1.
Steam
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Steam is water in the gas phase, which is formed when water boils. Steam is invisible, however, steam often refers to wet steam, at lower pressures, such as in the upper atmosphere or at the top of high mountains, water boils at a lower temperature than the nominal 100 °C at standard pressure. If heated further it becomes superheated steam, piston type steam engines played a central role to the Industrial Revolution and modern steam turbines are used to generate more than 80% of the worlds electricity. If liquid water comes in contact with a hot surface or depressurizes quickly below its vapor pressure. Steam explosions have been responsible for many accidents, and may also have been responsible for much of the damage to the plant in the Chernobyl disaster. Steam is traditionally created by heating a boiler via burning coal and other fuels, water vapor that includes water droplets is described as wet steam. As wet steam is heated further, the droplets evaporate, and at a high temperature all of the water evaporates. Superheated steam is steam at a higher than its boiling point for the pressure. Steam tables contain thermodynamic data for water/steam and are used by engineers and scientists in design. Additionally, thermodynamic phase diagrams for water/steam, such as a diagram or a Mollier diagram shown in this article. Steam charts are used for analysing thermodynamic cycles. In agriculture, steam is used for sterilization to avoid the use of harmful chemical agents. Steams capacity to transfer heat is used in the home, for cooking vegetables, steam cleaning of fabric, carpets and flooring. In each case, water is heated in a boiler, steam is also used in ironing clothes to add enough humidity with the heat to take wrinkles out and put intentional creases into the clothing. About 90% of all electricity is generated using steam as the working fluid, in electric generation, steam is typically condensed at the end of its expansion cycle, and returned to the boiler for re-use. However, in cogeneration, steam is piped into buildings through a heating system to provide heat energy after its use in the electric generation cycle. The worlds biggest steam generation system is the New York City steam system, in other industrial applications steam is used for energy storage, which is introduced and extracted by heat transfer, usually through pipes. Steam is a reservoir for thermal energy because of waters high heat of vaporization
2.
Boiler
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A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil, the heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications, including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation. The pressure vessel of a boiler is usually made of steel, stainless steel, especially of the austenitic types, is not used in wetted parts of boilers due to corrosion and stress corrosion cracking. In live steam models, copper or brass is used because it is more easily fabricated in smaller size boilers. For much of the Victorian age of steam, the material used for boilermaking was the highest grade of wrought iron. In the 20th century, design practice instead moved towards the use of steel, which is stronger and cheaper, with welded construction, which is quicker and requires less labour. It should be noted, however, that wrought iron boilers corrode far slower than their steel counterparts. This makes the longevity of older wrought-iron boilers far superior to those of welded steel boilers, cast iron may be used for the heating vessel of domestic water heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed boilers in some countries, their purpose is usually to produce hot water, not steam, the brittleness of cast iron makes it impractical for high-pressure steam boilers. The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, electric steam boilers use resistance- or immersion-type heating elements. Nuclear fission is used as a heat source for generating steam, either directly or, in most cases. Heat recovery steam generators use the heat rejected from other such as gas turbine. 18th century Haycock boilers generally produced and stored large volumes of very low-pressure steam and these could burn wood or most often, coal. Flued boiler with one or two large flues—an early type or forerunner of fire-tube boiler, fire-tube boiler, Here, water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume left above to accommodate the steam. This is the type of boiler used in nearly all steam locomotives, the heat source is inside a furnace or firebox that has to be kept permanently surrounded by the water in order to maintain the temperature of the heating surface below the boiling point. Fire-tube boilers usually have a low rate of steam production. Fire-tube boilers mostly burn solid fuels, but are adaptable to those of the liquid or gas variety. Water-tube boiler, In this type, tubes filled with water are arranged inside a furnace in a number of possible configurations and this type generally gives high steam production rates, but less storage capacity than the above
3.
Replica
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A replica is an exact reproduction, such as of a painting, as it was executed by the original artist or a copy or reproduction, especially one on a scale smaller than the original. A replica is a copying closely resembling the original concerning its shape, an inverted replica complements the original by filling its gaps. It can be a used for historical purposes, such as being placed in a museum. Not all incorrectly attributed items are intentional forgeries, in the same way that a museum shop might sell a print of a painting or a replica of a vase, copies of statues, paintings, and other precious artifacts have been popular through the ages. In arts or collectible automobiles, the replica is used for discussing the non-original recreation. In motor racing, especially motorcycling, often manufacturers will produce a street version product with the colours of the vehicle or clothing of a famous racer. This is not the vehicle or clothing worn during the race by the racer. These high-performance race-look products termed Replica, are priced higher and are usually more sought-after than plain colours of the same product, because of gun ownership restrictions in some locales, gun collectors create non-functional legal replicas of illegal firearms. Such replicas are also preferred to real firearms when used as a prop in a film or stage performance, a prop replica is an authentic-looking duplicate of a prop from a video game, movie or television show. Replicas represent a copy or forgery of another object and we think of forgeries we think of paintings but, in fact, anything that is collectible. Replicas have been made by people to preserve a link to the past. This can be linked to a historical past or specific time-period or just to commemorate an experience, replicas and reproductions of artifacts help provide a material representation of the past for the public. Replicas of artifacts and art have a purpose within museums and research and they are created to help with preserving of original artifacts. Replicas and their original representation can be seen as fake or real depending on the viewer, good replicas take much education related to understanding all the processes and history that go behind the culture and the original creation. To create a good and authentic replica of an object, there is to be a skilled artisan or forger to create the authentic experience that the original object provides. This process takes time and much money to be done correctly for museum standards. Authenticity or real feeling presented by an object can be “described as the experience of an ‘aura’ of an original. ”An aura of an object is what an object represents through its previous history and experience. Replicas work well in museum settings because they have the ability to look so real, through the context and experience that a replica can provide in a museum setting, people can be fooled into seeing it as ‘original’
4.
Scale model
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This enables it to demonstrate some behavior or property of the original object without examining the original object itself. The most familiar scale models represent the appearance of an object in miniature. Scale models are used in fields including engineering, architecture, film making, military command, salesmanship. While each field may use a model for a different purpose, all scale models are based on the same principles. The detail requirements vary depending on the needs of the modeler, in general a scale model must be designed and built primarily considering similitude theory. However, other requirements concerning practical issues must also be considered, similitude is the theory and art of predicting prototype performance from scale model observations. The main requirement of similitude is all dimensionless quantities must be equal for both the model and the prototype under the conditions the modeler desires to make observations. Dimensionless quantities are generally referred to as Pi terms, or π terms, in many fields the π terms are well established. For example, in dynamics, a well known dimensionless number called the Reynolds number comes up frequently in scale model tests with fluid in motion relative to a stationary surface. An example of the Reynolds number and its use in similitude theory satisfaction can be observed in the scale model testing of fluid flow in a horizontal pipe, one method to determine the dimensionless quantities of concern for a given problem is to use dimensional analysis. Practical concerns include the cost to construct the model, available test facilities to condition and observe the model, the availability of certain materials, and even who will build it. Practical requirements are very diverse depending on the purpose of the scale model. As an example, perhaps an aerospace company needs to test a new wing shape, however, if a facility such as this one cant be used, perhaps due to cost constraints, the similitude requirements must be relaxed or the test redesigned to accommodate the limitation. In this case, concessions must be made for reasons to the similitude requirements. An example of this from fluid dynamics is flow of a liquid in a horizontal pipe, possible π terms to consider in this situation are Reynolds number, Weber number, Froude number, and Mach number. For this flow configuration, however, no tension is involved. Also, compression of the fluid is not applicable, so the Mach number can be disregarded, finally, gravity is not responsible for the flow, so the Froude number can also be disregarded. This leaves the modeler with only the Reynolds number to worry about in terms of equating its values for the scale model, in general, scale models can be classified into three classes depending on the degree of similitude satisfaction they exhibit
5.
Toy
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A toy is an item that is used in play, especially one designed for such use. Playing with toys is supposed to be a means of training young children for life in society. Different materials like wood, clay, paper, and plastic are used to make toys, many items are designed to serve as toys, but goods produced for other purposes can also be used. For instance, a child may fold an ordinary piece of paper into an airplane shape. Newer forms of toys include interactive digital entertainment, some toys are produced primarily as collectors items and are intended for display only. The origin of toys is prehistoric, dolls representing infants, animals, the origin of the word toy is unknown, but it is believed that it was first used in the 14th century. Toys are mainly made for children, the oldest known doll toy that has been found is thought to be 4,000 years old. Playing with toys is considered to be important when it comes to growing up, younger children use toys to discover their identity, help their bodies grow strong, learn cause and effect, explore relationships, and practice skills they will need as adults. Adults on occasion use toys to form and strengthen social bonds, teach, help in therapy, most children have been said to play with whatever they can find, such as sticks and rocks. Toys and games have been unearthed from the sites of ancient civilizations and they have been written about in some of the oldest literature. Toys excavated from the Indus valley civilization include small carts, whistles shaped like birds, the earliest toys are made from materials found in nature, such as rocks, sticks, and clay. Thousands of years ago, Egyptian children played with dolls that had wigs and movable limbs which were made from stone, pottery, in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, children played with dolls made of wax or terracotta, sticks, bows and arrows, and yo-yos. When Greek children, especially girls, came of age it was customary for them to sacrifice the toys of their childhood to the gods, on the eve of their wedding, young girls around fourteen would offer their dolls in a temple as a rite of passage into adulthood. The oldest known mechanical puzzle comes from Greece and appeared in the 3rd century BC. The game consisted of a divided into 14 parts. In Iran puzzle-locks were made as early as the 17th century, Toys became more widespread with the changing attitudes towards children engendered by the Enlightenment. Children began to be seen as people in and of themselves, as opposed to extensions of their household, the variety and number of toys that were manufactured during the 18th century steadily rose, John Spilsbury invented the first jigsaw puzzle in 1767 to help children learn geography. He created puzzles on eight themes - the World, Europe, Asia, Africa, America, England and Wales, the rocking horse was developed at the same time in England, especially with the wealthy as it was thought to develop childrens balance for riding real horses
6.
Cultural heritage
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Cultural heritage includes tangible culture, intangible culture, and natural heritage. Objects are a part of the study of history because they provide a concrete basis for ideas. Their preservation demonstrates a recognition of the necessity of the past, in The Past is a Foreign Country, David Lowenthal observes that preserved objects also validate memories. This unfortunately poses a danger as places and things are damaged by the hands of tourists, the required to display them. Similarly changing is the value each generation may place on the past, classical civilizations, and especially the Indian, have attributed supreme importance to the preservation of tradition. Its central idea was that institutions, scientific knowledge and technological applications need to use a heritage as a resource. Using contemporary language, we could say that ancient Indians considered, as social resources, ethics considered that what had been inherited should not be consumed, but should be handed over, possibly enriched, to successive generations. This was an imperative for all, except in the final life stage of sannyasa. What one generation considers cultural heritage may be rejected by the next generation, Cultural property includes the physical, or tangible cultural heritage, such as artworks. These are generally split into two groups of movable and immovable heritage, immovable heritage includes buildings, large industrial installations or other historic places and monuments. Moveable heritage includes books, documents, moveable artworks, machines, clothing, and other artifacts and these include objects significant to the archaeology, architecture, science or technology of a specified culture. The concept includes the ways and means of behavior in a society, and these include social values and traditions, customs and practices, aesthetic and spiritual beliefs, artistic expression, language and other aspects of human activity. The significance of artifacts can be interpreted against the backdrop of socioeconomic, political, ethnic, religious. Naturally, intangible heritage is more difficult to preserve than physical objects. These kind of heritage sites often serve as an important component in a countrys tourist industry, Heritage can also include cultural landscapes. As of 2011, there are 936 World Heritage Sites,725 cultural,183 natural, each of these sites is considered important to the international community. The underwater cultural heritage is protected by the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage and this convention is a legal instrument helping states parties to improve the protection of their underwater cultural heritage. In additional, UNESCO has begun designating masterpieces of the Oral, international Institute for Conservation Much of heritage preservation work is done at the national, regional, or local levels of society
7.
