1.
Lobbyist (TV series)
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Lobbyist, originally titled Angel, was a 2007 South Korean television series produced by Korea Pictures International, Inc. that aired on SBS. Budgeted at ₩12 million, overseas filming locations included the United States and it starred Song Il-gook, Han Jae-suk and Jang Jin-young. Lobbyist centers around a love story caught in the real-world scenario of international politics, secret weapons trading. Kang Tae-hyuk is a successor of a main munitions business company in Korea and he has an innate ability as a lobbyist and is a master schemer. His exploits take him to the United States where he deals with the mafia and he plans to sweep over the whole of Asia
2.
Coercive monopoly
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As a coercive monopoly is securely shielded from possibility of competition, it is able to make pricing and production decisions with the assurance that no competition will arise. It is a case of a non-contestable market, a coercive monopoly has very few incentives to keep prices low and may deliberately price gouge consumers by curtailing production. Also, according to economist Murray Rothbard, a coercive monopolist will tend to perform his service badly and inefficiently, whether coercive monopolies can arise in free market, or whether they require government intervention to institute them is a point of some disagreement. It is argued that without government preventing competition, the firm must keep prices low because if they sustain unreasonably high prices, others, such as some business ethicists, believe that a free market can produce coercive monopolies. Exclusive control of electricity due to government imposed utility status is a coercive monopoly, because users have no choice. Consumers would not have an alternative to electricity from a cheaper competitor. Exclusive control of Coca-Cola would not be a monopoly because consumers have a choice to drink another brand of soda. There is a limit to which the company can raise its prices before profits begin to erode because of the presence of viable substitute goods. Since potential competitors are not able to be so efficient at producing, they are not able to charge a lower, or comparable, price and still be profitable. Hence, competing is possible but doing so is not profitable, whereas, for a coercive monopoly, according to business ethicist, John Hasnas, most take for granted that a free market produces coercive monopolies. Some point out that a monopolist themselves may employ violence to create or maintain a coercive monopoly, some recommend that government create coercive monopolies. This has often been done with electricity, water, telecommunications, a corporation which successfully engages in coercion to the extent that it eliminates the possibility of competition, operates a coercive monopoly. A firm may use illegal or non-economic methods, such as extortion, to achieve, the most famous historical examples of this type of coercive monopoly began in 1920, when the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution went into effect. This period, called Prohibition, presented lucrative opportunities for organized crime to take over the importation, manufacture, and distribution of alcoholic beverages. There are examples in history where a firm that is not a monopoly is claimed to have a coercive monopoly. For example, in United States v. Microsoft The Plaintiffs Finding of Fact alleged that Microsoft coerced Apple Computer to enter into contracts resulting in the prohibition of competition. Another disputed example, is the case of U. S. v. Aluminum Co. of America in 1945, the court concluded that Alcoa excluded competitors. The ruling is heavily criticized for punishing efficiency and is quoted below and it was not inevitable that it should always anticipate increases in the demand for ingot and be prepared to supply them
3.
Intellectual property
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Intellectual property refers to creations of the intellect for which a monopoly is assigned to designated owners by law. Intellectual property rights are the protections granted to the creators of IP, and include trademarks, copyright, patents, industrial design rights, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets. Artistic works including music and literature, as well as discoveries, inventions, words, phrases, symbols, the Statute of Monopolies and the British Statute of Anne are seen as the origins of patent law and copyright respectively, firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property. The first known use of the intellectual property dates to 1769. The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, the German equivalent was used with the founding of the North German Confederation whose constitution granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property to the confederation. According to Lemley, it was only at point that the term really began to be used in the United States. The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by Queen Elizabeth I for monopoly privileges, the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law doctrine. The term can be used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case Davoll et al. v. Brown. The statement that discoveries are. property goes back earlier, in Europe, French author A. Nion mentioned propriété intellectuelle in his Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs, published in 1846. Until recently, the purpose of property law was to give as little protection as possible in order to encourage innovation. Historically, therefore, they were granted only when they were necessary to encourage invention, limited in time, the concepts origins can potentially be traced back further. In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of Sybaris offered one years patent to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury. Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design rights, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress, geographical indications, a copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms. Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed, an industrial design right protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern, an industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Plant breeders rights or plant variety rights are the rights to use a new variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is examined, a trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which distinguishes products or services of a particular trader from the similar products or services of other traders
4.
Subsidy
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A subsidy is a form of financial aid or support extended to an economic sector generally with the aim of promoting economic and social policy. Although commonly extended from government, the subsidy can relate to any type of support – for example from NGOs or as implicit subsidies. Subsidies come in forms including, direct and indirect. Furthermore, they can be broad or narrow, legal or illegal, ethical or unethical, the most common forms of subsidies are those to the producer or the consumer. Producer/production subsidies ensure producers are better off by either supplying market price support, direct support, consumer/consumption subsidies commonly reduce the price of goods and services to the consumer. For example, in the US at one time it was cheaper to buy gasoline than bottled water, whether subsidies are positive or negative is typically a normative judgment. As a form of intervention, subsidies are inherently contrary to the markets demands. However, they can also be used as tools of political, a production subsidy encourages suppliers to increase the output of a particular product by partially offsetting the production costs or losses. The objective of production subsidies is to expand production of a product more so than the market would promote. This type of subsidy is found in developed markets. Other examples of production include the assistance in the creation of a new firm, industry. A consumption subsidy is one that subsidises the behavior of consumers, for example, some governments offer lifeline rates for electricity, that is, the first increment of electricity each month is subsidised. An export subsidy is a support from the government for products that are exported, usha Haley and George Haley identified the subsidies to manufacturing industry provided by the Chinese Government and how they have altered trade patterns. Traditionally, economists have argued that subsidies benefit consumers but hurt the subsidizing countries, export subsidy is known for being abused. For example, some exporters substantially over declare the value of their goods so as to more from the export subsidy. Thus the trader benefits from the subsidy without creating real trade value to the economy. Export subsidy as such can become a self-defeating and disruptive policy, an employment subsidy serves as an incentive to businesses to provide more job opportunities to reduce the level of unemployment in the country or to encourage research and development. With an employment subsidy, the government provides assistance with wages, Another form of employment subsidy is the social security benefits
5.
