1.
Sikyong
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The Sikyong is the leader of the Central Tibetan Administration, a Tibetan exile organisation also known as the Tibetan government-in-exile. Prior to September,2012, this office was known as Kalön Tripa, the current Sikyong is Lobsang Sangay. The Sikyong is the head of the Kashag or Cabinet, part of the branch of the Central Tibetan Administration. This office should not be confused with the Chairman of the government of the Tibet Autonomous Region, the first directly elected Kalön Tripa was Lobsang Tenzin, the Samdhong Rinpoche, who was elected August 20,2001. Before 2011, the Kalön Tripa position was subordinate to the 14th Dalai Lama who presided over the government in exile from its founding. In August of that year, Lobsang Sangay polled 55 per cent votes out of 49,189, defeating his nearest rival Tethong Tenzin Namgyal by 8,646 votes, the Dalai Lama announced that his political authority would be transferred to Sangay. The Dalai Lama had previously referred to the Kalon Tripa as Sikyong, according to Tibetan Review, Sikyong translates to political leader, as distinct from spiritual leader. The online Dharma Dictionary translates sikyong as secular ruler, regime, the title sikyong had previously been used by regents who ruled Tibet during the Dalai Lamas minority. It is also used in Tibetan to refer to the governors of the states of the United States
2.
Lobsang Tenzin
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A close associate of 14th Dalai Lama, the Tibetan leader, he was elected to his current position in 2001. Lobsang Tenzin was born in Jol, in eastern Tibet, at the age of five, he was recognised, according to Tibetan tradition, as the reincarnation of the 4th Samdhong Rinpoche and enthroned in Gaden Dechenling Monastery at Jol. Two years later he took vows as a monk, started his religious training at Drepung Monastery in Lhasa, after his training in Lhasa, he fled to India in 1959, after the Tibet Ribellion, along with the 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso. From October 1961, he served as the teacher of Tibetan School in Shimla. He received his Lharampa degree in the year 1968 and Ngagrimpa degree in 1969, in 1971 he became Principal of Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies at Varanasi, and from 1988 to 2001 he was the director. From 1994 to 1995, he was awarded National Lectureship from Indian Council of Philosophical Research, New Delhi. of Madhya Pradesh and Chairman of various Trust and Foundations. He is regarded as one of the leading Tibetan scholars of Buddhism and is also an authority on the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi and he is fluent in Hindi and English, Tibetan being his mother tongue. Rinpoche has been an honored guest at many forums in India and he has spoken on challenges India faces today, and has stressed on inclusion of the poor masses in development of the country. In 1991 Lobsang Tenzin was appointed by the Dalai Lama as a member of the Assembly of Tibetan Peoples Deputies, Rinpoche served twice as the Speaker of the Tibetan Parliament-in-Exile from 1991 to 2001. Between 1996 and 2001 he was an member of the Assembly representing exiled Tibetans from Kham province. Juchen Thubten Namgyal, the candidate, won the remainder. Since 2001 he has travelled extensively to support for the cause of Tibetan autonomy. During his Prime Ministership, Rinpoche negotiated many times with the Chinese officials to bring a solution to the Tibetan cause. However no meaningful development could be made in this direction, Samdhong Rinpoche is an advocate of Gandhian philosophy, is a lifelong campaigner of non violence and is on the board of trustees of Swaraj Peeth Trust, a Gandhian centre for non violence and peace. He has held lectures and talks with groups in Germany, Switzerland and USA where he spoke extensively on Buddhist ideology and its importance in contemporary politics. Rinpoche is a supporter of the middle path and in sync with the views of the Dalai Lama. He is of the opinion that the Tibet issue is alive on the forum and has received widespread support due to its right direction. In his own words “Tibet cause is a just cause and not a power struggle and it is neither a political struggle nor a battle against the system
3.