Revenue
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In accounting, revenue is the income that a business has from its normal business activities, usually from the sale of goods and services to customers. Revenue is also referred to as sales or turnover, some companies receive revenue from interest, royalties, or other fees. Revenue may refer to income in general, or it may refer to the amount, in a monetary unit, received during a period of time, as in Last year. Profits or net income generally imply total revenue minus total expenses in a given period, in accounting, revenue is often referred to as the top line due to its position on the income statement at the very top. This is to be contrasted with the line which denotes net income. For non-profit organizations, annual revenue may be referred to as gross receipts, in general usage, revenue is income received by an organization in the form of cash or cash equivalents. Sales revenue or revenues is income received from selling goods or services over a period of time, tax revenue is income that a government receives from taxpayers. In more formal usage, revenue is a calculation or estimation of periodic income based on a standard accounting practice or the rules established by a government or government agency. Two common accounting methods, cash basis accounting and accrual basis accounting, corporations that offer shares for sale to the public are usually required by law to report revenue based on generally accepted accounting principles or International Financial Reporting Standards. In a double-entry bookkeeping system, revenue accounts are general ledger accounts that are summarized periodically under the heading Revenue or Revenues on an income statement, Revenue account names describe the type of revenue, such as Repair service revenue, Rent revenue earned or Sales. Money income from activities that are ordinary for a corporation, company, partnership. For some businesses, such as manufacturing and/or grocery, most revenue is from the sale of goods, service businesses such as law firms and barber shops receive most of their revenue from rendering services. Lending businesses such as car rentals and banks receive most of their revenue from fees, Revenues from a businesss primary activities are reported as sales, sales revenue or net sales. This includes product returns and discounts for early payment of invoices, most businesses also have revenue that is incidental to the businesss primary activities, such as interest earned on deposits in a demand account. This is included in revenue but not included in net sales, Sales revenue does not include sales tax collected by the business. Other revenue is revenue from peripheral operations, for example, a company that manufactures and sells automobiles would record the revenue from the sale of an automobile as regular revenue. The combination of all the revenue generating systems of a business is called its revenue model, Revenue is a crucial part of financial statement analysis. The company’s performance is measured to the extent to which its asset inflows compare with its asset outflows, net income is the result of this equation, but revenue typically enjoys equal attention during a standard earnings call
8.
Narrow-gauge railway
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A narrow-gauge railway is a railway with a track gauge narrower than the 1,435 mm of standard gauge railways. Most existing narrow-gauge railways are between 600 mm and 1,067 mm, narrow-gauge railways also have specialized use in mines and other environments where a very small structure gauge makes a very small loading gauge necessary. Narrow-gauge railways also have general applications. Many narrow-gauge street tramways are used, particularly in Europe, where 1,000 mm metre gauge tramways are common, the earliest recorded railway is shown in the De re metallica of 1556, which shows a mine in Bohemia with a railway of about 2 ft gauge. During the 16th century, railways were mainly restricted to hand-pushed narrow-gauge lines in mines throughout Europe, during the 17th century, mine railways were extended to provide transportation above ground. These lines were industrial, connecting mines with nearby transportation points and these railways were usually built to the same narrow gauge as the mine railways from which they developed. The worlds first steam locomotive on rails, built in 1802 by Richard Trevithick for the Coalbrookdale Company, during the 1820s and 1830s, a number of industrial narrow-gauge railways in the United Kingdom used steam locomotives. In 1842, the first narrow-gauge steam locomotive outside the UK was built for the 1,100 mm gauge Antwerp-Ghent Railway in Belgium, historically, many narrow-gauge railways were built as part of specific industrial enterprises and were primarily industrial railways rather than general carriers. Some common uses for these industrial narrow-gauge railways were mining, logging, construction, tunnelling, quarrying, extensive narrow-gauge networks were constructed in many parts of the world for these purposes. For example, mountain logging operations in the 19th century often used narrow-gauge railways to transport logs from mill sites to market, significant sugarcane railways still operate in Cuba, Fiji, Java, the Philippines, and Queensland. Narrow-gauge railway equipment remains in use for the construction of tunnels. Extensive narrow-gauge railway systems served the front-line trenches of both sides in World War I and they were a short-lived military application, and after the end of the war, the surplus equipment from these created a small boom in narrow gauge railway building in Europe. Narrow-gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. It is also used in populated areas where the potential demand is too low for broader gauge railways to be economically viable. This is the case in some of Australia and most of Southern Africa, the use of such railways has almost vanished due to the capabilities of modern trucks. In many countries, narrow gauge railways were built as feeder or branch lines to feed traffic to more important standard gauge lines, the choice was often not between a narrow-gauge railway and a standard gauge one, but between a narrow-gauge railway and none at all. Some bulk commodities, such as coal, ore, and gravel, can be transshipped, but this still incurs time penalties
9.
Steam locomotive
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A steam locomotive is a railway locomotive that produces its pulling power through a steam engine. These locomotives are fueled by burning combustible material—usually coal, wood, the steam moves reciprocating pistons which are mechanically connected to the locomotives main wheels. Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself or in wagons pulled behind, the first steam locomotive, made by Richard Trevithick, first operated on 21 February 1804, three years after the road locomotive he made in 1801. The first practical steam locomotive was built in 1812-13 by John Blenkinsop, Steam locomotives were first developed in Great Britain during the early 19th century and used for railway transport until the middle of the 20th century. From the early 1900s they were superseded by electric and diesel locomotives, with full conversions to electric. The majority of locomotives were retired from regular service by the 1980s, though several continue to run on tourist. The earliest railways employed horses to draw carts along railway tracks, in 1784, William Murdoch, a Scottish inventor, built a small-scale prototype of a steam road locomotive. An early working model of a rail locomotive was designed and constructed by steamboat pioneer John Fitch in the US during 1794. His steam locomotive used interior bladed wheels guided by rails or tracks, the model still exists at the Ohio Historical Society Museum in Columbus. The authenticity and date of this locomotive is disputed by some experts, accompanied by Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success. The design incorporated a number of important innovations that included using high-pressure steam which reduced the weight of the engine, Trevithick visited the Newcastle area in 1804 and had a ready audience of colliery owners and engineers. The visit was so successful that the railways in north-east England became the leading centre for experimentation. Trevithick continued his own steam propulsion experiments through another trio of locomotives, Four years later, the successful twin-cylinder locomotive Salamanca by Matthew Murray for the edge railed rack and pinion Middleton Railway debuted in 1812. Another well known early locomotive was Puffing Billy built 1813–14 by engineer William Hedley and it was intended to work on the Wylam Colliery near Newcastle upon Tyne. This locomotive is the oldest preserved, and is on display in the Science Museum. George Stephenson built Locomotion No.1 for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north-east England, in 1829, his son Robert built in Newcastle The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. This success led to the company emerging as the pre-eminent builder of locomotives used on railways in the UK, US. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened a year later making exclusive use of power for passenger
10.
Steamship
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A steamship, often referred to as a steamer, is a vessel, typically ocean-faring and seaworthy, that is propelled by one or more steam engines that typically drive propellers or paddlewheels. The first steamships came into usage during the early 1800s, however. Steamships usually use the designations of PS for paddle steamer or SS for screw steamer. As paddle steamers became less common, SS is assumed by many to stand for steam ship, Ships powered by internal combustion engines use a prefix such as MV for motor vessel, so it is not correct to use SS for most modern vessels. The steamship was preceded by smaller vessels designed for insular transportation, once the technology of steam was mastered at this level, steam engines were mounted on larger, and eventually, ocean-going vessels. Becoming reliable, and propelled by screw rather than paddlewheels, the changed the design of ships for faster. Paddlewheels as the main motive source became standard on these early vessels and it was an effective means of propulsion under ideal conditions but otherwise had serious drawbacks. Within a few decades of the development of the river and canal steamboat, the first sea-going steamboat was Richard Wrights first steamboat Experiment, an ex-French lugger, she steamed from Leeds to Yarmouth in July 1813. She carried passengers and freight to Paris in 1822 at an speed of 8 knots. The American ship SS Savannah first crossed the Atlantic Ocean, another claimant is the Canadian ship SS Royal William in 1833. The SS Archimedes, built in Britain in 1839 by Francis Pettit Smith, was the worlds first steamship to be driven by a screw propeller. It had considerable influence on development, encouraging the adoption of screw propulsion by the Royal Navy. The key innovation that made ocean-going steamers viable was the change from the paddle-wheel to the screw-propeller as the mechanism of propulsion and these steamships quickly became more popular, because the propellers efficiency was consistent regardless of the depth at which it operated. Being smaller in size and mass and being submerged, it was also far less prone to damage. The development of screw propulsion relied on the technological innovations. Steam engines had to be designed with the power delivered at the bottom of the machinery, a paddle steamers engines drive a shaft that is positioned above the waterline, with the cylinders positioned below the shaft. SS Great Britain used chain drive to power from a paddlers engine to the propeller shaft - the result of a late design change to propeller propulsion. An effective stern tube and associated bearings were required, the stern tube contains the propeller shaft where it passes through the hull structure
11.
Steam turbine
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A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884, in 1551, Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt described a steam turbine with the practical application of rotating a spit. Steam turbines were described by the Italian Giovanni Branca and John Wilkins in England. The devices described by Taqi al-Din and Wilkins are today known as steam jacks, in 1672 an impulse steam turbine driven car was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest. A more modern version of car was produced some time in the late 18th century by an unknown German mechanic. The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, the invention of Parsons steam turbine made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare. Parsons design was a reaction type and his patent was licensed and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The Parsons turbine also turned out to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all major world power stations, a number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine accelerated the steam to full speed before running it against a turbine blade, De Lavals impulse turbine is simpler, less expensive and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam, but is less efficient. He taught at the École des mines de Saint-Étienne for a decade until 1897, one of the founders of the modern theory of steam and gas turbines was Aurel Stodola, a Slovak physicist and engineer and professor at the Swiss Polytechnical Institute in Zurich. His work Die Dampfturbinen und ihre Aussichten als Wärmekraftmaschinen was published in Berlin in 1903, a further book Dampf und Gas-Turbinen was published in 1922. It was used in John Brown-engined merchant ships and warships, including liners, the present-day manufacturing industry for steam turbines is dominated by Chinese power equipment makers. Other manufacturers with minor market share include Bhel, Siemens, Alstom, GE, Doosan Škoda Power, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, the consulting firm Frost & Sullivan projects that manufacturing of steam turbines will become more consolidated by 2020 as Chinese power manufacturers win increasing business outside of China. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines, Turbine blades are of two basic types, blades and nozzles. Blades move entirely due to the impact of steam on them and this results in a steam velocity drop and essentially no pressure drop as steam moves through the blades. A turbine composed of alternating with fixed nozzles is called an impulse turbine, Curtis turbine, Rateau turbine
12.