Tariff
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A tariff is a tax on imports or exports. In other languages and very occasionally in English, tariff or its equivalent may also be used to any list of prices. A customs duty or due is the tax levied on the import or export of goods in international trade. In economic sense, a duty is also a kind of consumption tax, a duty levied on goods being imported is referred to as an import duty. Similarly, a duty levied on exports is called an export duty, a tariff, which is actually a list of commodities along with the leviable rate of customs duty, is popularly referred to as a customs duty. This is no longer the case, Customs duty is calculated on the determination of the assessable value in case of those items for which the duty is levied ad valorem. This is often the transaction value unless a customs officer determines assessable value in accordance with the Harmonized System, However, for certain items like petroleum and alcohol, customs duty is realized at a specific rate applied to the volume of the import or export consignments. For the purpose of assessment of duty, products are given an identification code that has come to be known as the Harmonized System code. This code was developed by the World Customs Organization based in Brussels, a Harmonized System code may be from four to ten digits. For example,17.03 is the HS code for molasses from the extraction or refining of sugar, However, within 17.03, the number 17.03.90 stands for Molasses. Introduction of Harmonized System code in 1990s has largely replaced the Standard International Trade Classification, in drawing up the national tariff, the revenue departments often specifies the rate of customs duty with reference to the HS code of the product. A Customs authority in each country is responsible for collecting taxes on the import into or export of goods out of the country, Evasion of customs duties takes place mainly in two ways. In one, the trader under-declares the value so that the value is lower than actual. In a similar vein, a trader can evade customs duty by understatement of quantity or volume of the product of trade, a trader may also evade duty by misrepresenting traded goods, categorizing goods as items which attract lower customs duties. The Evasion of customs duty may take place with or without the collaboration of customs officials, Evasion of customs duty does not necessarily constitute smuggling. Many countries allow a traveler to bring goods into the country duty-free and these goods may be bought at ports and airports or sometimes within one country without attracting the usual government taxes and then brought into another country duty-free. Some countries impose allowances which limit the number or value of items that one person can bring into the country. These restrictions often apply to tobacco, wine, spirits, cosmetics, gifts, often foreign diplomats and UN officials are entitled to duty-free goods
6.
Advocacy group
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Advocacy groups use various forms of advocacy in order to influence public opinion and/or policy. They have played and continue to play an important part in the development of political and social systems. Groups vary considerably in size, influence, and motive, some have wide-ranging long term social purposes, motives for action may be based on a shared political, religious, moral, health or commercial position. Groups use varied methods to try to achieve their aims including lobbying, media campaigns, publicity stunts, polls, research, and policy briefings. Some groups are supported or backed by business or political interests and exert considerable influence on the political process. Some have developed into important social, political institutions or social movements, Some groups, generally ones with less financial resources, may use direct action and civil disobedience and in some cases are accused of being a threat to the social order or domestic extremists. Research is beginning to explore how advocacy groups use media to facilitate civic engagement. An advocacy group is a group or an organization tries to influence the government. The first mass social movement catalyzed around the political figure. Charged with seditious libel, Wilkes was arrested after the issue of a general warrant, as a result of this episode, Wilkes became a figurehead to the growing movement for popular sovereignty among the middle classes – people began chanting, Wilkes and Liberty in the streets. After a later period of exile, brought about by further charges of libel and obscenity, Wilkes stood for the Parliamentary seat at Middlesex, where most of his support was located. When Wilkes was imprisoned in the Kings Bench Prison on 10 May 1768 and this was the first ever sustained social advocacy group, —it involved public meetings, demonstrations, the distribution of pamphlets on an unprecedented scale and the mass petition march. The force and influence of this social movement on the streets of London compelled the authorities to concede to the movements demands. Wilkes was returned to Parliament, general warrants were declared as unconstitutional, another important advocacy group that emerged in the late 18th century was the British abolitionist movement against slavery. Starting with an organised sugar boycott in 1791, it led the great petition drive of 1806. In the opinion of Eugene Black. association made possible the extension of the politically effective public, modern extra parliamentary political organization is a product of the late eighteenth century the history of the age of reform cannot be written without it. From 1815, Britain after victory in the Napoleonic Wars entered a period of social upheaval characterised by the maturity of the use of social movements. Chartism was the first mass movement of the growing working-class in the world and they led, among other things, to the formation of green parties and organisations influenced by the new left
7.
Conflict of interest
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The presence of a conflict of interest is independent of the occurrence of impropriety. Therefore, a conflict of interest can be discovered and voluntarily defused before any corruption occurs. Primary interest refers to the goals of the profession or activity, such as the protection of clients, the health of patients, the integrity of research. These secondary interests are not treated as wrong in and of themselves, applicable statutes or canons of ethics may provide standards for recusal in a given proceeding or matter. Providing that the judge or presiding officer must be free from disabling conflicts of interest makes the fairness of the less likely to be questioned. In the legal profession, the duty of loyalty owed to a client prohibits an attorney from representing any other party with interests adverse to those of a current client. The few exceptions to this rule require informed consent from all affected clients. In some circumstances, a conflict of interest can never be waived by a client, in perhaps the most common example encountered by the general public, the same firm should not represent both parties in a divorce or child custody matter. Found conflict can lead to denial or disgorgement of legal fees, or in some cases, depending upon the law or rules related to a particular organization, the existence of a conflict of interest may not, in and of itself, be evidence of wrongdoing. In fact, for professionals, it is virtually impossible to avoid having conflicts of interest from time to time. A conflict of interest can, however, become a matter, for example. A director or executive of a corporation will be subject to legal liability if a conflict of interest breaches his/her duty of loyalty, there often is confusion over these two situations. Someone accused of a conflict of interest may deny that a conflict exists because he/she did not act improperly, in fact, a conflict of interest can exist even if there are no improper acts as a result of it. Such competing interests can make it difficult to fulfill his or her duties impartially, a conflict of interest exists even if no unethical or improper act results. A conflict of interest can create an appearance of impropriety that can undermine confidence in the internal auditor, the audit activity. A conflict of interest could impair an individuals ability to perform his or her duties and responsibilities objectively, an organizational conflict of interest may exist in the same way as described above, for instance where a corporation provides two types of service to the government and these services conflict. Corporations may develop simple or complex systems to mitigate the risk or perceived risk of a conflict of interest, the influence of the pharmaceutical industry on medical research has been a major cause for concern. In 2009 a study found that a number of academic institutions do not have clear guidelines for relationships between Institutional Review Boards and industry, the official is on both sides of the deal
8.
