of rocks and minerals that are different in lithology from the enclosing matrix and, thus and derived from outside the basin of deposition, the conglomerate is known as an extraformational conglomerate. If these clasts consist of rocks and minerals that are identical to or consistent with the lithology of the enclosing matrix and, penecontemporaneous and derived from within the basin of deposition, the conglomerate is known as an intraformational conglomerate. Two recognized types of type of intraformational conglomerates are shale-pebble and flat-pebble conglomerates. A shale-pebble conglomerate is a conglomerate, composed of clasts of rounded mud chips and pebbles held together by clay minerals and created by erosion within environments such as within a river channel or along a lake margin. Flat-pebble conglomerates are conglomerates that consist of flat clasts of lime mud created by either storms or tsunami eroding a shallow sea bottom or tidal currents eroding tidal flats along a shoreline.
Conglomerates are differentiated and named according to the dominant clast size comprising them. In this classification, a conglomerate composed of granule-size clasts would be called a granule conglomerate. Conglomerates are deposited in a variety of sedimentary environments. In turbidites, the basal part of a bed is coarse-grained and sometimes conglomeratic. In this setting, conglomerates are very well sorted, well-rounded and with a strong A-axis type imbrication of the clasts. Conglomerates are present at the base of sequences laid down during marine transgressions above an unconformity, are known as basal conglomerates, they are diachronous. Conglomerates deposited in fluvial environments are well rounded and well sorted. Clasts of this size are carried as only at times of high flow-rate; the maximum clast size decreases as the clasts are transported fu
Geotechnical investigation
Geotechnical investigations are performed by geotechnical engineers or engineering geologists to obtain information on the physical properties of soil earthworks and foundations for proposed structures and for repair of distress to earthworks and structures caused by subsurface conditions. This type of investigation is called a site investigation. Additionally, geotechnical investigations are used to measure the thermal resistivity of soils or backfill materials required for underground transmission lines and gas pipelines, radioactive waste disposal, solar thermal storage facilities. A geotechnical investigation will include surface subsurface exploration of a site. Sometimes, geophysical methods are used to obtain data about sites. Subsurface exploration involves soil sampling and laboratory tests of the soil samples retrieved. Surface exploration can include geologic mapping, geophysical methods, photogrammetry, or it can be as simple as a geotechnical professional walking around on the site to observe the physical conditions at the site.
To obtain information about the soil conditions below the surface, some form of subsurface exploration is required. Methods of observing the soils below the surface, obtaining samples, determining physical properties of the soils and rocks include test pits, boring, in situ tests; these can be used to identify contamination in soils prior to development in order to avoid negative environmental impacts. Borings come in large-diameter and small-diameter. Large-diameter borings are used due to safety concerns and expense but are sometimes used to allow a geologist or an engineer to visually and manually examine the soil and rock stratigraphy in-situ. Small-diameter borings are used to allow a geologist or engineer to examine soil or rock cuttings or to retrieve samples at depth using soil samplers, to perform in-place soil tests. Soil samples are categorized as being either disturbed or undisturbed. A disturbed sample is one in which the structure of the soil has been changed sufficiently that tests of structural properties of the soil will not be representative of in-situ conditions, only properties of the soil grains can be determined.
An undisturbed sample is one where the condition of the soil in the sample is close enough to the conditions of the soil in-situ to allow tests of structural properties of the soil to be used to approximate the properties of the soil in-situ. Specimen obtained by undisturbed method are used to determine the soil stratification, density and other engineering characteristics. Offshore soil collection introduces many difficult variables. In shallow water, work can be done off a barge. In deeper water a ship will be required. Deepwater soil samplers are variants of Kullenberg-type samplers, a modification on a basic gravity corer using a piston. Seabed samplers are available, which push the collection tube into the soil. Soil samples are taken using a variety of samplers. Shovel. Samples can be obtained by digging out soil from the site. Samples taken this way are disturbed samples. Trial Pits are small hand or machine excavated tranches used to determine groundwater levels and take disturbed samples from.
Hand/Machine Driven Auger. This sampler consists of a short cylinder with a cutting edge attached to a rod and handle; the sampler is advanced by a combination of rotation and downward force. Samples taken this way are disturbed samples. Continuous Flight Auger. A method of sampling using an auger as a corkscrew; the auger is screwed into the ground lifted out. Soil is kept for testing; the soil sampled this way is considered disturbed. Split-spoon / SPT Sampler. Utilized in the'Standard Test Method for Standard Penetration Test and Split-Barrel Sampling of Soils'; this sampler is an 18"-30" long, 2.0" outside diameter hollow tube split in half lengthwise. A hardened metal drive shoe with a 1.375" opening is attached to the bottom end, a one-way valve and drill rod adapter at the sampler head. It is driven into the ground with a 140-pound hammer falling 30"; the blow counts required to advance the sampler a total of 18" are reported. Used for non-cohesive soils, samples taken this way are considered disturbed.