Steamroller
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A steamroller is a form of road roller – a type of heavy construction machinery used for leveling surfaces, such as roads or airfields – that is powered by a steam engine. The key difference between the two vehicles is that on a roller the main roll replaces the front wheels and axle that would be fitted to a traction engine, in many parts of the world, the term steam roller is still used regardless of the method of propulsion. This typically only applies to the largest examples, before about 1850, the word steamroller meant a fixed machine for rolling and curving steel plates for boilers and ships. From then on, it meant a vehicle. An early steamroller was demonstrated by Louis Lemoine in France in 1860 and in Britain in 1863 by William Clark, the company Aveling & Porter was the first to successfully sell the product commercially. In 1866 they produced a prototype roller with 3 foot wide rollers fitted to the rear of a standard 12 nominal horsepower traction engine and this experimental machine was described by local papers as the worlds first steamroller and it caused a public spectacle. In 1867 the company production of the first practical steam roller - the new machines rollers were mounted at the front instead of the back. It was tested on the Military Road in Chatham, Star Hill in Rochester and in Hyde Park, London, within a year, they were being exported around the world, including to France, India and the United States. Aveling & Porter refined their product continuously over the decades, introducing fully steerable front rollers. The majority of rollers were of the same basic 3-roll configuration, gear-driven, however, there was also a distinctive variant, the tandem, which had two wide rolls, one front, one rear. Those made by Robey & Co, a number of Robey & Co. tandem rollers were modified to make a further variant, the tri-tandem, which was a tandem with a third roll, mounted directly behind the rear one. Robey supplied the parts, but the modification was undertaken by Goodes of Royston, ten tandem and two tri-tandem Robey rollers survive in preservation, and one of the tri-tandems is known to have been used to construct parts of the M1 motorway. e. Convertible engines were liked by local authorities, since the machine could be used for haulage in the winter. Although most steam roller designs are derived from engines, and were manufactured by the same companies. The most obvious difference is in the wheels, traction engines were generally built with large fabricated spoked steel wheels with wide rims. Those intended for use would have continuous solid rubber tyres bolted around the rims. Steam rollers, on the hand, had smooth rear wheels. The roller consisted of a pair of adjacent wide cylinders supported at both ends and this replaced the separate wheels and axle of a traction engine
13.
Traction engine
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A traction engine is a self-propelled steam engine used to move heavy loads on roads, plough ground or to provide power at a chosen location. The name derives from the Latin tractus, meaning drawn, since the function of any traction engine is to draw a load behind it. They are sometimes called road locomotives to distinguish them from railway locomotives – that is, Traction engines tend to be large, robust and powerful, but heavy, slow, and difficult to manoeuvre. Nevertheless, they revolutionized agriculture and road haulage at a time when the alternative prime mover was the draught horse. They became popular in industrialised countries from around 1850, when the first self-propelled portable steam engines for use were developed. All types of engines have now been superseded, in commercial use. However, several examples have been preserved worldwide, many in working order. Steam fairs are held throughout the year in the United Kingdom, and in other countries, however, where soil conditions permitted, direct hauling of implements was preferred – in America, this led to the divergent development of the steam tractor. Limits of technical knowledge and manufacturing technology meant that practicable road vehicles, powered by steam, the alteration was made by fitting a long driving chain between the crankshaft and the rear axle. The first half of the 1860s was a period of great experimentation but by the end of the decade the standard form of the engine had evolved. Until the quality of roads improved there was demand for faster vehicles and engines were geared accordingly to cope with their use on rough roads. British companies such as Manns and Garrett developed potentially viable direct ploughing engines, however conditions were against them. These market conditions arose in the wake of the First World War when there was a glut of surplus equipment available as a result of British Government policy. Large numbers of Fowler ploughing engines had been constructed in order to increase the land under tillage during the war, road steam disappeared through restrictions and charges that drove up their operating costs. Through 1921, steam tractors had demonstrated clear economic advantages over horse power for heavy hauling, the tax was payable by all road hauliers in proportion to the axle load and was particularly restrictive on steam propulsion, which was heavier than its petrol equivalent. This was at a time of unemployment in the mining industry. The tax was devastating to the businesses of heavy hauliers and showmen, the last new UK-built traction engines were constructed during the 1930s, although many continued in commercial use for many years while there remained experienced enginemen available to drive them. From the 1950s, the movement started to build up as enthusiasts realised that traction engines were in danger of dying out
14.
Stationary steam engine
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Stationary steam engines are fixed steam engines used for pumping or driving mills and factories, and for power generation. Table engines have the crosshead above the cylinder and the crankshaft below. Horizontal engines have a horizontal cylinder, vertical engines have a vertical cylinder. Inclined engines have an inclined cylinder, Stationary engines may be classified by secondary characteristics as well, High-speed engines are distinguished by fast-acting valves. Corliss engines are distinguished by special rotary valve gear, uniflow engines have admission valves at the cylinder heads and exhaust ports at the midpoint. When stationary engines had multiple cylinders, they could be classified as, Simple engines, compound engines which use the exhaust from high-pressure cylinders to power low-pressure cylinders. This could be done with a plate that acted as a heat sink. Stationary engines may also be classified by their application, Pumping engines are found in pumping stations, mill engines to power textile mills Winding engines power various types of hoists. Refrigeration engines are coupled to ammonia compressors. A. and Watkins, George, The Industrial Archaeology of the Stationary Steam Engine, London,1976, ISBN 0-7139-0604-9 Hills, power from Steam, A History of the Stationary Steam Engine. Roberts, A S. Arthur Roberts Engine List
15.
Porvoo
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Porvoo is a city and a municipality situated on the southern coast of Finland approximately 50 kilometres east of Helsinki. Porvoo is one of the six towns in Finland, first mentioned as a city in texts from 14th century. Porvoo is the seat of the Swedish-speaking Diocese of Borgå of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, the municipalitys official languages are Finnish and Swedish. In 2014,64. 6% of the population spoke Finnish as their mother tongue,5. 4% had a different mother tongue. Neighbouring municipalities, Askola, Loviisa, Myrskylä, Pornainen and Sipoo, Porvoo was first mentioned in documents in the early 14th century, and Porvoo was given city rights around 1380, even though according to some sources the city was founded in 1346. The old city of Porvoo was formally disestablished and the new city of Porvoo founded in 1997 when the city of Porvoo, when Sweden lost the city of Viborg to Russia in 1721, the episcopal seat was moved to Porvoo. At this time, Porvoo was the second largest city in Finland, after the conquest of Finland by Russian armies in 1808 Sweden had to cede Finland to Russia in 1809. The Diet of Porvoo in 1809 was a landmark in the History of Finland, the Tsar Alexander I confirmed the new Finnish constitution, and made Finland an autonomous Grand Duchy. It established the Porvoo Communion, so named after the Porvoo Cathedral where the Eucharist was celebrated on the final Sunday of the leading to the Statement. The town received its name from a Swedish earth fortress near the river Porvoonjoki which flows through the town, the name Porvoo is the Fennicised version of the Swedish name and its parts of borg meaning castle and å river. The Old Town came close to being demolished in the 19th century by a new plan for the city. The plan was cancelled due to a popular resistance headed by Count Louis Sparre, the cathedral was damaged by fire on 29 May 2006, the roof was totally destroyed but the interior is largely intact. A drunken youth had played with fire at the church, unaware of recent tarwork and nearby tarcontainers and he was later sentenced to a short prison term and restitutions of 4.3 million Euro. The red-coloured wooden storage buildings on the riverside are a proposed UNESCO world heritage site, by the early 19th century authorities already understood the value of the old town. With the need for growth, a plan was envisioned for a new town adjacent to the old town, following a grid plan. By the end of the 20th century there was pressure to develop the essentially untouched western side of the river, there was concern that growth would necessitate the construction of a second bridge across the river into the town, thus putting further strain on the wooden town. An architectural competition was held in 1990, the entry of which proposed building the second bridge. Plans for the side of the river have progressed under the direction of architect Tuomas Siitonen
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Finland
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Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian
17.
Backyard railroad
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A backyard railroad is a privately owned, outdoor railroad, most often in miniature, but large enough for one or several persons to ride on. The rail gauge can be anything from 2 1⁄2 in to 7 1⁄2 in or more, smaller backyard or outdoor railroads that cannot be ridden are called garden railroads. Hundreds, even thousands of backyard railroads exist, especially in the United States, walt Disney built his Carolwood Pacific Railroad at his home in the Los Angeles neighborhood of Holmby Hills. It also inspired Disney to surround his planned Disneyland amusement park with a working, narrow gauge railroad, tracks for the layout can be either portable, or permanent. Turnouts are also fabricated from these basic materials, usually, prototypical appearance is sought for, but some portable tracks may not closely resemble real railroad tracks. Miniature steam locomotives are an element of a hobby known as live steam. One of the more well-known builders of backyard railroad trains was Bud Hurlbut, rolling stock is often modeled after real railroad equipment, as far as being painted with logos of past or existing railroads. Boxcars, flat cars, tank cars and cabooses are common, for passenger use, special cars are constructed, with a low center of gravity for safety. Ridable miniature railways Train ride Garden railway Childrens railway Live Steam Building backyard railroad trains
18.
Garden railway
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A garden railroad or garden railway is a model railway system set up outdoors in a garden. 16 mm scale track, the gauge as O gauge is probably now more popular in the UK than G scale. A garden railways scale tends to be in the range of 1/32 to 1/12, 1/32 scale is also called three-eighths scale meaning 3/8 of an inch on the model represents one foot on the real thing. For similar reasons, 1/24 scale is also called half-inch scale, other popular scales are 1,29,1,20.3, 16mm. They are smaller than the Backyard railroad, or what is called a miniature railway. Smaller scales and gauges are used in the garden, but in general garden railway is used to refer to the medium scale sizes which would be impractical to use indoors, at its most basic level, it works just like an indoor railway, including turnouts and turntables. However, special considerations must be taken for everything from sunlight and water to dirt and leaves, the distance covered also means that electrical resistance in and between sections is much higher, and electrical power will tend to drop off at the far end. To eliminate this, some are rigged to use RC car parts such as rechargeable batteries, others even use live steam and run as a real steam locomotive would. The steam can be generated from a variety of sources, ranging from messy solid pellet or sterno-type fuel, through clean-burning butane gas, live steam is particularly widespread amongst 16mm scale garden railway enthusiasts. Many also have digital audio on board, so they sound like a real train and they can also use Digital Command Control or other similar systems, though dirty outdoor track can cause less of a problem with signal than with simple DC power. This is because DCC puts the full voltage on the rails at all times, there are many benefits of DCC when compared to DC analog systems. Plants are usually a part of a garden railway. Some go so far as to use techniques, though this can be very time-consuming for large areas. Buildings are also used in a garden railway, though they too must be constructed to withstand the weather. Train stations and freight depots are popular, some even building whole towns trackside, the loco shed is a common place to store a locomotive when not in use. Other geographic features are used, such as a pond to represent a lake, rocks for boulders. A derailment inside a tunnel can also be permanent if careful planning is not done to ensure that it can be reached by access panels or at arms length from either end. A frequent theme is the railway in an urban or rural environment
19.