Agricultural subsidy
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Examples of such commodities include, wheat, feed grains, cotton, milk, rice, peanuts, sugar, tobacco, oilseeds such as soybeans, and meat products such as beef, pork, and lamb and mutton. In 2010, the EU spent €57 billion on agricultural development, Agricultural and fisheries subsidies form over 40% of the EU budget. Since 1992, the EUs Common Agricultural Policy has undergone significant change as subsidies have mostly been decoupled from production, the largest subsidy is the Single Farm Payment. The subsidy was implemented by means of a system which could be redeemed by the recipients for fertilizer types at approximately one-third of the normal cash price. Many practical and political challenges remain in the design and implementation required to increase efficiency, control costs. New Zealand is reputed to have the most open agricultural markets in the world after radical reforms started in 1984 by the Fourth Labour Government stopped all subsidies. In 1984 New Zealands Labor government took the step of ending all farm subsidies. This was a truly striking policy action, because New Zealands economy is roughly five times more dependent on farming than is the U. S. economy, measured by either output or employment. Subsidies in New Zealand accounted for more than 30 percent of the value of production before reform, and New Zealand farming was marred by the same problems caused by U. S. subsidies, including overproduction, environmental degradation and inflated land prices. The United States currently pays around $20 billion per year to farmers in direct subsidies as farm income stabilization via farm bills, the beneficiaries of the subsidies have changed as agriculture in the United States has changed. In the 1930s, about 25% of the population resided on the nations 6,000,000 small farms. By 1997,157,000 large farms accounted for 72% of farm sales, in 2006, the top 3 states receiving subsidies were Texas, Iowa, and Illinois. United States Department of Agriculture subsidies from farms in Iowa totaled $1,212,000,000 in 2006, from 2003 to 2005, the top 1% of beneficiaries received 17% of subsidy payments. In Texas, 72% of farms do not receive government subsidies, of the close to USD$1.4 billion in subsidy payments to farms in Texas, roughly 18% of the farms receive a portion of the payments. The Environmental Working Group states, The 1996 Freedom to Farm Act envisioned a move away from subsidized farming, as a transition, the 1996 farm bill established a direct payment program to wean farmers off the government dole. Payments are based on a formula involving the production on a given plot of land in 1986. This set payment went to the current landowner or farm operator every year, the program has been maintained beyond its intended lifetime and became a federal entitlement program for farmers that cost the government about $5 billion per year. Top states for direct payments were Iowa, Illinois, and Texas, direct payments of subsidies are limited to $40,000 per person or $80,000 per couple
9.
The New Deal and corporatism
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It is theoretically based on the interpretation of a community as an organic body. The term corporatism is based on the Latin root word corpus meaning body, in 1881, Pope Leo XIII commissioned theologians and social thinkers to study corporatism and provide a definition for it. Corporatism is related to the concept of structural functionalism. Corporate social interaction is common within kinship groups such as families, clans, in addition to humans, certain animal species like penguins exhibit strong corporate social organization. Corporatist types of community and social interaction are common to many ideologies, Corporatism may also refer to economic tripartism involving negotiations between business, labour, and state interest groups to establish economic policy. This is sometimes referred to as neo-corporatism and is associated with social democracy. Kinship-based corporatism emphasizing clan, ethnic, and family identification has been a phenomenon in Africa, Asia. Confucian societies based upon families and clans in East Asia and Southeast Asia have been considered types of corporatism, China has strong elements of clan corporatism in its society involving legal norms concerning family relations. Islamic societies often feature strong clans which form the basis for a community-based corporatist society, in Italy, various function-based groups and institutions were created, including universities, guilds for artisans and craftspeople, and other professional associations. Some Catholic corporatist states include Austria under the leadership of Federal Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, in response to the Roman Catholic corporatism of the 1890s, Protestant corporatism was developed, especially in Germany, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia. However, Protestant corporatism has been less successful in obtaining assistance from governments than its Roman Catholic counterpart. In social psychology and biology, researchers have found the presence of corporate social organization amongst animal species. Research has shown that penguins are known to reside in densely populated corporate breeding colonies, ancient Greece developed early concepts of corporatism. Aristotle in Politics also described society as being divided along natural classes and functional purposes that were priests, rulers, slaves, after the French Revolution, the existing absolutist corporatist system was abolished due to its endorsement of social hierarchy and special corporate privilege for the Roman Catholic Church. The new French government considered corporatisms emphasis on group rights as inconsistent with the promotion of individual rights. Subsequently corporatist systems and corporate privilege throughout Europe were abolished in response to the French Revolution, from 1789 to the 1850s, most supporters of corporatism were reactionaries. A number of reactionary corporatists favoured corporatism in order to end liberal capitalism, from the 1850s onward progressive corporatism developed in response to classical liberalism and Marxism. These corporatists supported providing group rights to members of the middle classes and this was in opposition to the Marxist conception of class conflict
10.
Protectionism
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Protectionist policies protect the producers, businesses and workers of the import-competing sector in a country from foreign competitors. According to proponents, these policies can counteract unfair trade practices, protectionists may favor the policy in order to decrease the trade deficit, maintain employment in certain sectors, or favor the growth of certain industries. In recent years, protectionism has become closely aligned with the anti-globalization movement, There is a broad consensus among economists that the impact of protectionism on economic growth is largely negative, although the impact on specific industries and groups of people may be positive. The doctrine of protectionism contrasts with the doctrine of free trade, a variety of policies have been used to achieve protectionist goals. Tariff rates usually vary according to the type of goods imported, import tariffs will increase the cost to importers, and increase the price of imported goods in the local markets, thus lowering the quantity of goods imported, to favour local producers. Tariffs may also be imposed on exports, and in an economy with floating exchange rates, however, since export tariffs are often perceived as hurting local industries, while import tariffs are perceived as helping local industries, export tariffs are seldom implemented. Import quotas, To reduce the quantity and therefore increase the price of imported goods. The economic effects of a quota is similar to that of a tariff. Economists often suggest that import licenses be auctioned to the highest bidder, administrative barriers, Countries are sometimes accused of using their various administrative rules as a way to introduce barriers to imports. Anti-dumping legislation, Supporters of anti-dumping laws argue that they prevent dumping of cheaper foreign goods that would cause local firms to close down, however, in practice, anti-dumping laws are usually used to impose trade tariffs on foreign exporters. Direct subsidies, Government subsidies are given to local firms that cannot compete well against imports. These subsidies are purported to protect jobs, and to help local firms adjust to the world markets. Export subsidies, Export subsidies are often used by governments to increase exports, Export subsidies have the opposite effect of export tariffs because exporters get payment, which is a percentage or proportion of the value of exported. Export subsidies increase the amount of trade, and in a country with floating exchange rates, have similar to import subsidies. Exchange rate control, A government may intervene in the exchange market to lower the value of its currency by selling its currency in the foreign exchange market. Doing so will raise the cost of imports and lower the cost of exports, international patent systems, There is an argument for viewing national patent systems as a cloak for protectionist trade policies at a national level. Peter Drahos explains that States realized that patent systems could be used to cloak protectionist strategies, There were also reputational advantages for states to be seen to be sticking to intellectual property systems. In the modern trade arena many other initiatives besides tariffs have been called protectionist, for example, some commentators, such as Jagdish Bhagwati, see developed countries efforts in imposing their own labor or environmental standards as protectionism
11.
