1.
Han dynasty
–
The Han dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms period. Spanning over four centuries, the Han period is considered an age in Chinese history. To this day, Chinas majority ethnic group refers to itself as the Han people and it was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han, and briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han dynasty into two periods, the Western Han or Former Han and the Eastern Han or Later Han, the emperor was at the pinnacle of Han society. He presided over the Han government but shared power with both the nobility and appointed ministers who came largely from the gentry class. The Han Empire was divided into areas controlled by the central government using an innovation inherited from the Qin known as commanderies. These kingdoms gradually lost all vestiges of their independence, particularly following the Rebellion of the Seven States, from the reign of Emperor Wu onward, the Chinese court officially sponsored Confucianism in education and court politics, synthesized with the cosmology of later scholars such as Dong Zhongshu. This policy endured until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911 AD, the Han dynasty was an age of economic prosperity and saw a significant growth of the money economy first established during the Zhou dynasty. The coinage issued by the government mint in 119 BC remained the standard coinage of China until the Tang dynasty. The period saw a number of limited institutional innovations, the Xiongnu, a nomadic steppe confederation, defeated the Han in 200 BC and forced the Han to submit as a de facto inferior partner, but continued their raids on the Han borders. Emperor Wu of Han launched several campaigns against them. The ultimate Han victory in these wars eventually forced the Xiongnu to accept vassal status as Han tributaries, the territories north of Hans borders were quickly overrun by the nomadic Xianbei confederation. Imperial authority was seriously challenged by large Daoist religious societies which instigated the Yellow Turban Rebellion. When Cao Pi, King of Wei, usurped the throne from Emperor Xian, following Liu Bangs victory in the Chu–Han Contention, the resulting Han dynasty was named after the Hanzhong fief. Chinas first imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty, the Qin unified the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their empire became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Within four years, the authority had collapsed in the face of rebellion. Although Xiang Yu proved to be a commander, Liu Bang defeated him at Battle of Gaixia. Liu Bang assumed the title emperor at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu, Changan was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han
2.
Emperor Jing of Han
–
Emperor Jing of Han, personal name Liu Qi, was the sixth emperor of the Chinese Han dynasty from 157 to 141 BC. His reign saw the limiting of the power of the feudal kings/princes which resulted in the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC, Emperor Jing managed to crush the revolt and princes were thereafter denied rights to appoint ministers for their fiefs. This move consolidated central power which paved the way for the reign of his son Emperor Wu of Han. Emperor Jing had a complicated personality and he continued his father Emperor Wens policy of general non-interference with the people, reduced tax and other burdens, and promoted government thrift. He continued and magnified his fathers policy of reduction in criminal sentences and his light governance of the people was due to the Taoist influences of his mother, Empress Dou. Emperor Jing was born to Emperor Wen, then Prince of Dai and he was his fathers oldest son. After his father became emperor in 180 BC, then-Prince Qi was made crown prince in 179 BC, at the same time, his mother was made empress. In his childhood as crown prince, Prince Qi was praised for being compassionate and he was deeply influenced by his mother Empress Dou, who was a Taoist and required all of her children and grandchildren to study Taoist doctrines. He also developed deep bonds with his older sister Princess Liu Piao and his younger brother Liu Wu, in 157 BC, Emperor Wen died, and Prince Qi became emperor. In accordance with Emperor Wens will, the period of mourning was shortened, Emperor Jings grandmother Empress Dowager Bo became grand empress dowager, and Empress Dou became empress dowager. Prince Qis wife, Crown Princess Bo became empress and these era names are not true era names in the sense that the era name system, as instituted by Emperor Jings son Emperor Wu, had not come into place. Under Jing, taxes were cut in half, to one-thirtieth of the crop and he also continued his fathers policy of heqin with Xiongnu, which largely avoided large conflicts with that northern neighbor. However, one immediate issue confronting Emperor Jing was the power possessed by princes of collateral lines of the imperial clan, the princes often built up their own military strengths and resisted edicts issued by the emperor. This was already an issue in Emperor Wens days, but Emperor Wen did not take any actions on the issue. Emperor Jing did not designate a crown prince for the first few years of his reign, because Empress Bo did not have any sons. His mother, the Dowager Empress Dou, wanted him to make his younger brother Liu Wu, the Prince of Liang, the crown prince, however, Liu Wu was given many privileges not given to other princes. The issue of dealing with powerful princes would soon erupt into a war known as the Rebellion of the Seven States. While Emperor Jing was crown prince, Liu Pis heir apparent Liu Xian had been on a visit to the capital Changan
3.