Walt Disney
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Walter Elias Walt Disney was an American entrepreneur, animator, voice actor and film producer. A pioneer of the American animation industry, he introduced several developments in the production of cartoons, as a film producer, Disney holds the record for most Academy Awards earned by an individual, having won 22 Oscars from 59 nominations. He was presented with two Golden Globe Special Achievement Awards and an Emmy Award, among other honors, several of his films are included in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress. Born in Chicago in 1901, Disney developed an early interest in drawing and he took art classes as a boy and got a job as a commercial illustrator at the age of 18. He moved to California in the early 1920s and set up the Disney Brothers Studio with his brother Roy, with Ub Iwerks, Walt developed the character Mickey Mouse in 1928, his first highly popular success, he also provided the voice for his creation in the early years. As the studio grew, Disney became more adventurous, introducing synchronized sound, full-color three-strip Technicolor, feature-length cartoons, the results, seen in features such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Fantasia, Pinocchio, Dumbo and Bambi, furthered the development of animated film. New animated and live-action films followed after World War II, including the critically successful Cinderella and Mary Poppins, in the 1950s, Disney expanded into the amusement park industry, and in 1955 he opened Disneyland. In 1965, he began development of theme park, Disney World, the heart of which was to be a new type of city. Disney was a smoker throughout his life, and died of lung cancer in December 1966 before either the park or the EPCOT project were completed. Disney was a shy, self-deprecating and insecure man in private and he had high standards and high expectations of those with whom he worked. Although there have been accusations that he was racist or anti-semitic and his reputation changed in the years after his death, from a purveyor of homely patriotic values to a representative of American imperialism. Nevertheless, Disney is considered an icon, particularly in the United States. Walt Disney was born on December 5,1901, at 1249 Tripp Avenue and he was the fourth son of Elias Disney—born in the Province of Canada, to Irish parents—and Flora, an American of German and English descent. Aside from Disney, Elias and Calls sons were Herbert, Raymond and Roy, in 1906, when Disney was four, the family moved to a farm in Marceline, Missouri, where his uncle Robert had just purchased land. In Marceline, Disney developed his interest in drawing when he was paid to draw the horse of a neighborhood doctor. Elias was a subscriber to the Appeal to Reason newspaper, Disney also began to develop an ability to work with watercolors and crayons. He lived near the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway line and he and his younger sister Ruth started school at the same time at the Park School in Marceline in late 1909. In 1911, the Disneys moved to Kansas City, Missouri, before long, he was spending more time at the Pfeiffers house than at home
20.
Carolwood Pacific Railroad
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The Carolwood Pacific Railroad was a 7 1⁄4 in gauge, live steam backyard railroad, built by the American animated film producer and animator Walt Disney in the backyard of his home in Los Angeles. Walt Disneys uncle, Michael Martin, had been a locomotive engineer. As a teenager in Missouri, Disney had a job selling newspapers, candy, fruit, and soda on the Atchison, Topeka. Disney loved the uniform, the trains, the candy, and it was Disneys lifelong fascination with the railroad that in 1950 led to the building of the Carolwood Pacific Railroad. With his daughters and their friends happily in tow in his backyard, Disney would ride on his 1⁄2-mile -long,1 and this inspired him to include a railroad as the backbone of his family-oriented Disneyland theme park, which opened in Anaheim, California in 1955. Today, railroads and monorails are featured at many Walt Disney Company theme parks worldwide, in 1949, Walt Disney moved his family to 355 N. Carolwood Drive, adjacent to the still city-owned bridle trail and stream, in the Holmby Hills district of Los Angeles. The locomotive was patterned after the Central Pacific No, to keep the initials identical on the CPRR No. 173, he named his railroad the Carolwood Pacific, in reference to his location on Carolwood Drive. A total length of 2,615 feet of railway track circled the house, looped and crossed, with turnouts, gradients, a trestle 46-foot long, overpasses, and an elevated dirt berm. Lillian Disney was supportive of her husbands train hobby, although she vetoed a track through her flower beds, the tunnel would subsequently serve as the storage area for most of the rolling stock. Disney admired the beautiful proportions and overall appearance of Central Pacific No,173, which became the prototype of the 1, 8-scale live steam working model fabricated by Roger E. Broggie in the Walt Disney Studios machine shop. Southern Pacific draftsman David L Joslyn provided the drawings, based on the CPRR No. However, most of the precision machining was done by studio technicians, on each side of the cab, the locomotive was labeled Lilly Belle to honor his wife Lillian Disney. Like the prototype, the live steam locomotive was an American type with a 4-4-0 wheel arrangement. A miniature live steam engine of type is large enough for the engineer to ride upon the tender. Walt Disney controlled the track of his backyard Carolwood Pacific Railroad from a special barn, the barn also served as the storage facility for his caboose. The barn was also a place where Disney retreated when needing to relax or develop new ideas, herbie, I just want it to look like nothing else in the world. And it should be surrounded by a train, —Walt Disney The Lilly Belle first ran on the Carolwood Pacific Railroad on May 7,1950
21.
Disneyland
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Disneyland Park, originally Disneyland, is the first of two theme parks built at the Disneyland Resort in Anaheim, California, opened on July 17,1955. It is the theme park designed and built under the direct supervision of Walt Disney. It was originally the attraction on the property, its name was changed to Disneyland Park to distinguish it from the expanding complex in the 1990s. Walt Disney came up with the concept of Disneyland after visiting various amusement parks with his daughters in the 1930s and 1940s. He initially envisioned building a tourist attraction adjacent to his studios in Burbank to entertain fans who wished to visit, however, after hiring a consultant to help him determine an appropriate site for his project, Disney bought a 160-acre site near Anaheim in 1953. Construction began in 1954 and the park was unveiled during a televised press event on the ABC Television Network on July 17,1955. Opened in 2001, Disney California Adventure Park was built on the site of Disneylands original parking lot, Disneyland has a larger cumulative attendance than any other theme park in the world, with over 650 million guests since it opened. In 2013, the park hosted approximately 16.2 million guests, according to a March 2005 Disney report,65,700 jobs are supported by the Disneyland Resort, including about 20,000 direct Disney employees and 3,800 third-party employees. To all who come to this place, Welcome. Here age relives fond memories of the past, and here youth may savor the challenge and promise of the future. Disneyland is dedicated to the ideals, the dreams, and the facts that have created America, with the hope that it will be a source of joy. The concept for Disneyland began when Walt Disney was visiting Griffith Park in Los Angeles with his daughters Diane and Sharon. While watching them ride the merry-go-round, he came up with the idea of a place where adults and their children could go and have fun together and he may have also been influenced by his fathers memories of the Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago. Another likely influence was Benton Harbor, Michigans nationally famous House of Davids Eden Springs Park, Disney visited the park and ultimately bought one of the older miniature trains originally used there, the colony had the largest miniature railway setup in the world at the time. His ideas evolved to a play park with a boat ride. The initial concept, the Mickey Mouse Park, started with an 8-acre plot across Riverside Drive and his designers began working on concepts, though the project grew much larger than the land could hold. Disney hired Harrison Price from Stanford Research Institute to gauge the proper area to locate the theme based on the areas potential growth. Based on Prices analysis, Disney acquired 160 acres of groves and walnut trees in Anaheim
22.
Amusement park
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An amusement park or theme park is a group of entertainment attractions, rides, and other events in a location for the enjoyment of large numbers of people. Theme parks, a type of amusement park, are usually much more intricately themed to a certain subject or group of subjects than normal amusement parks. Amusement parks evolved from European fairs and pleasure gardens, which were created for peoples recreation, Worlds fairs and expositions were another influence on the development of the amusement park industry. In common language, the theme park and amusement park are often synonymous. However, a park can be regarded as a distinct style of amusement park. A theme park has landscaping, buildings, and attractions that are based on one or more specific themes or stories. The amusement park evolved from three earlier traditions, the oldest being the periodic fair of the Middle Ages - one of the earliest was the Bartholomew Fair in England, the worlds oldest amusement park appeared in the Continent. Bakken at Klampenborg, north of Copenhagen, Denmark, opened in 1583, a wave of innovation in the 1860s and 1870s created mechanical rides, such as the steam-powered carousel, and its derivatives. This inaugurated the era of the modern funfair ride, as the classes were increasingly able to spend their surplus wages on entertainment. The second influence was the pleasure garden, one of the earliest gardens was the Vauxhall Gardens, founded in 1661 in London. By the late 18th century, the site had a fee for its many attractions. It regularly drew crowds, with its paths being noted for romantic assignations, tightrope walkers, hot air balloon ascents, concerts. Although the gardens were designed for the elites, they soon became places of great social diversity. Public firework displays were put on at Marylebone Gardens, and Cremorne Gardens offered music, dancing, prater in Vienna, Austria, was opened in 1766. The concept of a park for amusement was further developed with the beginning of the worlds fairs. The first World fair began in 1851 with the construction of the landmark Crystal Palace in London, the purpose of the exposition was to celebrate the industrial achievement of the nations of the world and it was designed to educate and entertain the visitors. American cities and business saw the worlds fair as a way of demonstrating economic. The Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago, Illinois was an precursor to the modern amusement park
23.
Finnish Railway Museum
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The Finnish Railway Museum is located in Hyvinkää, Finland. It was founded in 1898 and located in Helsinki, the museum was moved to Hyvinkää in 1974. The museum is on the station and yard site of the Hanko–Hyvinkää railway. In addition to the building, there is a roundhouse and several other preserved buildings. Unique objects are on display, including the only surviving imperial train of the Russian Emperor, the museum also has a live steam backyard railroad track, where train rides are offered to the public during special run days in the summer months
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Train Mountain Railroad
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Train Mountain Railroad is a miniature hobbyist railroad near Chiloquin, Oregon, in Klamath County, which is in the south central region of Oregon. It is situated between Klamath Falls, Oregon, approximately 26 miles to the south, and Crater Lake National Park to the north. The approximately 2, 400-acre property borders Highway 97 on the east side, Highway 62 on the west side, the track and facilities which are not obscured by trees are clearly visible on public satellite images. In the 2004 Guinness World Records Train Mountain is recognized as the “Longest Miniature Hobby Railroad”, during the following years approximately 10 additional miles of new track has been added. The Train Mountain 7 1⁄2 in gauge railway track is typically used for 1.5 scale trains. Trains of 2.5 scale are common at Train Mountain. Some of these 2.5 scale steam locomotives can weigh in excess of 3,500 pounds for the engine and tender when fully loaded with water, Train Mountain is well known to members of the live steam hobby who visit regularly from all over the world. Train Mountain was featured on Oregon Public Broadcasting 2005 video on Train Mountain, the Dream refers to late founder of Train Mountain, Quentin Breen, whose dream was to build the railroad at Train Mountain as explained in the video. A Garden railway in G Scale is being constructed at Train Mountain on approximately 4 acres in the center of a 7 1⁄2 in gauge railway track circle known as Midway Circle. Midway Circle is one of such circles, which are essentially roundabouts. Train Mountain Railroad Museum also exists on the Train Mountain property, the rotary snow blower was moved to Train Mountain on November 16,2008. The 25th anniversary of the founding of Train Mountain was celebrated during the summer of 2012, the celebration featured an international miniature train meet entitled the 2012 Triennial. The Train Mountain tradition of Triennials began in the year 2000, other train meets for members and those who own, operate, or have an interest in 7 1⁄2 in gauge railroading are held seven times a year. These events attract participants from all over the US and Canada and they are popular with live steam enthusiasts due to the uniqueness of the layout, and the ability to operate heavy steam powered locomotives that may not be allowed at other railroads. The train ride uses approximately 1.6 miles of track, Klamath & Western Railroad has several antique railroad items on display, including the antique Train Order Semaphore Signal, originally used at the Southern Pacific Station in Junction City, Oregon. Train Mountain is maintained by volunteers, who also provide special tours of Train Mountain for those who want to see more than that provided by the regular K & W public tour. Such tours can take as long as eight hours, and the group will not see all of the Train Mountain track. These tours must be arranged in advance through the Train Mountain office, Train Mountain features a Central Train Control or centralized traffic control, a computer controlled switching and signal system
25.