Modified California Sampler. in the'Standard Practice for Thick Wall, Ring-Lined, Split Barrel, Drive Sampling ofSoils1'. Similar in concept to the SPT sampler, the sampler barrel has a larger diameter and is lined with metal tubes to contain samples. Samples from the Modified California Sampler are considered disturbed due to the large area ratio of the sampler. Shelby Tube Sampler. Utilized in the'Standard Practice for Thin-Walled Tube Sampling of Soils for Geotechnical Purposes'; this sampler consists of a thin-walled tube with a cutting edge at the toe. A sampler head attaches the tube to the drill rod, contains a check valve and pressure vents. Used in cohesive soils, this sampler is advanced into the soil layer 6" less than the length of the tube; the vacuum created by the check valve and cohesion of the sample in the tube cause the sample to be retained when the tube is withdrawn
Lithostratigraphy
Lithostratigraphy is a sub-discipline of stratigraphy, the geological science associated with the study of strata or rock layers. Major focuses include geochronology, comparative geology, petrology. In general a stratum will be igneous or sedimentary relating to how the rock was formed. Sedimentary layers are laid down by deposition of sediment associated with weathering processes, decaying organic matters or through chemical precipitation; these layers are distinguishable as having many fossils and are important for the study of biostratigraphy. Igneous layers are either plutonic or volcanic in character depending upon the cooling rate of the rock; these layers are devoid of fossils and represent intrusions and volcanic activity that occurred over the geologic history of the area. There are a number of principles; when an igneous rock cuts across a formation of sedimentary rock we can say that the igneous intrusion is younger than the sedimentary rock. The principle of superposition states that a sedimentary rock layer in a tectonically undisturbed stratum is younger than the one beneath and older than the one above it.
The principle of original horizontality states that the deposition of sediments occurs as horizontal beds. A lithostratigraphic unit conforms to the law of superposition, which state that in any succession of strata, not disturbed or overturned since deposition, younger rocks lies above older rocks; the principle of lateral continuity states that a set of bed extends and can be traceable over a large area. Lithostratigraphic units are defined on the basis of observable rock characteristics; the descriptions of strata based on physical appearance define facies. Lithostratigraphic units are only defined by lithic characteristics, not by age. Stratotype: A designated type of unit consisting of accessible rocks that contain clear-cut characteristics which are representative of a particular lithostratigraphic unit. Lithosome: Masses of rock of uniform character and having interchanging relationships with adjacent masses of different lithology. E.g.: shale lithosome, limestone lithosome. The fundamental Lithostratigraphic unit is the formation.
A formation is a lithologically distinctive stratigraphic unit, large enough to be mappable and traceable. Formations may be subdivided into members and beds and aggregated with other formations into groups and supergroups. Two types of contact: conformable and unconformable. Conformable: unbroken deposition, no break or hiatus; the surface strata resulting is called a conformity. Two types of contact between conformable strata: abrupt contacts and gradational contact. Unconformable: period of erosion/non-deposition; the surface stratum resulting is called an unconformity. Four types of unconformity: Angular unconformity: younger sediment lies upon an eroded surface of tilted or folded older rocks; the older rock dips at a different angle from the younger. Disconformity: the contact between younger and older beds is marked by visible, irregular erosional surfaces. Paleosol might develop right above the disconformity surface because of the non-deposition setting. Paraconformity: the bedding planes below and above the unconformity are parallel.
A time gap is present, as shown by a faunal break, but there is no erosion, just a period of non-deposition. Nonconformity: young sediments are deposited right above older igneous or metamorphic rocks. To correlate lithostratigraphic units, geologists define facies, look for key beds or key sequences that can be used as a datum. Direct correlation: based on lithology, structure, thickness… Indirect correlation: electric log correlation Biostratigraphy Chronostratigraphy Topostratigraphy Online stratigraphic column generator Tamu.edu: Lithostratigraphy USGS.gov: Lithostratigraphy Agenames
Pillow lava
Pillow lavas are lavas that contain characteristic pillow-shaped structures that are attributed to the extrusion of the lava under water, or subaqueous extrusion. Pillow lavas in volcanic rock are characterized by thick sequences of discontinuous pillow-shaped masses up to one metre in diameter, they form the upper part of Layer 2 of normal oceanic crust. Pillow lavas are of basaltic composition, although pillows formed of komatiite, boninite, basaltic andesite, dacite or rhyolite are known. In general, the more felsic the composition, the larger the pillows, due to the increase in viscosity of the erupting lava, they occur wherever lava is extruded under water, such as along marine hotspot volcano chains and the constructive plate boundaries of mid-ocean ridges. As new oceanic crust is formed, thick sequences of pillow lavas are erupted at the spreading center fed by dykes from the underlying magma chamber. Pillow lavas and the related sheeted dyke complexes form part of a classic ophiolite sequence.