Crony capitalism
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Crony capitalism is a term describing an economy in which success in business depends on close relationships between business people and government officials. It may be exhibited by favoritism in the distribution of legal permits, government grants, special tax breaks, the term crony capitalism made a significant impact in the public arena as an explanation of the Asian financial crisis. It is also used to describe governmental decisions favoring cronies of governmental officials, Crony capitalism exists along a continuum. In its lightest form, crony capitalism consists of collusion among market players which is tolerated or encouraged by the government. While perhaps lightly competing against each other, they present a unified front to the government in requesting subsidies or aid or regulation. Newcomers to a market may find it difficult to find loans, acquire shelf space, in technological fields, there may evolve a system whereby new entrants may be accused of infringing on patents that the established competitors never assert against each other. In spite of this, some competitors may succeed when the barriers are light. The term crony capitalism is generally used when these come to dominate the economy as a whole or to dominate the most valuable industries in an economy. Intentionally ambiguous laws and regulations are common in such systems, taken strictly, such laws would greatly impede practically all business, in practice, they are only erratically enforced. The specter of having such laws suddenly brought down upon a business provides incentive to stay in the graces of political officials. Troublesome rivals who have overstepped their bounds can have the laws suddenly enforced against them, even in high-income democracies with well-established legal systems and freedom of the press a larger state is associated with more political corruption. The term crony capitalism was initially applied to states involved in the 1997 Asian financial crisis such as Thailand, in these cases, the term was used to point out how family members of the ruling leaders become extremely wealthy with no non-political justification. Southeast Asian nations still score very poorly in rankings measuring this, Hong Kong, and Malaysia are perhaps most noted for this, and the term has also been applied to the system of oligarchs in Russia. Similar references to crony capitalism have been made to countries such as Argentina. Many prosperous nations have also had varying amounts of cronyism throughout their history including the United Kingdom, especially in the 1600s and 1700s, United States, the Economist benchmarks countries based on a crony-capitalism index calculated via how much economic activity occurs in industries prone to cronyism. Its 2014 Crony Capitalism Index ranking listed Hong Kong, Russia and Malaysia in the top 3 spots, Crony capitalism in finance was found in the Second Bank of the United States. It was a company, but its largest stockholder was the federal government which owned 20%. It was an early bank regulator and grew to be one being the most powerful organizations in the country due largely to being the depository of the government’s revenue, the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act in 1999 completely removed Glass-Steagall’s separation between commercial banks and investment banks
12.
Corporatism
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It is theoretically based on the interpretation of a community as an organic body. The term corporatism is based on the Latin root word corpus meaning body, in 1881, Pope Leo XIII commissioned theologians and social thinkers to study corporatism and provide a definition for it. Corporatism is related to the concept of structural functionalism. Corporate social interaction is common within kinship groups such as families, clans, in addition to humans, certain animal species like penguins exhibit strong corporate social organization. Corporatist types of community and social interaction are common to many ideologies, Corporatism may also refer to economic tripartism involving negotiations between business, labour, and state interest groups to establish economic policy. This is sometimes referred to as neo-corporatism and is associated with social democracy. Kinship-based corporatism emphasizing clan, ethnic, and family identification has been a phenomenon in Africa, Asia. Confucian societies based upon families and clans in East Asia and Southeast Asia have been considered types of corporatism, China has strong elements of clan corporatism in its society involving legal norms concerning family relations. Islamic societies often feature strong clans which form the basis for a community-based corporatist society, in Italy, various function-based groups and institutions were created, including universities, guilds for artisans and craftspeople, and other professional associations. Some Catholic corporatist states include Austria under the leadership of Federal Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, in response to the Roman Catholic corporatism of the 1890s, Protestant corporatism was developed, especially in Germany, the Netherlands, and Scandinavia. However, Protestant corporatism has been less successful in obtaining assistance from governments than its Roman Catholic counterpart. In social psychology and biology, researchers have found the presence of corporate social organization amongst animal species. Research has shown that penguins are known to reside in densely populated corporate breeding colonies, ancient Greece developed early concepts of corporatism. Aristotle in Politics also described society as being divided along natural classes and functional purposes that were priests, rulers, slaves, after the French Revolution, the existing absolutist corporatist system was abolished due to its endorsement of social hierarchy and special corporate privilege for the Roman Catholic Church. The new French government considered corporatisms emphasis on group rights as inconsistent with the promotion of individual rights. Subsequently corporatist systems and corporate privilege throughout Europe were abolished in response to the French Revolution, from 1789 to the 1850s, most supporters of corporatism were reactionaries. A number of reactionary corporatists favoured corporatism in order to end liberal capitalism, from the 1850s onward progressive corporatism developed in response to classical liberalism and Marxism. These corporatists supported providing group rights to members of the middle classes and this was in opposition to the Marxist conception of class conflict
13.
State capitalism
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The term is also used by some in reference to a private capitalist economy controlled by a state, often meaning a privately owned economy that is subject to statist economic planning. This term was used to describe the controlled economies of the Great Powers in the First World War. This practice is claimed to be in contrast with the ideals of both socialism and laissez-faire capitalism. There are various theories and critiques of capitalism, some of which have existed before the 1917 October Revolution. Vladimir Lenin notably described the economy of Russia as state capitalism and he argued that the tools for ending capitalism are found in state capitalism. For anarchists, state socialism is equivalent to state capitalism, hence oppressive and merely a shift from private capitalists to the state being the sole employer, after the October Revolution, Lenin used the term positively. If in a space of time we could achieve state capitalism. State capitalism would be a forward as compared with the present state of affairs in our Soviet Republic. Lenin argued the state should temporarily run the economy, which would eventually be taken over by workers, to Lenin state capitalism did not mean the state would run most of the economy, but that state capitalism would be one of five elements of the economy. The term state capitalism has been used by various socialists, including anarchists, Marxists, perhaps the earliest critique of the USSR as state-capitalist was formulated by the Russian anarchists, as documented in Paul Avrichs work on Russian anarchism. This claim would become standard in anarchist works. Soviet Russia, it must now be obvious, is an absolute despotism politically, murray Bookchin, when speaking about Marxism said that Marxism, in fact, becomes ideology. It is assimilated by the most advanced forms of state capitalist movement—notably Russia, by an incredible irony of history, Marxian “socialism” turns out to be in large part the very state capitalism that Marx failed to anticipate in the dialectic of capitalism. This is a statement if one thinks out its implications. At worse, these parties can seize power and create a new form of society in which the working class is oppressed by new bosses. Another early analysis the USSR as state capitalist came from various groups advocating left communism, one major tendency of the 1918 Russian communist left criticised the re-employment of authoritarian capitalist relations and methods of production. In sum these measures were seen as the re-transformation of proletarians within production from collective subject back into the objects of capital. The working class, it was argued, had to participate consciously in economic as well as political administration and this tendency within the 1918 left communists emphasized that the problem with capitalist production was that it treated workers as objects. Its transcendence lay in the workers conscious creativity and participation, which is reminiscent of Marxs critique of alienation and these criticisms were revived on the left of the Russian Communist Party after the 10th Congress in 1921, which introduced the New Economic Policy
14.