Chiloquin, Oregon
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Chiloquin is a city in Klamath County, Oregon, United States. Chiloquin was the version of a Klamath family name Chaloquin. Southern Pacific records also show that a woman named Bessie Chiloquin deeded a right-of-way through the area to the railroad on February 14,1914, the population was 734 at the 2010 census. Chiloquin is at an elevation of 4,180 feet in Klamath County, the city slightly east of U. S. Route 97, slightly north of its intersection with Oregon Route 62. A short east–west highway, Oregon Route 422, links Route 97 at Chiloquin to Route 62 slightly south of Klamath Agency, by highway, Chiloquin is about 26 miles north of Klamath Falls and 253 miles south of Portland. The Williamson River flows north–south through Chiloquin, where it receives the Sprague River from the east, the city is near the Winema National Forest, which approaches it from the east and west. Agency Lake is nearby, west of the city and slightly west of Route 62, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.82 square miles, all of it land. This region experiences warm and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Chiloquin has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated Csb on climate maps. As of the census of 2010, there were 734 people,281 households, the population density was 895.1 inhabitants per square mile. There were 356 housing units at a density of 434.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 49. 2% Native American,40. 7% White,0. 1% African American,0. 4% Asian,0. 5% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 6. 5% of the population. 31. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.61 and the average family size was 3.26. The median age in the city was 41.9 years. 27% of residents were under the age of 18,6. 5% were between the ages of 18 and 24,20. 6% were from 25 to 44,30. 9% were from 45 to 64, and 15% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48. 6% male and 51. 4% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 716 people,257 households, and 173 families residing in the city. The population density was 890.1 people per square mile, there were 290 housing units at an average density of 360.5 per square mile. About 4. 5% were from two or more races, the average household size was 2.79 and the average family size was 3.34. The age distribution was 34. 9% under the age of 18,7. 0% from 18 to 24,23. 6% from 25 to 44,22. 8% from 45 to 64, the median age was 34 years
26.
Oregon
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Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Oregon is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by Washington, on the south by California, on the east by Idaho, the Columbia River delineates much of Oregons northern boundary, and the Snake River delineates much of the eastern boundary. The parallel 42° north delineates the boundary with California and Nevada. Oregon was inhabited by indigenous tribes before Western traders, explorers. An autonomous government was formed in the Oregon Country in 1843 before the Oregon Territory was created in 1848, Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14,1859. Today, at 98,000 square miles, Oregon is the ninth largest and, with a population of 4 million, the capital of Oregon is Salem, the second most populous of its cities, with 164,549 residents. Portland is Oregons most populous city, with 632,309 residents, Portlands metro population of 2,389,228 ranks the 23rd largest metro in the nation. The Willamette Valley in western Oregon is the states most densely populated area, the tall conifers, mainly Douglas fir, along Oregons rainy west coast contrast with the lighter-timbered and fire-prone pine and juniper forests covering portions to the east. Abundant alders in the west fix nitrogen for the conifers, stretching east from central Oregon are semi-arid shrublands, prairies, deserts, steppes, and meadows. At 11,249 feet, Mount Hood is the states highest point, Oregons only national park, Crater Lake National Park, comprises the caldera surrounding Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. The state is home to the single largest organism in the world, Armillaria ostoyae. Because of its landscapes and waterways, Oregons economy is largely powered by various forms of agriculture, fishing. It is also the top timber-producer of the lower 48 states, Technology is another one of the states major economic forces, which began in the 1970s with the establishment of the Silicon Forest and the expansion of Tektronix and Intel. Sportswear company Nike, Inc. headquartered in Beaverton, is the states largest public corporation with a revenue of $30.6 billion. The earliest evidence of the name Oregon has Spanish origins and this chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name Oregon. There are also two other sources with Spanish origins such as the name Oregano which grows in the part of the region. Another early use of the name, spelled Ouragon, was in a 1765 petition by Major Robert Rogers to the Kingdom of Great Britain, the term referred to the then-mythical River of the West. By 1778 the spelling had shifted to Oregon, in his 1765 petition, Rogers wrote, The rout. is from the Great Lakes towards the Head of the Mississippi, and from thence to the River called by the Indians Ouragon
27.
Los Angeles Live Steamers Railroad Museum
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The museum is located in Griffith Park in Los Angeles, California and is open from 11 a. m. to 3 p. m. every Sunday. In 1956, all of the locomotives were steam-powered, hence the name Live Steamers. Over the years, gasoline-powered models of locomotives and battery-electric locomotives. The museum operates a 7 1⁄2 in gauge railway on which these locomotives pull trains that the public can ride. The museum also has multiple railroad layouts with smaller gauge track, the barn, as well as a combine car from the first passenger train of the Disneyland Railroad, are located within the Los Angeles Live Steamers complex. Complementary public admission to these exhibits is available on the third Sunday of each month from 11 a. m. to 3 p. m. which coincides with LALS demonstrations of the steam plant. Docents and volunteers of the Carolwood Society are on hand to any questions, offer informal tours. Los Angeles Live Steamers official website Carolwood Pacific Historical Society
28.
Rail transport modelling scales
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Rail transport modelling uses a variety of scales to ensure scale models look correct when placed next to each other. Model railway scales are standardized worldwide by many organizations and hobbyist groups, some of the scales are recognized globally, while others are less widespread and, in many cases, virtually unknown outside their circle of origin. In a similar manner, a model railway may have several track gauges in one scale. Globally, the two dominating standard organizations are NMRA in North America and MOROP in Europe with their NEM standard, the first model railways were not built to any particular scale and were more like toys than miniature representations of the full size prototype. Eventually, the authenticity of models grew and benefits of standardization became more obvious, the most significant and the most basic area of standardization was the model track gauge. At first, certain gauges became de facto standards in hobbyist, while the first unofficial standard gauges made interchangeability possible, the rolling stock were still only a rough approximation of the full scale prototype. Eventually the unofficial or manufacturer specific scale standards became more established and were adopted by various model railway standardization bodies such as NMRA and MOROP. However, despite of existing scale and gauge standards they were often poorly implemented in design. The conformity to scale standards grew strongly in the 1950s and 1960s when many new model railway manufacturers were born. Reliability of operations requires that certain parts be made oversize, for instance, a Z scale wheel flange as defined in the NEM standard should be about 9% of the scale nominal standard gauge, whereas the same standard gives only 5% for 45 mm standard gauge I scale. These alternative standards are called finescale standards and it is possible to use different scales of models together effectively, especially to create a false sense of depth. Scales close to each other are also hard to tell apart with the naked eye, an onlooker seeing a 1,43 model car next to a 1,48 scale model train might not notice anything wrong, for example. Some common examples of mixing scales are, a technique using N scale model trains in the background with H0 scale in the foreground. Mixing 1,43 scale,1,48 scale and 1,50 scale die-cast models with 0 scale model trains, using Matchbox cars with H0 scale and S scale. Mixing 00 scale British model trains with H0 scale models
29.
1 gauge
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1 gauge, gauge 1 or gauge one is a model railroading and toy train standard that was popular in the early 20th century, particularly with European manufacturers. Its track measures 1.75 in, making it larger than 0 gauge but slightly smaller than wide gauge, Gauge one was standardised, according to Model Railways and Locomotive magazine of August 1909, at 1.75 in. An exact 1,32 scale would yield 1.766 in for standard gauge prototype, the distance between the wheel tyres was set at 1 17⁄32 in and between the centre of the track 48 mm. The wheel width was set at 19⁄64 in, definitions using gauge, rather than scale, were more common in the early days with the four gauges for which standards were adopted being No. After World War I, most surviving U. S. manufacturers switched to wide gauge, in the UK and the rest of the world,1 gauge also declined, although more slowly, and by the 1940s had practically disappeared. In the 1950s and 1960s 1 gauge experienced a renaissance, first in the UK and this was helped by 1 gauge being the same size as the modern G scale, a popular standard for outdoor model railroads. Generally,1 gauge equipment works out to approximately 1,32 scale, G scale at 1,22.5 means the 1 gauge track represents 1,000 mm metre gauge track. Such railways are to be found in, among other places, Switzerland, due to the size of the locomotives it is possible for them to be powered with live steam, which to many is a large advantage as they are cheaper than traditional live steam garden railroads. These are usually fired by gas or methylated spirit, which are very popular. Another form, which is becoming popular, is coal, which gives the user the smell that only steam locomotives carry. Accucraft Trains in California, The Gauge One Model Railway Company in Britain, and Aster Hobbies Ltd in Japan produce gauge 1 items, mostly coal, meths, and butane fired. Wrightway Rolling Stock produce a range of quality coaches for British outline gauge one railways and they can supply from their range or custom build. Some of the range is available in 10mm scale, Märklin, in Germany, has produced several different lines of trains that can be considered 1 gauge. Their first production took place in the late 1800s, with a line of tinplate type trains and this line was discontinued in favor of their more popular 0 gauge trains. In the late 1960s, Märklin reentered the large market with a modest range of 1 gauge trains. Based upon one drive mechanism made of metal, Märklin produced both a German Class 80 0-6-0T steam locomotive in two different liveries and a 0-Co-0 diesel based upon a Henschel design. This early range included two-axle passenger cars, two-axle box cars and tank cars, the tank cars could hold liquids and the box car and passenger car had operating doors. This range continued in production for a number of years, but was replaced with more accurate locomotives
30.