The presence of pillow lavas in the oldest preserved volcanic sequences on the planet, the Isua and Barberton greenstone belts, confirms the presence of large bodies of water on the Earth's surface early in the Archean Eon. Pillow lavas are used to confirm subaqueous volcanism in metamorphic belts. Pillow lavas are found associated with some subglacial volcanoes at an early stage of an eruption, they are created when magma reaches the surface but, as there is a large difference in temperature between the lava and the water, the surface of the emergent tongue cools quickly, forming a skin. The tongue continues to lengthen and inflate with more lava, forming a lobe, until the pressure of the magma becomes sufficient to rupture the skin and start the formation of a new eruption point nearer the vent; this process produces a series of interconnecting lobate shapes that are pillow-like in cross-section. The skin cools much faster than the inside of the pillow, so it is fine-grained, with a glassy texture.
The magma inside the pillow cools so is coarser grained than the skin, but it is still classified as fine grained. Pillow lavas can be used as a way-up indicator in geology. Pillow lava shows it is still in its original orientation when: Vesicles are found towards the top of a pillow; the pillow structures show a convex upper surface. The pillows might have a tapered base downwards, as they may have moulded themselves to any underlying pillows during their formation. Pillow basalt Spilite, a fine-grained igneous rock, resulting from alteration of oceanic basalt NeMO Explorer, NOAA - Contains link to video of pillows being formed
Grain size
Grain size is the diameter of individual grains of sediment, or the lithified particles in clastic rocks. The term may be applied to other granular materials; this is different from the crystallite size, which refers to the size of a single crystal inside a particle or grain. A single grain can be composed of several crystals. Granular material can range from small colloidal particles, through clay, sand and cobbles, to boulders. Size ranges define limits of classes that are given names in the Wentworth scale used in the United States; the Krumbein phi scale, a modification of the Wentworth scale created by W. C. Krumbein in 1934, is a logarithmic scale computed by the equation φ = − log 2 D D 0, where φ is the Krumbein phi scale, D is the diameter of the particle or grain in millimeters and D 0 is a reference diameter, equal to 1 mm; this equation can be rearranged to find diameter using φ: D = D 0 ⋅ 2 − φ In some schemes, gravel is anything larger than sand. ISO 14688-1:2002, establishes the basic principles for the identification and classification of soils on the basis of those material and mass characteristics most used for soils for engineering purposes.
ISO 14688-1 is applicable to natural soils in situ, similar man-made materials in situ and soils redeposited by people. An accumulation of sediment can be characterized by the grain size distribution. A sediment deposit can undergo sorting when a particle size range is removed by an agency such as a river or the wind; the sorting can be quantified using the Inclusive Graphic Standard Deviation: σ I = ϕ 84 − ϕ 16 4 + ϕ 95 − ϕ 5 6.6 where σ I is the Inclusive Graphic Standard Deviation in phi units ϕ 84 is the 84th percentile of the grain size distribution in phi units, etc. The result of this can be described using the following terms: Feret diameter Martin diameter Orders of magnitude Soil texture Substrate Unified Soil Classification System R D Dean & R A Dalrymple, Coastal Processes with Engineering Applications W C Krumbein & L L Sloss and Sedimentation, 2nd edition. Udden, J. A.. "Mechanical composition of clastic sediments". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 25: 655–744. Bibcode:1914GSAB...25..655U.