Tobacco lobbyists
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Tobacco politics refers to the politics surrounding the use and distribution of tobacco. Tobacco has been taxed by state governments in the United States for decades, the cumulative revenue of US tobacco taxation exceeded $32 billion in 2010, creating a major source of income for government. In 2010, the industry spent $16.6 million on lobbyists to represent the industry to Congress. Major big tobacco lobbying companies include Philip Morris, R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, the tobacco lobby lost a chunk of its support when the U. S. National Association of Attorneys General filed charges against the Tobacco Institute, a tobacco industry advocacy group. This resulted in the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement, which forced the organization to disband, the lawsuits brought against various tobacco manufacturers, attempting to hold them responsible for wrongful death, injury, or medical expenses related to cigarette smoking and other tobacco use. Cases have been brought both by individual plaintiffs and by government officials, including U. S. State Attorney General, punitive damages for the plaintiff have often been awarded as a result of a successful litigation. However, the vast majority of court decisions have been in favor of the defendant tobacco companies, there has been an increased number of deaths related to tobacco smoking in the past decades. People are more aware of the risks and dangers that can be associated with tobacco smoking, people have died as a result of lung cancer from tobacco smoking and were often unable to prove that it was the cigarettes of the tobacco manufacturer that caused the persons death. Tobacco litigation is not new but has involved thousands of people in class-actions as well as individual private lawsuits since the mid-20th Century, there was an explosion of tobacco litigations in the mid 1990s, worldwide, but in the United States in particular. The first major study that showed the causal link between smoking and lung cancer was published in a study done by Sir Richard Doll in 1950,1992, In Cipollone v. Liggett Group, Inc. June 2002, A District Court in Kansas awarded $15 million in damages against R. J. Reynolds Tobacco after calling the companys conduct highly blameworthy and deserving of significant punishment, june 2002, A Miami jury held three cigarette companies liable for $37.5 million in a lawsuit involving an ex–smoker who lost his tongue to tobacco–related oral cancer. October 2002, A Los Angeles jury issued $28 billion in damages against Philip Morris. This was later reduced to $28 million,2003, A Madison Country, Illinois jury awarded $10.1 billion against the tobacco company Philips Morris for deceptive cigarette advertising in a class action led by attorney Stephen Tillery. 2004, A New York jury issued $20 million to the wife of a long-term smoker who died of cancer at the age of 57. This was the first time that a New York court had held a tobacco company liable for an individual smokers death, the appeals court ultimately upheld their original damages. 2008, The Altria Group v. Good US Supreme Court case said that law is not preempted by a federal law regarding cigarette advertisement regulations. Civil Rights Tobacco companies have marketed menthol cigarettes specific to African Americans, design defects The design of tobacco products defectively causes adverse health effects
15.
Kartika Liotard
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Kartika Tamara Liotard is a Dutch politician who has been a Member of the European Parliament since 2004. She was formerly a member of the Socialist Party, is vice-chair of the EUL–NGL group, before her election to the European Parliament, she worked as a legal advisor in the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture. Liotard studied law at Maastricht University, poisoned Spring, The EU and Water Privatisation. European Parliament biography Parlement. com biography Declaration of financial interests kartikliotard. eu
16.
Corporation
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A corporation is a company or group of people authorized to act as a single entity and recognized as such in law. Early incorporated entities were established by charter, most jurisdictions now allow the creation of new corporations through registration. Corporations chartered in regions where they are distinguished by whether they are allowed to be for profit or not are referred to as for profit and not-for-profit corporations, there is some overlap between stock/non-stock and for profit/not-for-profit in that not-for-profit corporations are always non-stock as well. A for profit corporation is almost always a stock corporation, registered corporations have legal personality and are owned by shareholders whose liability is limited to their investment. Shareholders do not typically actively manage a corporation, shareholders instead elect or appoint a board of directors to control the corporation in a fiduciary capacity, in American English, the word corporation is most often used to describe large business corporations. In British English and in the Commonwealth countries, the company is more widely used to describe the same sort of entity while the word corporation encompasses all incorporated entities. In American English, the company can include entities such as partnerships that would not be referred to as companies in British English as they are not a separate legal entity. Despite not being human beings, corporations, as far as the law is concerned, are legal persons. Corporations can exercise human rights against real individuals and the state, Corporations can be dissolved either by statutory operation, order of court, or voluntary action on the part of shareholders. Corporations can even be convicted of offenses, such as fraud. However, corporations are not considered living entities in the way humans are. While not a corporation, this new type of entity became very attractive as an alternative for corporations not needing to issue stock, in Germany, the organization was referred to as Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung or GmbH. In the last quarter of the 20th Century this new form of organization became available in the United States and other countries. Since the GmbH and LLC forms of organization are technically not corporations they will not be discussed in this article, the word corporation derives from corpus, the Latin word for body, or a body of people. By the time of Justinian, Roman law recognized a range of corporate entities under the names universitas and these included the state itself, municipalities, and such private associations as sponsors of a religious cult, burial clubs, political groups, and guilds of craftsmen or traders. Such bodies commonly had the right to own property and make contracts, to receive gifts and legacies, to sue and be sued, private associations were granted designated privileges and liberties by the emperor. Entities which carried on business and were the subjects of rights were found in ancient Rome. In medieval Europe, churches became incorporated, as did local governments, such as the Pope, the point was that the incorporation would survive longer than the lives of any particular member, existing in perpetuity
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Electoral district
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An electoral district is a territorial subdivision for electing members to a legislative body. Generally, only voters who reside within the district are permitted to vote in an election held there, from a single district, a single member or multiple members might be chosen. Members might be chosen by a first-past-the-post system or a representative system. Members might be chosen through an election under universal suffrage. The names for electoral districts vary across countries and, occasionally, the term constituency is commonly used to refer to an electoral district, it can also refer to the body of eligible voters within the represented area. Similarly, in Australia and New Zealand, electoral districts are called electorates, the term Chûnāô-Kshetra is used while referring to an electoral district in general irrespective of the legislature. When referring to a particular constituency, it is simply referred to as Kshetra along with the name of the legislature. Electoral districts for municipal or other bodies are called wards. In Canada, districts are colloquially called ridings, in French, circonscription or comté, local electoral districts are sometimes called wards, a term which also designates administrative subdivisions of a municipality. In local government in the Republic of Ireland voting districts are called electoral areas, district magnitude is the number of representatives elected from a given district to the same legislative body. A single-member district has one representative, while a district has more than one. Under proportional representation systems, district magnitude is an important determinant of the makeup of the elected body, the geographic distribution of minorities also affects their representation - an unpopular nationwide minority can still secure a seat if they are concentrated in a particular district. District magnitude can vary within the same system during an election. In the Republic of Ireland, for instance, national elections to Dáil Éireann are held using a combination of 3,4, main articles, Apportionment and Redistricting Apportionment is the process of allocating a number of representatives to different regions, such as states or provinces. Apportionment changes are accompanied by redistricting, the redrawing of electoral district boundaries to accommodate the new number of representatives. This redrawing is necessary under single-member district systems, as each new representative requires their own district, multi-member systems, however, vary depending on other rules. Apportionment is generally done on the basis of population, the United States Senate, by contrast, is apportioned without regard to population, every state gets exactly two senators. Malapportionment occurs when voters are under- or over-represented due to variation in district population, given the complexity of this process, software is increasingly used to simplify the task, while better supporting reproducible and more justifiable results
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Nonprofit organization