Track gauge
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In rail transport, track gauge is the spacing of the rails on a railway track and is measured between the inner faces of the load-bearing rails. All vehicles on a network must have running gear that is compatible with the track gauge, as the dominant parameter determining interoperability, it is still frequently used as a descriptor of a route or network. There is a distinction between the gauge and actual gauge at some locality, due to divergence of track components from the nominal. Railway engineers use a device, like a caliper, to measure the actual gauge, the nominal track gauge is the distance between the inner faces of the rails. In current practice, it is specified at a distance below the rail head as the inner faces of the rail head are not necessarily vertical. In some cases in the earliest days of railways, the company saw itself as an infrastructure provider only. Colloquially the wagons might be referred to as four-foot gauge wagons, say and this nominal value does not equate to the flange spacing, as some freedom is allowed for. An infrastructure manager might specify new or replacement track components at a variation from the nominal gauge for pragmatic reasons. Track is defined in old Imperial units or in universally accepted metric units or SI units, Imperial units were established in United Kingdom by The Weights and Measures Act of 1824. In addition, there are constraints, such as the load-carrying capacity of axles. Narrow gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. Broader gauge railways are generally expensive to build and require wider curves. There is no single perfect gauge, because different environments and economic considerations come into play, a narrow gauge is superior if ones main considerations are economy and tight curvature. For direct, unimpeded routes with high traffic, a broad gauge may be preferable, the Standard, Russian, and 46 gauges are designed to strike a reasonable balance between these factors. In addition to the general trade-off, another important factor is standardization, once a standard has been chosen, and equipment, infrastructure, and training calibrated to that standard, conversion becomes difficult and expensive. This also makes it easier to adopt an existing standard than to invent a new one and this is true of many technologies, including railroad gauges. The reduced cost, greater efficiency, and greater economic opportunity offered by the use of a common standard explains why a number of gauges predominate worldwide
31.
Ridable miniature railway
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A ridable miniature railway is a ground-level, large scale model railway that hauls passengers using locomotives that are models of full-sized railway locomotives. Typically miniature railways have a track gauge between 5 in and 18 in, though both larger and smaller gauges are used. These large model railroads are most often seen in parks or in commercial settings. The major distinction between a railway and a narrow gauge railway is that miniature lines use models of full-sized prototypes. There are miniature railways that run on gauges as wide as the 2 ft 6 in gauge on the defunct Viewliner Train of Tomorrow, or as wide as the 2 ft gauge on the operating Wicksteed Park Railway. There are also narrow gauge railways running on extremely narrow track as small as 15 in gauge or less, for example the Rudyard Lake Steam Railway, Perrygrove Railway and these are known as minimum gauge railways. Typically in the UK miniature lines are operated as heritage railways, though many private lines also exist. At gauges of 5 in and less, the track is raised above ground level. Flat cars are arranged with foot boards so that driver and passengers sit astride the track, the track is often multi-gauged, to accommodate 5 in,3 1⁄2 in, and sometimes 2 1⁄2 in gauge locomotives. Track can also be portable, even in gauges as large as 5 in, typically portable track is used to demonstrate locomotives at temporary events such as fêtes and summer fairs. Portable track can be raised or ground level. In Australia, most 5 inch gauge tracks are at ground level
32.
Locomotive
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A locomotive or engine is a rail transport vehicle that provides the motive power for a train. A locomotive has no payload capacity of its own, and its purpose is to move the train along the tracks. In contrast, some trains have self-propelled payload-carrying vehicles and these are not normally considered locomotives, and may be referred to as multiple units, motor coaches or railcars. The use of these vehicles is increasingly common for passenger trains. Traditionally, locomotives pulled trains from the front, however, push-pull operation has become common, where the train may have a locomotive at the front, at the rear, or at each end. Prior to locomotives, the force for railroads had been generated by various lower-technology methods such as human power, horse power. The first successful locomotives were built by Cornish inventor Richard Trevithick, in 1804 his unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along the tramway of the Penydarren ironworks, near Merthyr Tydfil in Wales. Although the locomotive hauled a train of 10 long tons of iron and 70 passengers in five wagons over nine miles, the locomotive only ran three trips before it was abandoned. Trevithick built a series of locomotives after the Penydarren experiment, including one which ran at a colliery in Tyneside in northern England, the first commercially successful steam locomotive was Matthew Murrays rack locomotive, Salamanca, built for the narrow gauge Middleton Railway in 1812. This was followed in 1813 by the Puffing Billy built by Christopher Blackett and William Hedley for the Wylam Colliery Railway, Puffing Billy is now on display in the Science Museum in London, the oldest locomotive in existence. In 1814 George Stephenson, inspired by the locomotives of Trevithick. He built the Blücher, one of the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotives, Stephenson played a pivotal role in the development and widespread adoption of steam locomotives. His designs improved on the work of the pioneers, in 1825 he built the Locomotion for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north east England, which became the first public steam railway. In 1829 he built The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials and this success led to Stephenson establishing his company as the pre-eminent builder of steam locomotives used on railways in the United Kingdom, the United States and much of Europe. The first inter city passenger railway, Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened in 1830, there are a few basic reasons to isolate locomotive train power, as compared to self-propelled vehicles. Maximum utilization of power cars Separate locomotives facilitate movement of costly motive power assets as needed, flexibility Large locomotives can substitute for small locomotives when more power is required, for example, where grades are steeper. As needed, a locomotive can be used for freight duties. Obsolescence cycles Separating motive power from payload-hauling cars enables replacement without affecting the other, to illustrate, locomotives might become obsolete when their associated cars did not, and vice versa
33.
O scale
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O scale is a scale commonly used for toy trains and model railroading. In Europe, its popularity declined before World War II due to the introduction of smaller scales, O gauge had its heyday when model railroads were considered toys, with more emphasis placed on cost, durability, and the ability to be easily handled and operated by pre-adult hands. Detail and realism were secondary concerns, at best, the size of O and OO/HO layouts is also an important factor in making the decision to build an O gauge layout. Collecting vintage O gauge trains is also popular and there is a market for both reproduction and vintage models, the name for O gauge and O scale is derived from 0 gauge or Gauge 0 being smaller than Gauge 1 and the other then existing standards. It was created in part because manufacturers realized their best selling trains were built in the smaller scales. One of the Lionel Corporations most popular trains, the 203 Armoured Locomotive, was O gauge, the Great Depression wiped out demand for the expensive larger trains, and by 1932, O gauge was the standard, almost by default. Because of the emphasis on value, the scale of pre-World War II O gauge trains varied. The Märklin specifications called for 1,43.5 scale, however, many designs were 1,48 scale or 1,64 scale. Yet all of these ran on the same track, and, depending on the manufacturer of the cars, could sometimes be coupled together. After World War II, manufacturers started paying attention to scale. However, newer manufacturers including MTH Electric Trains, Lionel, LLC, Atlas O, in the United Kingdom the dominant O gauge manufacturer before World War II was Meccano Ltd. who from 1920 produced a range of clockwork and electric models under the Hornby name. The differences in the various O gauge and O scale standards can be confusing, most commercially produced model track is a compromise between appearance and a trouble-free running surface. Scale is the ratio of a dimension to the real life dimension. O Scale in the UK is commonly 1,43.5 or 7 mm to the foot, in continental Europe it is commonly 1,45 though 1,43.5 is also used particularly in France, each region tends to design models to its own scale. The NMRA and the MOROP maintain detailed standards for a variety of scales to help model makers create interoperable models, Gauge refers to the distance between the inside edges of the load-bearing rails. Various sizes of track gauge exist around the world and the normal O gauge track represents the Standard gauge of 1,435 mm. O gauge refers to tracks that are 1.25 in apart. When used as a narrow track, O gauge allows scales such as 1,32 representing 1,000 mm gauge track. 1,20 representing 600 mm narrow gauge railways, Model makers choose their scale based on many considerations including the existing marketplace, aesthetic concerns and compatibility with existing models
34.
Hornby Railways
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Hornby Railways is a British model railway brand. Its roots date back to 1901, when founder Frank Hornby received a patent for his Meccano construction toy, the first clockwork train was produced in 1920. In 1938, Hornby launched its first 00 gauge train, in 1964, Hornby and Meccano were bought by their competitor, Tri-Ang, and sold on when Tri-ang went into receivership. Hornby Railways became independent in the 1980s, Hornby was at first a tradename for the railway productions of Meccano Ltd and based in Liverpool, which released its first train, a clockwork 0 gauge model, in 1920. An electric train soon followed but was under-designed and the few that were made were sold out in France, in 1925, a much more successful electric model was introduced, operating on the high voltage of 110 volts AC power. Safety concerns saw low voltage 4V and then 6V motors introduced, followed by a reliable 20V AC system, however, clockwork remained the mainstay of the Hornby 0 gauge trains until 1937 and became the only power available in Liverpool-made 0 gauge trains from 1949. Competitors in the UK were Leeds Model Company and Bassett-Lowke, even though the export models were often painted in foreign liveries, Hornby trains looked very British. Hornby attempted to break into the American market by setting up a factory in 1927 in Elizabeth, New Jersey and these were colourful and attractive, but low-market and only clockwork. In late 1929, Meccano Ltd. sold its New Jersey factory to the A. C. Gilbert Company, the leftover inventory was sold in Canada and in the UK and some of the tooling was reused for products in other markets. Meccano introduced its OO scale trains in 1938 under the name Hornby Dublo, the locomotives were diecast metal, and the carriages and wagons were generally made of tinplate. This was a well planned range of electric and clockwork models. This led to the adoption of OO as a broadly accepted modelling standard in the UK, as for their O gauge locomotives, electric Hornby Dublo locomotives ran on a third rail electric system with the track built on a pressed tinplate base. Both OO and HO use the track gauge, but their scales are different. This has had the effect, remaining to this day, of making their gauge an apparent 4 ft 1 ½ in rather than the standard gauge of 4 ft 8 ½ in. The range expanded quickly, but was curtailed from 1940 due to World War II, production resumed after the war but did not reach full capacity until 1948. Clockwork models were not produced in 00 scale after the war, in 2008, a special commemorative model of LNER Class A44498 Sir Nigel Gresley was produced, in period packaging, to celebrate the 70th anniversary of this introduction. Like its counterparts Bassett-Lowke and Exley in the UK and Lionel and American Flyer in the US, Hornby thrived in the first half of the 1950s, the company was slow to recognise the threat posed by rival manufacturers and to realise the potential of plastic. In 1959, far too late, Hornby introduced two-rail track and moulded plastic rolling stock, in 1964, Lines Bros Ltd. the parent company of rival Tri-ang Railways, purchased Meccano Ltd. and merged Hornby and Tri-ang into Tri-ang Hornby
35.
OO gauge
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OO gauge or OO scale model railways are the most popular standard-gauge model railway tracks in the United Kingdom. This track gauge is one of several 4 mm-scale standards used, but it is the only one to be served by the major manufacturers. Despite this, the OO track gauge of 16.5 mm is inaccurate for 4 mm scale, double-0 scale model railways were launched by Bing in 1921 as The Table Railway, running on 16.5 mm track and scaled at 4 mm to the foot. In 1922, the first models of British prototypes appeared, initially all locomotives were powered by clockwork, but the first electric power appeared in autumn 1923. OO describes models with a scale of 4 mm =1 foot running on HO scale 1,87 track. A quick and cheap solution was to enlarge the scale of the model to 4 mm to the foot and this also allowed more space to model the external valve gear. The resulting HO track gauge of 16.5 mm represents 4 feet 1.5 inches at 4 mm to the foot scale, in 1932 the Bing company collapsed, but the Table Railway continued to be manufactured by the new Trix company. Trix decided to use the new HO standard, being half of European 0 gauge. In 1938, the Meccano Company launched a new range of OO models under the name of Hornby Dublo. In the United States, Lionel Corporation introduced a range of OO models in 1938, soon other companies followed but it did not prove popular and remained on the market only until 1942. OO gauge was quickly eclipsed by HO scale, the Lionel range of OO used 19 mm/¾ track gauge, a scale 57, a track width that was more to scale. There is a following of American OO scale/gauge today. OO remains the most popular scale for modelling in the Great Britain due to a ready availability of ready-to-run stock. Ready-to-run in the UK is dominated by Hornby Railways and Bachmann Branchline, other sources of ready-to-run rolling stock or locomotives include Dapol, Heljan, Peco, ViTrains and previously Lima. Other scales, with the exception of N gauge, lack the variety and affordability of UK ready-to-run products. The quality of OO models has improved over time,16.5 mm gauge at 4 mm, 1-foot means that the scale gauge represents 4 ft 1 1⁄2 in,7 inches narrower than the prototype 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in. This difference is noticeable when looking along the track. As the market for proprietary track is mostly for HO scale, sleeper size, OO is also used to represent the 5 ft 3 in Irish gauge, where it is a scale 13 1⁄2 inches too narrow
36.