Doi:10.1130/GSAB-25-655. Wentworth, C. K.. "A Scale of Grade and Class Terms for Clastic Sediments". The Journal of Geology. 30: 377–392. Bibcode:1922JG.....30..377W. Doi:10.1086/622910. JSTOR 30063207
Pyroxene
The pyroxenes are a group of important rock-forming inosilicate minerals found in many igneous and metamorphic rocks. Pyroxenes have the general formula XY2O6 where X represents calcium, iron or magnesium and more zinc, manganese or lithium and Y represents ions of smaller size, such as chromium, iron, cobalt, scandium, vanadium or iron. Although aluminium substitutes extensively for silicon in silicates such as feldspars and amphiboles, the substitution occurs only to a limited extent in most pyroxenes, they share a common structure consisting of single chains of silica tetrahedra. Pyroxenes that crystallize in the monoclinic system are known as clinopyroxenes and those that cystallize in the orthorhombic system are known as orthopyroxenes; the name pyroxene is derived from the Ancient Greek words for stranger. Pyroxenes were so named because of their presence in volcanic lavas, where they are sometimes seen as crystals embedded in volcanic glass. However, they are early-forming minerals that crystallized before the lava erupted.
The upper mantle of Earth is composed of olivine and pyroxene. Pyroxene and feldspar are the major minerals in gabbro; the chain silicate structure of the pyroxenes offers much flexibility in the incorporation of various cations and the names of the pyroxene minerals are defined by their chemical composition. Pyroxene minerals are named according to the chemical species occupying the X site, the Y site, the tetrahedral T site. Cations in Y site are bound to 6 oxygens in octahedral coordination. Cations in the X site can be coordinated depending on the cation size. Twenty mineral names are recognised by the International Mineralogical Association's Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names and 105 used names have been discarded. A typical pyroxene has silicon in the tetrahedral site and predominately ions with a charge of +2 in both the X and Y sites, giving the approximate formula XYT2O6; the names of the common calcium–iron–magnesium pyroxenes are defined in the'pyroxene quadrilateral' shown in Figure 2.
The enstatite-ferrosilite series contain up to 5 mol.% calcium and exists in three polymorphs, orthorhombic orthoenstatite and protoenstatite and monoclinic clinoenstatite. Increasing the calcium content prevents the formation of the orthorhombic phases and pigeonite only crystallises in the monoclinic system. There is not complete solid solution in calcium content and Mg-Fe-Ca pyroxenes with calcium contents between about 15 and 25 mol.% are not stable with respect to a pair of exolved crystals. This leads to a miscibility gap between augite compositions. There is an arbitrary separation between the diopside-hedenbergite solid solution; the divide is taken at >45 mol.% Ca. As the calcium ion cannot occupy the Y site, pyroxenes with more than 50 mol.% calcium are not possible. A related mineral wollastonite has the formula of the hypothetical calcium end member but important structural differences mean that it is not grouped with the pyroxenes. Magnesium and iron are by no means the only cations that can occupy the X and Y sites in the pyroxene structure.
A second important series of pyroxene minerals are the sodium-rich pyroxenes, corresponding to nomenclature shown in Figure 3. The inclusion of sodium, which has a charge of +1, into the pyroxene implies the need for a mechanism to make up the "missing" positive charge. In jadeite and aegirine this is added by the inclusion of a +3 cation on the Y site. Sodium pyroxenes with more than 20 mol.% calcium, magnesium or iron components are known as omphacite and aegirine-augite, with 80% or more of these components the pyroxene falls in the quadrilateral shown in Figure 2. Table 1 shows the wide range of other cations that can be accommodated in the pyroxene structure, indicates the sites that they occupy. In assigning ions to sites, the basic rule is to work from left to right in this table, first assigning all silicon to the T site and filling the site with the remaining aluminium and iron. Not all the resulting mechanisms to achieve charge neutrality follow the sodium example above, there are several alternative schemes: Coupled substitutions of 1+ and 3+ ions on the X and Y sites respectively.
For example, Na and Al give the jadeite composition. Coupled substitution of a 1+ ion on the X site and a mixture of equal numbers of 2+ and 4+ ions on the Y site; this leads to e.g. NaFe2+0.5Ti4+0.5Si2O6. The Tschermak substitution where a 3+ ion occupies the Y site and a T site leading to e.g. CaAlAlSiO6. In nature, more than one substitution may be found in the same mineral. Clinopyroxenes Aegirine, NaFe3+Si2O6 Augite, 2O6 Clinoenstatite, MgSiO3 Diopside, CaMgSi2O6 Esseneite, CaFe3+ Hedenbergite, CaFe2+Si2O6 Jadeite, NaSi2O6 Jervisite, Si2O6 Johannsenite, CaMn2+Si2O6 Kanoite, Mn2+Si2O6 Kosmochlor, NaCrSi2O6 Namansilite, NaMn3+Si2O6 Natalyite, NaV3+Si2O6 Omphacite, Si2O6 Petedunnite, CaSi2O6 Pigeonite, Si2O6 Spodumene, LiAl2 Orthopyroxenes Hypersthene, SiO3 Donpeacorite, MgSi2O6 Enstatite, Mg2Si2O6 Ferrosilite, Fe2Si2O6 Nchwaningite, Mn2+2SiO32•(H
Mudrock
Mudrocks are a class of fine grained siliciclastic sedimentary rocks. The varying types of mudrocks include: siltstone, mudstone and shale. Most of the particles of which the stone is composed are less than 0.0625 mm and are too small to study in the field. At first sight the rock types look quite similar. There has been a great deal of disagreement involving the classification of mudrocks. There are a few important hurdles to classification, including: Mudrocks are the least understood, one of the most understudied sedimentary rocks to date It is difficult to study mudrock constituents, due to their diminutive size and susceptibility to weathering on outcrops And most there is more than one classification scheme accepted by scientistsMudrocks make up fifty percent of the sedimentary rocks in the geologic record, are the most widespread deposits on Earth. Fine sediment is the most abundant product of erosion, these sediments contribute to the overall omnipresence of mudrocks. With increased pressure over time the platey clay minerals may become aligned, with the appearance of parallel layering.