Emperor Wu of Han
–
Emperor Wu of Han, born Liu Che, courtesy name Tong, was the seventh emperor of the Han dynasty of China, ruling from 141–87 BC. His reign lasted 54 years — a record not broken until the reign of the Kangxi Emperor more than 1,800 years later. His reign resulted in vast territorial expansion, development of a strong and centralized state resulting from his governmental re-organization and it was also during his reign that cultural contact with western Eurasia was greatly increased, directly or indirectly. Many new crops and other items were introduced to China during his reign, Emperor Wu successfully repelled the nomadic Xiongnu from systematically raiding northern China, and dispatched his envoy Zhang Qian in 139 BC to seek an alliance with the Yuezhi of Kangju. This resulted in further missions to Central Asia, michael Loewe called the reign of Emperor Wu the high point of Modernist policies, looking back to adapt ideas from the pre-Han period. His policies and most trusted advisers were Legalist, favoring adherents of Shang Yang and these reforms had an enduring effect throughout the existence of imperial China and an enormous influence on neighboring civilizations. Emperor Wu was also known for his employment of shaman advisers, the personal name of Emperor Wu was Liu Che. The use of Han in referring to emperor Wu is a reference to the Han dynasty of which he was a part. His family name is Liu, the family or clan of the Han dynasty shared the family name of Liu, the family name of Liu Bang. The character Di is a title, this is the Chinese word which in imperial history of China means emperor, the character Wu literally means martial or warlike, but is also related to the concept of a particular divinity in the historical Chinese religious pantheon existing at that time. Combined, Wu plus di makes the name Wudi, the posthumous name used for historical and for religious purposes. One of Han Wudis innovations was the practice of changing names every so many years. Thus, the practice for dating years during the reign of Wudi came to be the nth year of the, when they got close to Han borders, She assassinated the general and claimed to Emperor Wu that he had defeated Joseon in battle. Emperor Wu, unaware of his deception, made him the commander of the Commandery of Liaodong. King Ugeo, offended, made a raid on Liaodong and killed She, in response, Emperor Wu commissioned a two-pronged attack against Joseon. Initially, Joseon offered to become a vassal, but peace negotiations broke down by the Chinese forces refusal to let a Joseon force escort its crown prince to Changan to pay tribute to Emperor Wu, Han took over the Joseon lands in 108 BC and established four commanderies. Also in 109 BC, Emperor Wu sent a force against the Kingdom of Dian. When the King of Dian surrendered, it was incorporated into Han territory with the King of Dian being permitted to keep his traditional authority, Emperor Wu established five commanderies over Dian and the other nearby kingdoms
4.
Jade burial suit
–
A jade burial suit is a ceremonial suit made of pieces of jade in which royal members in Han dynasty China were buried. Of the jade suits that have found, the pieces of jade are mostly square or rectangular in shape, though triangular. Plaques are often joined by means of wire, threaded through holes drilled near the corners of each piece. The composition of the varies, and several suits have been found joined with either gold or silver. Other suits, such as that of King Zhao Mo, were joined using silk thread, in some instances, additional pieces of jade have been found beneath the head covering, including shaped plaques to cover the eyes, and plugs to fit the ears and nose. According to the Book of Later Han, the type of wire used was dependent on the status of the person buried, examination of the known suits, such as the two found in Mancheng, has revealed that these rules were not always followed. A jade burial suit was extremely expensive to create, and only wealthy aristocrats could afford to be buried in them, additionally, the process of manufacturing a suit was labor-intensive and is estimated to have required several years to complete a single suit. Tombs from the Spring and Autumn period belonging to the dukes of the Jin state in Quwo were discovered in which the body was covered with small jade pieces once interwoven with silk, for many years, many archaeologists suspected that records of jade burial suits were only legends. The discovery in 1968 of two complete jade suits in the tombs of Liu Sheng and Dou Wan in Mancheng, Hebei, the jade suits of Liu Sheng and Dou Wan consisted of 2,498 plates of solid jade connected with two and a half pounds of gold wires. In 1973, a jade burial suit belonging to Prince Huai of the Western Han Dynasty was discovered in Dingxian and it consisted of 1,203 pieces of jade and 2,580 grams of gold thread. In 1983, a suit was found in the tomb of Zhao Mo. The red silk thread used to bind the 2,291 jade plates represented Zhao Mos immersion into local culture and it is exhibited in the local Museum of the Mausoleum of the Nanyue King. Chinese jade Chinese Civilization, Funerary Jade Armor — Video on The China Times China. com. cn — Chinese language article on Jade burial suit, with photograph An Armor for Immortality Jade objects
5.