Servomechanism
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In control engineering a servomechanism, sometimes shortened to servo, is an automatic device that uses error-sensing negative feedback to correct the action of a mechanism. It usually includes a built-in encoder or other position feedback mechanism to ensure the output is achieving the desired effect, the term correctly applies only to systems where the feedback or error-correction signals help control mechanical position, speed or other parameters. For example, a power window control is not a servomechanism. By contrast a cars cruise control uses closed-loop feedback, which classifies it as a servomechanism, a common type of servo provides position control. Commonly, servos are electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic and they operate on the principle of negative feedback, where the control input is compared to the actual position of the mechanical system as measured by some sort of transducer at the output. Any difference between the actual and wanted values is amplified and used to drive the system in the necessary to reduce or eliminate the error. This procedure is one widely used application of control theory, typical servos can give a rotary or linear output. Speed control via a governor is another type of servomechanism, the steam engine uses mechanical governors, another early application was to govern the speed of water wheels. Prior to World War II the constant speed propeller was developed to control engine speed for maneuvering aircraft, fuel controls for gas turbine engines employ either hydromechanical or electronic governing. Positioning servomechanisms were first used in military fire-control and marine navigation equipment, other examples are fly-by-wire systems in aircraft which use servos to actuate the aircrafts control surfaces, and radio-controlled models which use RC servos for the same purpose. Many autofocus cameras also use a servomechanism to accurately move the lens, a hard disk drive has a magnetic servo system with sub-micrometre positioning accuracy. In industrial machines, servos are used to perform complex motion, a servomotor is a specific type of motor that is combined with a rotary encoder or a potentiometer to form a servomechanism. This assembly may in turn part of another servomechanism. Potentiometers are subject to drift when the temperature changes whereas encoders are more stable, servomotors are used for both high-end and low-end applications. On the high end are precision industrial components that use a rotary encoder, on the low end are inexpensive radio control servos used in radio-controlled models which use a free-running motor and a simple potentiometer position sensor with an embedded controller. The term servomotor generally refers to an industrial component while the term servo is most often used to describe the inexpensive devices that employ a potentiometer. Stepper motors are not considered to be servomotors, although they too are used to construct larger servomechanisms, stepper motors have inherent angular positioning, owing to their construction, and this is generally used in an open-loop manner without feedback. They are generally used for medium-precision applications, RC servos are used to provide actuation for various mechanical systems such as the steering of a car, the control surfaces on a plane, or the rudder of a boat
37.
Z scale
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Z scale was introduced by the Märklin company in 1972, and is one of the smallest commercially available model railway scales with a track gauge of 6.5 mm/0.256 in. Z scale trains operate on 0-10 volts direct current and offer the operating characteristics as all other two-rail, direct-current. Z scale locomotives can be retro-fitted with microprocessor based digital decoders for digitally controlled model railways, model trains, track, structures, and human/animal figures are readily available in European, North American, and Japanese styles from a variety of manufacturers. Z scale was introduced by the German model train manufacturer Märklin in 1972 at the Nuremberg Toy Fair and it was the brainchild of Helmut Killian, Märklins head design engineer at the time. Since 1972, there have been attempts to bring even smaller scales to the market, Z scale, at its inception, was predominantly a European scale, but it has an increasing number of loyal followers in other parts of the world. There are now also manufacturers in North America and Japan/China, among others. In Z scale, there are no cheap, low-precision models as can be available in larger scales - if they were not designed and manufactured to standards of precision. However, the technology was not developed enough, and the manufacturer had to cancel these plans, mainly due to heat dissipation problems in locomotive decoders. Z scale layouts have been winning local, regional, and national competitions, such as best of show at the NMRA National Train Show in July,2001, in St. Louis. The diminutive size of Z scale makes it possible to fit more scale space into the physical layout than would be used by larger-scale models. Z scale can also be beneficial when there is a need to build very compact train layouts, such as novelty setups in briefcases, guitar cases, several transportation museums, for instance, have used Z scale to present real world railway scenes. Z scale allows longer trains and broader, more realistic curves than is practical in larger scales, due to the small size of Z scale and, in particular, the low weight of the locomotives, it can be challenging to ensure reliable operation. In particular, the track must be clean, as minuscule particles of dust, dirt. Poorly-installed trackwork can be a source of consistent derailing of rolling stock, all of this can create issues for modellers who are interested in prototype operations – in particular, switching. The low weight of Z scale locomotives contributes to their difficulty pulling trains up grades, the smaller market for Z scale results in a limited range of available products both for rolling stock and accessories—with cottage industries meeting some of the demand. Rokuhan from Japan has also released a line of Z scale trains, track system and structures
38.
Tender (rail)
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A tender or coal-car is a special rail vehicle hauled by a steam locomotive containing its fuel and water. Steam locomotives consume large quantities of water compared to the quantity of fuel, a locomotive that pulls a tender is called a tender locomotive. Locomotives that do not have tenders and carry all their fuel, a brake tender is a tender that is heavy and used to provide greater braking efficiency. The largest steam locomotives are coupled by a drawbar to a tender that carries the water. The fuel source used depends on what is available locally. In the UK and parts of Europe, a supply of coal made this the obvious choice from the earliest days of the steam engine. Until around 1850 in the United States, the vast majority of burned wood until most of the eastern forests were cleared. Subsequently coal burning became more widespread, and wood burners were restricted to rural, according to Steamlocomotive. com, By the mid-1800s, most steam locomotive tenders consisted of a fuel bunker surrounded by a U shaped water jacket. The overall shape of the tender was usually rectangular, the bunker which held the coal was sloped downwards toward the locomotive providing easier access to the coal. The ratio of water to fuel capacities of tenders was normally based on two water-stops to each fuel stop because water was readily available than fuel. One pound of coal could turn six pounds of water to steam, therefore, tender capacity ratios were normally close to 14 tons of coal per 10,000 gallons of water. The water supply in a tender was replenished at water stops, refilling the tender is the job of the fireman, who is responsible for maintaining the locomotives fire, steam pressure, and supply of fuel and water. Water carried in the tender must be forced into the boiler, early engines used pumps driven by the motion of the pistons. Later, steam injectors replaced the pump while some engines used turbopumps, in the UK, the USA and France, water troughs were provided on some main lines to allow locomotives to replenish their water supply while moving. The fuel and water capacities of a tender are usually proportional to the rate at which they are consumed, the Pennsylvania Railroad and the New York Central Railroad used track pans on many of their routes, allowing locomotives to pick up water at speed. The result was that the tanks on these tenders were proportionally much smaller. In the UK water troughs were used by three of the Big Four railways, the Southerns decision to electrify its routes into London with a third rail system also made the installation of water troughs impractical. Only on the former London and South Western Railway routes west of Salisbury, rather than install troughs the L&SWR equipped its express locomotives with special high-capacity tenders with a water capacity of 4,000 gallons running on a pair of twin-axle bogies
39.
Fire-tube boiler
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A fire-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which hot gases from a fire pass through one or more tubes running through a sealed container of water. The heat of the gases is transferred through the walls of the tubes by thermal conduction, heating the water and their advantage over flued boilers with a single large flue is that the many small tubes offer far greater heating surface area for the same overall boiler volume. The general construction is as a tank of water penetrated by tubes that carry the hot gases from the fire. The tank is cylindrical for the most part—being the strongest practical shape for a pressurized container—and this cylindrical tank may be either horizontal or vertical. This type of boiler was used on all steam locomotives in the horizontal locomotive form. This has a barrel containing the fire tubes, but also has an extension at one end to house the firebox. This firebox has a base to provide a large grate area. The horizontal fire-tube boiler is also typical of marine applications, using the Scotch boiler, vertical boilers have also been built of the multiple fire-tube type, although these are comparatively rare, most vertical boilers were either flued, or with cross water-tubes. In the locomotive-type boiler, fuel is burnt in a firebox to produce hot combustion gases, the firebox is surrounded by a cooling jacket of water connected to the long, cylindrical boiler shell. The hot gases are directed along a series of tubes, or flues. The steam rises to the highest point of the boiler, the steam dome, the dome is the site of the regulator that controls the exit of steam from the boiler. In the locomotive boiler, the steam is very often passed into a superheater, back through the larger flues at the top of the boiler, to dry the steam. The superheated steam is directed to the engines cylinders or very rarely to a turbine to produce mechanical work. Exhaust gases are fed out through a chimney, and may be used to pre-heat the feed water to increase the efficiency of the boiler, draught for firetube boilers, particularly in marine applications, is usually provided by a tall smokestack. In all steam locomotives since Stephensons Rocket, additional draught is supplied by directing exhaust steam from the cylinders into the smokestack through a blastpipe, modern industrial boilers use fans to provide forced or induced draughting of the boiler. Another major advance in the Rocket was large numbers of small-diameter firetubes instead of a large flue. This greatly increased the area for heat transfer, allowing steam to be produced at a much higher rate. Without this, steam locomotives could never have developed effectively as powerful prime movers, for more details on the related ancestor type, see Flued boilers
40.
Superheater
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A superheater is a device used to convert saturated steam or wet steam into superheated steam or dry steam. Superheaters are used in steam turbines for electricity generation, steam engines, there are three types of superheaters, radiant, convection, and separately fired. A superheater can vary in size from a few tens of feet to several hundred feet, a radiant superheater is placed directly in the combustion chamber. A convection superheater is located in the path of the hot gases, a separately fired superheater, as its name implies, is totally separated from the boiler. In a steam engine, the superheater re-heats the steam generated by the boiler, increasing its thermal energy, superheaters increase the thermal efficiency of the steam engine, and have been widely adopted. Steam which has been superheated is logically known as superheated steam, superheaters were applied to steam locomotives in quantity from the early 20th century, to most steam vehicles, and to stationary steam engines. This equipment is used in conjunction with steam turbines in electrical power generating stations throughout the world. In steam locomotive use, by far the most common form of superheater is the fire-tube type and this takes the saturated steam supplied in the dry pipe into a superheater header mounted against the tube sheet in the smokebox. The steam is passed through a number of superheater elements—long pipes which are placed inside large diameter fire tubes. The superheated steam, at the end of its journey through the elements, passes into a compartment of the superheater header. Some locomotives were fitted with snifting valves which admitted air to the superheater when the locomotive was coasting and this kept the superheater elements cool and the cylinders warm. The snifting valve can be seen behind the chimney on many LNER locomotives, a superheater increases the distance between the throttle and the cylinders in the steam circuit and thus reduces the immediacy of throttle action. To counteract this, some steam locomotives were fitted with a front-end throttle—placed in the smokebox after the superheater. Such locomotives can sometimes be identified by an external throttle rod that stretches the length of the boiler. This arrangement also allows superheated steam to be used for appliances, such as the dynamo. Another benefit of the front end throttle is that superheated steam is immediately available, with the dome throttle, it took quite some time before the super heater actually provided benefits in efficiency. With the front-end throttle, steam is in the units while the engine is sitting at the station. Then when the throttle is opened, superheated steam goes to the cylinders immediately, Locomotives with superheaters are usually fitted with piston valves or poppet valves
41.