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A nonprofit organization is an organization whose purpose is something other than making a profit. A nonprofit organization is dedicated to furthering a particular social cause or advocating for a particular point of view. This is known as the non-distribution constraint, the decision to adopt a nonprofit legal structure is one that will often have taxation implications, particularly where the nonprofit seeks income tax exemption, charitable status and so on. The terms nonprofit and not-for-profit are not consistently differentiated across jurisdictions, in laymans terms they are usually equivalent in concept, although in various jurisdictions there are accounting and legal differences. The nonprofit landscape is varied, although many people have come to associate NPOs with charitable organizations. Although charities do make up an often high-profile or visible aspect of the sector, overall, they tend to be either member-serving or community-serving. e. It could be argued many nonprofits sit across both camps, at least in terms of the impact they make. For example, the support group that provides a lifeline to those with a particular condition or disease could be deemed to be serving its members. Many NPOs use the model of a bottom line in that furthering their cause is more important than making a profit. Although NPOs are permitted to generate revenues, they must be retained by the organization for its self-preservation, expansion. NPOs have controlling members or a board of directors, many have paid staff including management, whereas others employ unpaid volunteers and executives who work with or without compensation. In some countries, where there is a fee, in general. The extent to which an NPO can generate surplus revenues may be constrained or use of surplus revenues may be restricted. Some NPOs may also be a charity or service organization, they may be organized as a corporation or as a trust. Their goal is not to be successful in terms of wealth, NPOs have a wide diversity of structures and purposes. Some of the above must be expressed in the charter of establishment or constitution. Others may be provided by the authority at each particular jurisdiction. While affiliations will not affect a legal status, they may be taken into consideration by legal proceedings as an indication of purpose, most countries have laws that regulate the establishment and management of NPOs and that require compliance with corporate governance regimes
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Ethics
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Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The term ethics derives from the Ancient Greek word ἠθικός ethikos, the branch of philosophy axiology comprises the sub-branches of ethics and aesthetics, each concerned with values. As a branch of philosophy, ethics investigates the questions What is the best way for people to live, and What actions are right or wrong in particular circumstances. In practice, ethics seeks to resolve questions of morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice. As a field of enquiry, moral philosophy also is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics. Richard William Paul and Linda Elder define ethics as a set of concepts, the Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word ethics is commonly used interchangeably with morality. And sometimes it is used narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition. Paul and Elder state that most people confuse ethics with behaving in accordance with social conventions, religious beliefs, the word ethics in English refers to several things. It can refer to philosophical ethics or moral philosophy—a project that attempts to use reason in order to various kinds of ethical questions. As bioethicist Larry Churchill has written, Ethics, understood as the capacity to think critically about moral values, Ethics can also be used to describe a particular persons own idiosyncratic principles or habits. For example, Joe has strange ethics, the English word ethics is derived from an Ancient Greek word êthikos, which means relating to ones character. The Ancient Greek adjective êthikos is itself derived from another Greek word, meta-ethics asks how we understand, know about, and what we mean when we talk about what is right and what is wrong. An ethical question fixed on some particular practical question—such as, Should I eat this particular piece of chocolate cake. —cannot be a meta-ethical question, a meta-ethical question is abstract and relates to a wide range of more specific practical questions. For example, Is it ever possible to have knowledge of what is right. Meta-ethics has always accompanied philosophical ethics, meta-ethics is also important in G. E. In it he first wrote about what he called the naturalistic fallacy, moore was seen to reject naturalism in ethics, in his Open Question Argument. This made thinkers look again at second order questions about ethics, earlier, the Scottish philosopher David Hume had put forward a similar view on the difference between facts and values. Studies of how we know in ethics divide into cognitivism and non-cognitivism, non-cognitivism is the claim that when we judge something as right or wrong, this is neither true nor false
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Morality
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Morality is the differentiation of intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are distinguished as proper and those that are improper. Morality may also be synonymous with goodness or rightness. Moral philosophy includes moral ontology, or the origin of morals, as well as moral epistemology, an example of normative ethical philosophy is the Golden Rule, which states that, One should treat others as one would like others to treat oneself. Immorality is the opposition to morality, while amorality is variously defined as an unawareness of, indifference toward. Ethics is the branch of philosophy which addresses questions of morality, the word ethics is commonly used interchangeably with morality, and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group, or individual. It does not connote objective claims of right or wrong, descriptive ethics is the branch of philosophy which studies morality in this sense. In its normative sense, morality refers to whatever is actually right or wrong, normative ethics is the branch of philosophy which studies morality in this sense. For example, while they might concede that forces of social conformity significantly shape individuals moral decisions and this may be the philosophical view propounded by ethical naturalists, however not all moral realists accept that position. Moral anti-realism, on the hand, holds that moral statements either fail or do not even attempt to report objective moral facts. Some forms of non-cognitivism and ethical subjectivism, while considered anti-realist in the robust sense used here, are considered realist in the sense synonymous with moral universalism, celia Green made a distinction between tribal and territorial morality. She characterizes the latter as predominantly negative and proscriptive, it defines a persons territory, including his or her property and dependents, apart from these proscriptions, territorial morality is permissive, allowing the individual whatever behaviour does not interfere with the territory of another. By contrast, tribal morality is prescriptive, imposing the norms of the collective on the individual, Green relates the development of territorial morality to the rise of the concept of private property, and the ascendancy of contract over status. Some observers hold that individuals apply distinct sets of rules to people depending on their membership of an in-group or an out-group. Some biologists, anthropologists and evolutionary psychologists believe this in-group/out-group discrimination has evolved because it enhances group survival and this belief has been confirmed by simple computational models of evolution. In simulations this discrimination can result in both unexpected cooperation towards the in-group and irrational hostility towards the out-group, falger have argued that nationalism and patriotism are forms of this in-group/out-group boundary. Jonathan Haidt has noted that experimental observation indicating an in-group criterion provides one moral foundation substantially used by conservatives, peterson and Seligman approach the anthropological view looking across cultures, geo-cultural areas and across millennia. They conclude that certain virtues have prevailed in all cultures they examined, the major virtues they identified include wisdom / knowledge, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence. Each of these includes several divisions, for instance humanity includes love, kindness, and social intelligence
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Contempt
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Contempt, not classified among Paul Ekmans six basic emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise, is a mixture of disgust and anger. The word originated in 1393, from the Latin word contemptus meaning scorn and it is the past participle of contemnere and from com- intensive prefix + temnere to slight, scorn. Ekman and Friesen identified a specific facial expression that observers in ten different cultures, in this study, citizens of West Sumatra, Indonesia, were given photos of American, Japanese, and Indonesian peoples. “An expression in which the corner of the lip is tightened and raised slightly on one side of the face signaled contempt. ”This study showed that contempt, as well as the expression of contempt. Paul Ekman, a widely recognized psychologist, found six emotions that were recognized, anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness. Findings on contempt are less clear, though there is at least some evidence that this emotion. In the 1990s Ekman proposed an expanded list of emotions, this time including contempt, contempt requires a judgment concerning the appearance or standing of the object of contempt. This may have not been done deliberately but by a lack of status and this lack of status may cause the contemptuous to classify the object of contempt as utterly worthless, or as not fully meeting a particular interpersonal standard. Therefore, contempt is a response to a failure to meet an interpersonal standard. Contempt is also a way of regarding or attending to the object of contempt. However, contempt may be experienced as a highly visceral emotion similar to disgust, contempt has a certain comparative element. Because of this element, contempt also involves what we might term a “positive self-feeling” of the contemptuous. A characteristic of contempt is the withdrawal or distance one typically feels regarding the object of one’s contempt. This psychological distancing is a way of expressing one’s nonidentification with the object of one’s contempt. This form of regard constitutes a psychological withdrawal from the object of contempt, contempt can be useful to being a functioning member of the moral community. An ethics of contempt provides a much larger breadth of answers than other competing systems of ethics, whether they be based on ethics of actions or ethics of feelings. By feeling contempt for those things which are found to be unethical, immoral, or morally unsavory, the main response of contempt lies within “publicized expression of low regard for the objects held in contempt”. So while one would make their feelings known to others, the person with contempt would not necessarily want to deal with the situation at hand
22.