This finely bedded material that splits into thin layers is called shale, as distinct from mudstone. The lack of fissility or layering in mudstone may be due either to the original texture or to the disruption of layering by burrowing organisms in the sediment prior to lithification. From the beginning of civilization, when pottery and mudbricks were made by hand, to now, mudrocks have been important; the first book on mudrocks, Geologie des Argils by Millot, was not published until 1964. Literature on this omnipresent rock-type has been increasing in recent years, technology continues to allow for better analysis. Mudrocks, by definition, consist of at least fifty percent mud-sized particles. Mud is composed of silt-sized particles that are between 1/16 – 1/256 of a millimeter in diameter, clay-sized particles which are less than 1/256 millimeter. Mudrocks contain clay minerals, quartz and feldspars, they can contain the following particles at less than 63 micrometres: calcite, siderite, marcasite, heavy minerals, organic carbon.
There are various synonyms for fine-grained siliciclastic rocks containing fifty percent or more of its constituents less than 1/256 of a millimeter. Mudstones, shales and argillites are common qualifiers, or umbrella-terms; the term "mudrock" allows for further subdivisions of siltstone, claystone and shale. For example, a siltstone would be made of more than 50-percent grains that equate to 1/16 - 1/256 of a millimeter. "Shale" denotes fissility, which implies an ability to part or break parallel to stratification. Siltstone and claystone implies lithified, or hardened, detritus without fissility. Overall, "mudrocks" may be the most useful qualifying term, because it allows for rocks to be divided by its greatest portion of contributing grains and their respective grain size, whether silt, clay, or mud. A claystone is lithified, non-fissile mudrock. In order for a rock to be considered a claystone, it must consist of up to fifty percent clay, which measures less than 1/256 of a millimeter in particle size.
Clay minerals are integral to mudrocks, represent the first or second most abundant constituent by volume. There are 35 recognized clay mineral species on Earth, they able to flow. Clay is by far the smallest particles recognized in mudrocks. Most materials in nature are clay minerals, but quartz, iron oxides, carbonates can weather to sizes of a typical clay mineral. For a size comparison, a clay-sized particle is 1/1000 the size of a sand grain; this means a clay particle will travel 1000 times further at constant water velocity, thus requiring quieter conditions for settlement. The formation of clay is well understood, can come from soil, volcanic ash, glaciation. Ancient mudrocks are another source, because they disintegrate easily. Feldspar, amphiboles and volcanic glass are the principle donors of clay minerals. A mudstone is a siliciclastic sedimentary rock that contains a mixture of silt- and clay-sized particles; the terminology of "mudstone" is not to be confused with the Dunham classification scheme for limestones.
In Dunham's classification, a mudstone is any limestone containing less than ten percent carbonate grains. Note, a siliciclastic mudstone does not deal with carbonate grains. Friedman and Kopaska-Merkel suggest the use of "lime mudstone" to avoid confusion with siliciclastic rocks. A siltstone is a non-fissile mudrock. In order for a rock to be named a siltstone, it must contain over fifty percent silt-sized material. Silt is any particle smaller than sand, 1/16 of a millimeter, larger than clay, 1/256 of millimeter. Silt is believed to be the product of physical weathering, which can involve freezing and thawing, thermal expansion, release of pressure. Physical weathering does not involve any chemical changes in the rock, it may be best summarised as the physical breaking apart of a rock. One of the highest proportions of silt found on Earth is in the Himalayas, where phyllites are exposed to rainfall of up to five to ten meters a year. Quartz and feldspar are the biggest contributors to the silt realm