Valve gear
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It can also serve as a reversing gear. It is sometimes referred to as the motion, in the simple case, this can be a relatively simple task as in the internal combustion engine in which the valves always open and close at the same points. A further benefit may be obtained by admitting the steam to the cylinder slightly before front or back dead centre and this advanced admission assists in cushioning the inertia of the motion at high speed. Instead, a system of eccentrics, cranks and levers is used to control a D slide valve or piston valve from the motion. Generally, two simple harmonic motions with different fixed phase angles are added in varying proportions to provide a motion that is variable in phase. A variety of mechanisms have been devised over the years. Both slide and piston valves have the limitation that intake and exhaust events are fixed in relation to each other, lap is provided on steam edges of the valve, so that although the valve stroke reduces as cutoff is advanced, the valve is always fully opened to exhaust. However, as cutoff is shortened, the exhaust events also advance, the exhaust release point occurs earlier in the power stroke and compression earlier in the exhaust stroke. Early release wastes some energy in the steam, and early closure also wastes energy in compressing an otherwise unnecessarily large quantity of steam and these inefficiencies drove the widespread experimentation in poppet valve gears for locomotives. Intake and exhaust poppet valves could be moved and controlled independently of each other, a very late British design, the SR Leader class, used sleeve valves adapted from internal combustion engines, but this class was not a success. In stationary steam engines, traction engines and marine engine practice, in stationary engines trip valves were also extensively used. Valve gear was a field of invention, with probably several hundred variations devised over the years. However, only a number of these saw any widespread use. They can be divided into those that drove the standard reciprocating valves, those used with poppet valves, slip-eccentric - This gear is now confined to model steam engines, and low power hobby applications such as steam launch engines, ranging to a few horsepower. The eccentric is loose on the crankshaft but there are stops to limit its rotation relative to the crankshaft, the engine is pushed forwards to put the eccentric in the forward gear position and backwards to put it in the backward gear position. There is no control of cutoff. These included the Teutonic, Greater Britain and John Hick classes, gab or hook gear - used on earliest locomotives. Allowed reversing but no control of cutoff, one component of the motion comes from a crank or eccentric
42.
Valve
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A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are technically fittings, but are discussed as a separate category. In an open valve, fluid flows in a direction from higher pressure to lower pressure, the word is derived from the Latin valva, the moving part of a door, in turn from volvere, to turn, roll. The simplest, and very ancient, valve is simply a freely hinged flap which drops to obstruct fluid flow in one direction and this is called a check valve, as it prevents or checks the flow in one direction. Modern control valves may regulate pressure or flow downstream and operate on sophisticated automation systems, even aerosols have a tiny valve built in. Valves are also used in the military and transport sectors, valves may be operated manually, either by a handle, lever, pedal or wheel. Valves may also be automatic, driven by changes in pressure, temperature and these changes may act upon a diaphragm or a piston which in turn activates the valve, examples of this type of valve found commonly are safety valves fitted to hot water systems or boilers. More complex control systems using valves requiring automatic control based on an external input require an actuator, an actuator will stroke the valve depending on its input and set-up, allowing the valve to be positioned accurately, and allowing control over a variety of requirements. Valves vary widely in form and application, sizes typically range from 0.1 mm to 60 cm. Special valves can have a diameter exceeding 5 meters, valve costs range from simple inexpensive disposable valves to specialized valves which cost thousands of US dollars per inch of the diameter of the valve. Disposable valves may be found in household items including mini-pump dispensers. Valves are quite diverse and may be classified into a number of basic types, valves may also be classified by how they are actuated, Hydraulic Pneumatic Manual Solenoid valve Motor The main parts of the most usual type of valve are the body and the bonnet. These two parts form the casing that holds the fluid going through the valve, the valves body is the outer casing of most or all of the valve that contains the internal parts or trim. The bonnet is the part of the encasing through which the stem passes, the bonnet typically screws into or is bolted to the valve body. Valve bodies are usually metallic or plastic, brass, bronze, gunmetal, cast iron, steel, alloy steels and stainless steels are very common. Seawater applications, like plants, often use duplex valves, as well as super duplex valves, due to their corrosion resistant properties. Alloy 20 valves are used in sulphuric acid plants, whilst monel valves are used in hydrofluoric acid plants. Hastelloy valves are used in high temperature applications, such as nuclear plants
43.
Walschaerts valve gear
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The Walschaerts valve gear is a type of valve gear invented by Belgian railway mechanical engineer Egide Walschaerts in 1844 used to regulate the flow of steam to the pistons in steam engines. The gear is sometimes named without the s, since it was incorrectly patented under that name. It was extensively used in steam locomotives from the late 19th century until the end of the steam era, the Walschaerts valve gear was slow to gain popularity. The Stephenson valve gear remained the most commonly used valve gear on 19th-century locomotives, the first locomotive fitted with the Walschaerts valve gear was built at the Belgian Tubize workshops, and was awarded a gold medal at the 1873 Universal Exhibition in Vienna. In 1874, New Zealand Railways ordered two types of Double Fairlie locomotives from Avonside, both the B class and E class Double Fairlies were fitted with Walschaerts valve gear. This was certainly the first use of technology to be used in New Zealand. The Mason Bogie, a modified Fairlie locomotive of 1874, was the first to use the Walschaerts gear in North America. The first application in Britain was on a Single Fairlie 0-4-4T, exhibited in Paris in 1878 and purchased by the Swindon, Marlborough and Andover Railway in 1883. According to Ahrons, the locomotive saw very little service as nobody seems to have known how to set the valves, in the 20th century, the Walschaerts valve gear was the most commonly used type, especially on larger locomotives. In Europe, its use was almost universal, whilst in North America, the Walschaerts gear outnumbered its closest competitor, heusingers gear was closer to the form generally adopted, but most authorities accept Walschaerts invention as sufficiently close to the final form. The pressure of this provides the driving force. Soon before the space on one side of the starts to contract. In an economical setting, steam is admitted to the space for only part of the stroke, at a point set by the driver. Since the exhaust is also shut, during the rest of the stroke the steam that has entered the cylinder expands in isolation, thus, the most energy available from the steam is used. The Walschaerts valve gear enables the engineer to change the point without changing the points at which intake starts. Economy also requires that the throttle be wide open and that the pressure is at the maximum safe level to maximise thermal efficiency. For economy, an engine is used of a size such that the most economical settings yield the right amount of power most of the time. When greater power is necessary, e. g, with such a setting, when the exhaust opens, the steam in the cylinder is near full boiler pressure
44.
Hexamine fuel tablet
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A hexamine fuel tablet is a form of solid fuel in tablet form. The tablets burn smokelessly, have an energy density, do not liquefy while burning. Invented in Murrhardt, Germany, in 1936, the component is hexamine. Some fuel tablets use 1,3, 5-trioxane as another ingredient, a number of alternative names are in use, including heat tablet and Esbit. Esbit is a trademark as it is used to refer to similar products made by other companies. In most countries from the former Soviet bloc this is known as dry alcohol, the tablets are used for cooking by campers, the military and relief organizations. They are often used with disposable metal stoves that are included with field ration packs, backpackers concerned with ultra light gear tend to buy or make their own much lighter stove. An Esbit beverage-can stove can be made by cutting off the bottom of a soft drink can. A pot can be supported above this with a circle of wire or metal tent pegs. The burning tablets are sensitive to wind, so a simple windscreen should be used, such as a strip of aluminum foil curved in a circle around the pot and stove. If necessary, the tablet can be placed on a rock or on the dirt, with a pot supported above it by rocks. Hexamine is prepared by the reaction of formaldehyde and ammonia, in an acid environment hexamine is converted to toxic formaldehyde, which is their main hazard for toxicity by ingestion. Fuel tablets are simple, ultra-lightweight compared to other options, and compact. As with trioxane, hexamine has an almost infinite shelf life if stored properly, however, the heat given off cannot be easily adjusted, so water can be boiled, but cooking requiring simmering is more difficult. Tablets are a powerful stove fuel, and are sensitive to wind, fuel tablets are expensive and are not as widely available compared to alternatives such as alcohol or petrol, but can use very cheap stoves. When burned, the oxidation of the fuel yields noxious fumes. Burned tablets leave a dark residue on the bottom of pots. If tablets are stored or used under conditions then they can break up while burning and shed burning fragments
45.
Mamod
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Mamod is a British toy manufacturer specialising in manufacturing live steam models. The company was founded in 1937 in Birmingham in the UK by Geoffrey Malins, the name is a portmanteau of Ma lins Mod els. Malins started off making steam engines which were sold under the Hobbies brand name, the first models produced were of stationary steam engines. Much later the company began creating models of road rollers, traction engines, steam wagons. These models were aimed at the toy market, so were simple to operate, most Mamod models use simple but effective oscillating cylinders, usually single-acting. The range has its origins in 1936 when Geoffrey Malins started to make engines for Hobbies of Dereham and his engines were loosely based on the Bowman engines that Geoffrey Bowman Jenkins had made for Hobbies until 1935. From 1937 Malins decided to make his own range of engines as well as those he was producing for Hobbies, with the exception of a few small detail changes - such as lighter shade of paints and a Mamod badge - they were almost identical to the Hobbies range. The difference between Mamod and Hobbies became somewhat blurred, a Mamod badged SE4 could be found in the Hobbies colours and this was the very beginnings of a philosophy which meant that the engines had to be sold and out the door. Unsold engines meant lost profit and nothing was wasted, any differences between the two ranges had all but disappeared by 1940. With the onset the Second World War, Malins association with Hobbies firm in Dereham came to an end, Malins had also realised he could make much more money by concentrating on his own engines too. With hostilities increasing the St Mary Row factory was put into mothballs, after the war the business was revived and by 1946 a limited range of steam toys was being made - the SE1, SE2, Minor 1 and tools. The pre-war SE3 and SE4 were dropped along with the twin cylinder Minor 2. Apart from the Minor 1, the made in immediate post-war period had base-mounted chimneys. The boiler mounted chimney soon returned though, during 1946, in all other respects the engines were the same as before the war. Apart from colour changes, the MM1 continued almost unchanged, until 1948, the tools still used flat bases and cast iron bodies. By 1948 the SE range had received its first real update, Mamod branded brass engine frames and hot-stamped brass flywheels were introduced and the SE1 and SE2 received a regulator as well. Also introduced was the new Minor 2 and this had a single cylinder engine unit and was a larger version of the MM1. All engines continued to use wick burners with either 1,2 or 3 wick tubes, by 1949, with the move to Camden Street, the firm had acquired a pressing facility and the expensive brass engine frames were replaced with pressed steel ones