Law
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Law is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior. Law as a system helps regulate and ensure that a community show respect, private individuals can create legally binding contracts, including arbitration agreements that may elect to accept alternative arbitration to the normal court process. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution, written or tacit, the law shapes politics, economics, history and society in various ways and serves as a mediator of relations between people. Islamic Sharia law is the worlds most widely used religious law, the adjudication of the law is generally divided into two main areas referred to as Criminal law and Civil law. Criminal law deals with conduct that is considered harmful to social order, Civil law deals with the resolution of lawsuits between individuals or organizations. Law provides a source of scholarly inquiry into legal history, philosophy, economic analysis. Law also raises important and complex issues concerning equality, fairness, there is an old saying that all are equal before the law, although Jonathan Swift argued that Laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps and hornets break through. In 1894, the author Anatole France said sarcastically, In its majestic equality, the law forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, beg in the streets, and steal loaves of bread. Writing in 350 BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, The rule of law is better than the rule of any individual, mikhail Bakunin said, All law has for its object to confirm and exalt into a system the exploitation of the workers by a ruling class. Cicero said more law, less justice, marxist doctrine asserts that law will not be required once the state has withered away. Regardless of ones view of the law, it today a completely central institution. Numerous definitions of law have been put forward over the centuries, at the same time, it plays only one part in the congeries of rules which influence behavior, for social and moral rules of a less institutionalized kind are also of great importance. There have been attempts to produce a universally acceptable definition of law. In 1972, one indicated that no such definition could be produced. McCoubrey and White said that the question what is law, glanville Williams said that the meaning of the word law depends on the context in which that word is used. He said that, for example, early customary law and municipal law were contexts where the law had two different and irreconcilable meanings. Thurman Arnold said that it is obvious that it is impossible to define the word law and it is possible to take the view that there is no need to define the word law. The history of law links closely to the development of civilization, Ancient Egyptian law, dating as far back as 3000 BC, contained a civil code that was probably broken into twelve books
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BBC
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The British Broadcasting Corporation is a British public service broadcaster. It is headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, the BBC is the worlds oldest national broadcasting organisation and the largest broadcaster in the world by number of employees. It employs over 20,950 staff in total,16,672 of whom are in public sector broadcasting, the total number of staff is 35,402 when part-time, flexible, and fixed contract staff are included. The BBC is established under a Royal Charter and operates under its Agreement with the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. The fee is set by the British Government, agreed by Parliament, and used to fund the BBCs radio, TV, britains first live public broadcast from the Marconi factory in Chelmsford took place in June 1920. It was sponsored by the Daily Mails Lord Northcliffe and featured the famous Australian Soprano Dame Nellie Melba, the Melba broadcast caught the peoples imagination and marked a turning point in the British publics attitude to radio. However, this public enthusiasm was not shared in official circles where such broadcasts were held to interfere with important military and civil communications. By late 1920, pressure from these quarters and uneasiness among the staff of the licensing authority, the General Post Office, was sufficient to lead to a ban on further Chelmsford broadcasts. But by 1922, the GPO had received nearly 100 broadcast licence requests, John Reith, a Scottish Calvinist, was appointed its General Manager in December 1922 a few weeks after the company made its first official broadcast. The company was to be financed by a royalty on the sale of BBC wireless receiving sets from approved manufacturers, to this day, the BBC aims to follow the Reithian directive to inform, educate and entertain. The financial arrangements soon proved inadequate, set sales were disappointing as amateurs made their own receivers and listeners bought rival unlicensed sets. By mid-1923, discussions between the GPO and the BBC had become deadlocked and the Postmaster-General commissioned a review of broadcasting by the Sykes Committee and this was to be followed by a simple 10 shillings licence fee with no royalty once the wireless manufactures protection expired. The BBCs broadcasting monopoly was made explicit for the duration of its current broadcast licence, the BBC was also banned from presenting news bulletins before 19.00, and required to source all news from external wire services. Mid-1925 found the future of broadcasting under further consideration, this time by the Crawford committee, by now the BBC under Reiths leadership had forged a consensus favouring a continuation of the unified broadcasting service, but more money was still required to finance rapid expansion. Wireless manufacturers were anxious to exit the loss making consortium with Reith keen that the BBC be seen as a service rather than a commercial enterprise. The recommendations of the Crawford Committee were published in March the following year and were still under consideration by the GPO when the 1926 general strike broke out in May. The strike temporarily interrupted newspaper production and with restrictions on news bulletins waived the BBC suddenly became the source of news for the duration of the crisis. The crisis placed the BBC in a delicate position, the Government was divided on how to handle the BBC but ended up trusting Reith, whose opposition to the strike mirrored the PMs own
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Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
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United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
26.