Censer
–
A censer, incense burner or perfume burner is a vessel made for burning incense or perfume in some solid form. These vessels vary greatly in size, form, and material of construction and they may consist of simple earthenware bowls or fire pots to intricately carved silver or gold vessels, small table top objects a few centimetres tall to as many as several metres high. Many designs use openwork to allow a flow of air, in many cultures, burning incense has spiritual and religious connotations, and this influences the design and decoration of the censer. Some types could also be used as pomanders, where the perfume diffuses slowly by evaporation rather than burning, for direct-burning incense, pieces of the incense are burned by placing them directly on top of a heat source or on a hot metal plate in a censer or thurible. The use of class of incense requires a separate heat source since it does not generally kindle a fire capable of burning itself. This incense can vary in the duration of its burning with the texture of the material, finer ingredients tend to burn more rapidly, while coarsely ground or whole chunks may be consumed very gradually as they have less total surface area. The heat is provided by charcoal or glowing embers. For home use of granulated incense, small, concave charcoal briquettes are sold, one lights the corner of the briquette on fire, then places it in the censer and extinguishes the flame. After the glowing sparks traverse the entire briquette, it is ready to have placed on it. For direct-burning incense, the tip or end of the incense is ignited with a flame or other heat source until the incense begins to turn into ash at the burning end. Flames on the incense are then fanned or blown out, with the incense continuing to burn without a flame on its own. Censers made for stick incense are also available, these are simply a long, thin plate of wood, metal, or ceramic, bent up and they serve to catch the ash of the burning incense stick. In Taoist and Buddhist temples, the spaces are scented with thick coiled incense. Worshipers at the light and burn sticks of incense. Individual sticks of incense are then placed into individual censers. The history of censers in Chinese culture probably began in the late Eastern Zhou Dynasty, the Chinese words meaning censer are compounds of lu, which originated as a type of Chinese bronze. Xianglu incense burner, censer is the most common term, xunlu means small censer, esp. for fumigating or scenting clothing, censing basket, which Edward H. Schafer described. Censing baskets were globes of hollow metal, pierced with intricate floral or animal designs, within the globe and they were used to perfume garments and bedclothes, and even to kill insects
6.
Chang'an
–
Changan is an ancient capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history, today known as Xian. Changan means Perpetual Peace in Classical Chinese, during the short-lived Xin dynasty, the city was renamed Constant Peace, yet after its fall in AD23, the old name was restored. By the time of the Ming dynasty, the name was changed to Xian, meaning Western Peace. Changan had been settled since Neolithic times, during which the Yangshao Culture was established in Banpo in the citys suburb, from its capital at Xianyang, the Qin dynasty ruled a larger area than either of the preceding dynasties. The imperial city of Changan during the Han dynasty was located northwest of todays Xian. During the Tang dynasty, the area to be known as Changan included the area inside the Ming Xian fortification, plus small areas to its east and west. The Tang Changan hence, was 8 times the size of the Ming Xian, during its heyday, Changan was one of the largest and most populous cities in the world. Around AD750, Changan was called a million peoples city in Chinese records, while modern estimates put it at around 800, 000–1,000,000 within city walls. According to the census in 742 recorded in the New Book of Tang,362,921 families with 1,960,188 persons were counted in Jingzhao Fu, the strategic and economic importance of ancient Changan was mainly due to its central position. The roads leading to Gansu, Sichuan, Henan, Hubei, the site of the Han capital was located 3 km northwest of modern Xian. As the capital of the Western Han, it was the political, economic and it was also the eastern terminus of the Silk Road, and a cosmopolitan metropolis. By 2 AD, the population was 246,200 in 80,000 households and this population consisted mostly of the scholar gentry class whose education was being sponsored by their wealthy aristocratic families. In addition to civil servants was a larger underclass to serve them. Initially, Emperor Liu Bang decided to build his capital at the center of the sun and this location was the site of the holy city Chengzhou, home of the last Zhou emperors. The magical significance of location was believed to ensure a long-lasting dynasty like the Zhou. However, in practice the strategic value of a capital located in the Wei Valley became the deciding factor for locating the new capital. To this end, it is recorded c 200 BC he forcibly relocated thousands of clans in the aristocracy to this region. First, it kept all potential rivals close to the new Emperor and his adviser Liu Jing described this plan as weakening the root while strengthening the branch
7.