Willard InterContinental Washington
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The Willard InterContinental Washington is a historic luxury Beaux-Arts hotel located at 1401 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D. C. Among its facilities are numerous luxurious guest rooms, several restaurants, the famed Round Robin Bar, the Peacock Alley series of luxury shops, and voluminous function rooms. Owned by InterContinental Hotels & Resorts, it is two blocks east of the White House, and two blocks west of the Metro Center station of the Washington Metro. The first structures to be built at 1401 Pennsylvania Avenue NW were six small houses constructed by Colonel John Tayloe III in 1816, Tayloe leased the six buildings to Joshua Tennison, who named them Tennisons Hotel. The structures served as a hotel for the three decades, the leaseholder and name changing several times, Williamsons Mansion Hotel, Fullers American House. By 1847, the structures were in disrepair and Tayloes son, Benjamin Ogle Tayloe, was desperate to find a tenant who would maintain the structures, the Supreme Court split the difference in Willard v. Tayloe. 75 U. S.557, The purchase price would remain the same, the present 12-story structure, designed by famed hotel architect Henry Janeway Hardenbergh, opened in 1901. It suffered a fire in 1922 which caused $250,000. Among those who had to be evacuated from the hotel were Vice President Calvin Coolidge, for many years the Willard was the only hotel from which one could easily visit all of downtown Washington, and consequently it has housed many dignitaries during its history. The Willard family sold its share of the hotel in 1946, and due to mismanagement and the decline of the area. The building sat vacant for years, and numerous plans were floated for its demolition and it eventually fell into a semi-public receivership and was sold to the Pennsylvania Avenue Development Corporation. They held a competition to rehabilitate the property and ultimately awarded it to the Oliver Carr Company, the two partners then brought in the InterContinental Hotels Group to be a part owner and operator of the hotel. The Willard was subsequently restored to its elegance and an office-building contingent was added. The hotel was thus re-opened amid great celebration on August 20,1986, in the late 1990s, the hotel once again underwent significant restoration. S. It was the first time an official Japanese delegation traveled to a foreign destination, from February 4 to February 27,1861, the Peace Congress, featuring delegates from 21 of the 34 states, met at the Willard in a last-ditch attempt to avert the Civil War. A plaque from the Virginia Civil War Commission, located on the Pennsylvania Ave. side of the hotel, on March 27,1874, the Northern and Southern Orders of Chi Phi met at the Willard to unite as the Chi Phi Fraternity. It was the habit of Ulysses S. Grant to drink whiskey, folklore holds that this is the origin of the term lobbying, as Grant was often approached by those seeking favors. However, this is false, as Websters Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary dates the verb to lobby to 1837
27.
Ulysses S. Grant
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Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th President of the United States. As Commanding General, Grant worked closely with President Abraham Lincoln to lead the Union Army to victory over the Confederacy in the American Civil War and he implemented Congressional Reconstruction, often at odds with President Andrew Johnson. His presidency has often criticized for tolerating corruption and for the severe economic depression in his second term. Grant graduated in 1843 from the United States Military Academy at West Point, after the war he married Julia Boggs Dent in 1848, their marriage producing four children. Grant initially retired from the Army in 1854 and he struggled financially in civilian life. When the Civil War began in 1861, he rejoined the U. S. Army, in 1862, Grant took control of Kentucky and most of Tennessee, and led Union forces to victory in the Battle of Shiloh, earning a reputation as an aggressive commander. He incorporated displaced African American slaves into the Union war effort, in July 1863, after a series of coordinated battles, Grant defeated Confederate armies and seized Vicksburg, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River and dividing the Confederacy in two. After his victories in the Chattanooga Campaign, Lincoln promoted him to lieutenant general, Grant confronted Robert E. Lee in a series of bloody battles, trapping Lees army in their defense of Richmond. Grant coordinated a series of devastating campaigns in other theaters, as well, in April 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox, effectively ending the war. Historians have hailed Grants military genius, and his strategies are featured in history textbooks. After the Civil War, Grant led the armys supervision of Reconstruction in the former Confederate states and he also used the army to build the Republican Party in the South. After the disenfranchisement of some former Confederates, Republicans gained majorities, in his second term, the Republican coalitions in the South splintered and were defeated one by one as redeemers regained control using coercion and violence. In May 1875, Grant authorized his Secretary of Treasury Benjamin Bristow to shut down and his peace policy with the Indians initially reduced frontier violence, but is best known for the Great Sioux War of 1876. Grant responded to charges of corruption in executive offices more than any other 19th Century president and he appointed the first Civil Service Commission and signed legislation ending the corrupt moiety system. In foreign policy, Grant sought to trade and influence while remaining at peace with the world. His administration successfully resolved the Alabama claims by the Treaty of Washington with Great Britain, Grant avoided war with Spain over the Virginius Affair, but Congress rejected his attempted annexation of the Dominican Republic. His administration implemented a standard and sought to strengthen the dollar. Grant left office in 1877 and embarked on a two-year diplomatic world tour that captured the nations attention, in 1880, Grant was unsuccessful in obtaining the Republican presidential nomination for a third term
28.
Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant
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The presidency of Ulysses S. Grant began on March 4,1869, when Ulysses S. Grant was inaugurated as President of the United States, and ended on March 4,1877. A Republican, Grant took office as the 18th United States president after defeating Horatio Seymour in the 1868 presidential election and he was easily elected to a second four-year term in office in 1872. His decisive re-election was achieved in the face of a split within the Republican Party that resulted in a party of Liberal Republicans nominating Horace Greeley to oppose him. This action prompted the Democratic Party to cancel its convention, support Greeley as well, the first president elected after the end of the Civil War, Grant was the first since Andrew Jackson to serve two full terms. He was succeeded as president by Republican Rutherford B. Hayes after the contested 1876 presidential election, There were repeated scandals and frauds perpetrated by administration officials as a result. Believing the culprits to be innocent, Grant often attacked their accusers, defenders note Grant established the first Civil Service Commission and ended the moiety system. Reconstruction after the Civil War took precedence during Grants first term of office, within two years the remaining former Confederate states, Georgia, Mississippi, Virginia, and Texas were readmitted into the United States and represented in Congress. Additionally Congress established the Department of Justice and Office of Solicitor General and these actions bolstered the Grant Administrations ability to carry out and enforces federal laws, particularly those that protected African American civil rights. The new Justice Department prosecuted thousands of Ku Klux Klan members under the new laws. He sent federal troops to nine South Carolina counties to suppress Klan violence in 1871. At the beginning of Grants second term the nation was prosperous, the debt, government spending, tariffs, and the federal workforce were reduced. Congress established a defacto deflationary gold standard that reduced the number of greenbacks in the national economy, however, the Panic of 1873 rocked the nation and destroyed much of the economic advancements made in Grants first term. The Panic caused a nationwide economic depression and turned public opinion against Grant. As a result, Democrats regained control of the House in December 1875, Corruption scandals escalated, but reformers appointed by Grant were able to clean up federal departments. The most notable was the appointment of Benjamin Bristow as Secretary of Treasury, bristows investigation led to the indictment of Grants personal secretary, Orville E. Babcock, whom Grant defended at a White House deposition. Grants Secretary of War William W. Belknap, resigned in disgrace in February 1876, impeached by the House for taking kickbacks, the United States was at peace with the world throughout Grants eight years in office, but his handling of foreign policy was uneven. Grants attempt to annex Santo Domingo failed in the Senate and created bitter contention between Grant and Senator Charles Sumner, with the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, the West was wide open to expansionism that sometimes was challenged by hostile Native Americans. Grant aggressively allowed the destruction of the buffalo to keep Indians on their reservations, Grants peace policy reduced Indian battles, but with the discovery of gold in the Black Hills, it led to Col. Custers destruction at the Battle of Little Big Horn