Liu Bei
–
Liu Bei, courtesy name Xuande, was a warlord in the late Eastern Han dynasty who founded the state of Shu Han in the Three Kingdoms period and became its first ruler. Liu Bei overcame his many defeats to carve out his own realm, which at its peak spanned present-day Sichuan, Chongqing, Guizhou, Hunan, parts of Hubei, and parts of Gansu. His fictional counterpart in the novel was a example of a ruler who adhered to the Confucian set of moral values, such as loyalty. Historically, Liu Bei like many Han rulers was greatly influenced by Laozi and he was a brilliant politician and leader whose skill was a remarkable demonstration of a Legalist. Liu Beis somewhat Confucian tendencies were also dramatized compared to his rival states founders Cao Pi and Sun Quan, who both ruled as pure Legalists. The historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms described Liu Bei as a man seven chi and five cun tall, with arms that extended beyond his knees. The historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong gave a description about Liu Beis physical appearance. According to the historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms, Liu Bei was born in Zhuo County and he was a descendant of Liu Zhen, a son of Liu Sheng and a grandson of Emperor Jing. However, Pei Songzhis commentary, based on the Dianlue, said that Liu Bei was a descendant of the Marquis of Linyi, the title of Marquis of Linyi was held by Liu Fu, and later by Liu Fus son Liu Taotu. All three descended from Emperor Jing, Liu Beis grandfather Liu Xiong and father Liu Hong were both employed as local clerks. Liu Bei grew up in a family, having lost his father when he was still a child. To support themselves, Liu Bei and his mother sold shoes, even so, Liu Bei was full of ambition from childhood, he once said to his peers, while under a tree that resembled the royal chariot, that he desired to become an emperor. At the age of 14, Liu Bei, sponsored by an affluent relative who recognised his potential in leadership. There he met and befriended Gongsun Zan, who would become a prominent warlord in northern China. The adolescent Liu Bei was said to be unenthusiastic in studying and displayed interest in hunting, music, concise in speech, calm in demeanour, and kind to his friends, Liu Bei was well liked by his contemporaries. In 184, at the outbreak of the Yellow Turban Rebellion, Liu Bei became much more politically aware and called for the assembly of a volunteer army to help government forces suppress the rebellion. Liu Bei received financial contributions from two wealthy horse merchants named Zhang Shiping and Su Shuang and rallied a group of followers, including Guan Yu, Zhang Fei. Liu Bei led his army to join the provincial army, together, they scored several victories against the rebels
8.
Pinyin
–
Pinyin, or Hànyǔ Pīnyīn, is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese in mainland China, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan. It is often used to teach Standard Chinese, which is written using Chinese characters. The system includes four diacritics denoting tones, Pinyin without tone marks is used to spell Chinese names and words in languages written with the Latin alphabet, and also in certain computer input methods to enter Chinese characters. The pinyin system was developed in the 1950s by many linguists, including Zhou Youguang and it was published by the Chinese government in 1958 and revised several times. The International Organization for Standardization adopted pinyin as a standard in 1982. The system was adopted as the standard in Taiwan in 2009. The word Hànyǔ means the language of the Han people. In 1605, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci published Xizi Qiji in Beijing and this was the first book to use the Roman alphabet to write the Chinese language. Twenty years later, another Jesuit in China, Nicolas Trigault, neither book had much immediate impact on the way in which Chinese thought about their writing system, and the romanizations they described were intended more for Westerners than for the Chinese. One of the earliest Chinese thinkers to relate Western alphabets to Chinese was late Ming to early Qing Dynasty scholar-official, the first late Qing reformer to propose that China adopt a system of spelling was Song Shu. A student of the great scholars Yu Yue and Zhang Taiyan, Song had been to Japan and observed the effect of the kana syllabaries. This galvanized him into activity on a number of fronts, one of the most important being reform of the script, while Song did not himself actually create a system for spelling Sinitic languages, his discussion proved fertile and led to a proliferation of schemes for phonetic scripts. The Wade–Giles system was produced by Thomas Wade in 1859, and it was popular and used in English-language publications outside China until 1979. This Sin Wenz or New Writing was much more sophisticated than earlier alphabets. In 1940, several members attended a Border Region Sin Wenz Society convention. Mao Zedong and Zhu De, head of the army, both contributed their calligraphy for the masthead of the Sin Wenz Societys new journal. Outside the CCP, other prominent supporters included Sun Yat-sens son, Sun Fo, Cai Yuanpei, the countrys most prestigious educator, Tao Xingzhi, an educational reformer. Over thirty journals soon appeared written in Sin Wenz, plus large numbers of translations, biographies, some contemporary Chinese literature, and a spectrum of textbooks
9.
Rebellion of the Seven States
–
This was an attempt to consolidate Liu family rule over the parts of China that were not ruled directly from the capital under the commandery system. During the reign of Emperor Wen, these princes were still setting their own laws, many princes were effectively ignoring the imperial governments authority within their own principalities. When Emperor Jing became emperor in 157 BC, the principality of Wu was especially domineering. Emperor Jing already had a relationship with his cousin-once-removed Liu Pi, Prince of Wu. The principality of Wu enjoyed, among other resources, abundant copper. When Emperor Jing was still Crown Prince Qi, Liu Pis heir apparent Liu Xian had been on a visit to the capital Changan. During arguments over the game, Liu Xian offended Crown Prince Qi, Liu Pi hated Emperor Jing for causing the death of Liu Xian. He carved out the commandery of Changshan from the Principality of Zhao and he carved out six counties from the principality of Jiaoxi, based on Liu Ang, the Prince of Jiaoxi, embezzling funds from the sales of titles intended for paying border patrol costs. Carving out the commanderies of Huiji and Yuzhang from the Principality of Wu, based on various offences by Liu Pi, in response to these actions, Liu Pi organized a rebellion. The seven actively participating princes were, Liu Pi, Prince of Wu, Liu Wu, Prince of Chu Liu Ang, Prince of Jiaoxi. Two other principalities--Qi and Jibei --agreed to join but neither actually did, three other princes were persuaded to join but either refused or merely did not join, Liu An, Prince of Huainan Liu Ci, Prince of Lujiang Liu Bo, Prince of Hengshan. The seven princes also requested help from the independent kingdoms of Donghai and Minyue. Donghai and Minyue sent troops to participate in the campaign, but the Northern Xiongnu, after promising to do so. The seven princes claimed that Chao Cuo was aiming to wipe out the principalities, the four principalities on the periphery of Qi aimed to conquer Qi and divide it. Zhao forces headed west but stayed within the borders to wait for Wu and Chu forces, a suggestion by a Gen. Huan to ignore all cities on the way and leapfrog to attack Luoyang and seize the plentiful food and weapons supply near Luoyang. A suggestion to concentrate the forces to attack Liang and destroy it first, Liu Pi accepted the final suggestion, concerned that if he gave Tian a large force he might rebel, and that Huans plan was too dangerous. In accordance with instructions left by Emperor Wen, Emperor Jing commissioned Zhou Yafu as the commander of his forces to face the main rebel force--the joint forces of Wu. He commissioned Li Ji, the Marquess of Quzhou, to attack Zhao, dou Ying was put in command of Li and Luans forces, to coordinate them at his headquarters set at Yingyang
10.
Hebei Museum
–
The Hebei Museum is located in Shijiazhuang, the capital city of Hebei Province, China. It first opened in April 1953 in Baoding, after moving twice in the 1980s, it reopened in October 1987 at its present location on South Zhongshan Street. As the only museum in Hebei, its primary function is the collection and exhibition of ancient cultural relics. The museums exhibition area has an area of approximately 20,000 square metres and showcases nearly 150,000 cultural relics, Hebei Museum is open Tuesday through Sunday, from 9,00 AM to 5,00 PM. Entrance is free with valid proof of identification
.jpg)
_%E7%92%A7_disc.jpg){kind=small}