Darjeeling
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Darjeeling is a town and a municipality in the Indian state of West Bengal. It is located in the Lesser Himalayas at an elevation of 6,700 ft and it is noted for its tea industry, the spectacular views of Kangchenjunga, the worlds third-highest mountain, and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Darjeeling is the headquarters of Darjeeling district which has an autonomous status within the state of West Bengal. It is also a popular tourist destination in India, the recorded history of the town starts from the early 19th century when the colonial administration under the British Raj set up a sanatorium and a military depot in the region. Subsequently, extensive tea plantations were established in the region and tea growers developed hybrids of black tea, the resultant distinctive Darjeeling tea is internationally recognised and ranks among the most popular black teas in the world. The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway connects the town with the plains and has some of the few steam locomotives still in service in India, Darjeeling has several British-style public schools, which attract pupils from India and neighbouring countries. The varied culture of the town reflects its diverse demographic milieu consisting of Nepali, Bengali, Sherpas, Lepcha, Darjeeling, alongside its neighbouring town of Kalimpong, was the centre of the Gorkhaland movement in the 1980s. The towns fragile ecology has been threatened by a demand for environmental resources, stemming from growing tourist traffic. The name Darjeeling comes from the Tibetan word dorje, meaning the thunderbolt sceptre of the Hindu deity Indra, and ling, the history of Darjeeling is intertwined with that of Sikkim, Nepal, British India and Bhutan. Until the early 19th century, the area around Darjeeling was controlled by the kingdom of Sikkim with settlement consisting of a few villages of Lepcha. The Chogyal of Sikkim had been engaged in warfare against the Gorkhas of Nepal. From 1780, the Gorkhas made several attempts to capture the region of Darjeeling. By the beginning of 19th century, they had overrun Sikkim as far eastward as the Teesta River and had conquered and annexed the Terai, in the meantime, the British were engaged in preventing the Gorkhas from over-running the whole of the northern frontier. The Anglo-Gorkha war broke out in 1814, which resulted in the defeat of the Gorkhas, according to the treaty, Nepal had to cede all those territories which the Gorkhas had annexed from the Chogyal of Sikkim to the British East India Company. The company negotiated a lease of the area west of the Mahananda River from the Chogyal of Sikkim in 1835, in 1849, the BEIC director Arthur Campbell and the explorer and botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker were imprisoned in the region by the Sikkim Chogyal. The BEIC sent a force to free them, continued friction between the BEIC and the Sikkim authorities resulted in the annexation of 640 square miles of territory by the British in 1850. In 1864, the Bhutanese rulers and the British signed the Treaty of Sinchula that ceded the passes leading through the hills and Kalimpong to the British. Further discord between Sikkim and the British resulted in a war, culminating in the signing of a treaty, by 1866, Darjeeling district had assumed its current shape and size, covering an area of 1,234 square miles
4.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
5.
University of Delhi
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The University of Delhi informally known as Delhi University is a public central collegiate university, located in New Delhi, India. The University of Delhi was established in 1922 as a unitary, teaching, the University was originally to be named Prince Charles University. He suggested the name by which it is known today, the university thus had modest beginnings with only four colleges, two faculties, and about 750 students. The seat of power in British India had been transferred from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911, the Viceregal Lodge Estate became the residence of the Viceroy of India until October,1933, when it was given to the University of Delhi. Since then, it has housed the office of the vice-chancellor, when Sir Maurice Gwyer came to India to serve as Chief Justice of British India, he was nominated as Vice-Chancellor of University of Delhi. Daulat Singh Kothari in Physics, Prof. T. R. Sheshadri in Chemistry, Prof. Panchanan Maheshwari in Botany, Sir Maurice Gwyer is also called the maker of university. He served the post of vice-chancellor till 1950. S, twenty-five years later the golden jubilee celebrations of 1973 were attended by then Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi, Satyajit Ray, Amrita Pritam and M S Subbulakshmi. The University has grown one of the largest universities in India. There are also 261,169 students in non-formal education programme, five departments namely Chemistry, Geology, Zoology, Sociology and History have been awarded the status of the Centres of Advanced Studies. These Centres of Advanced Studies have carved a niche for themselves as centres of excellence in teaching, in addition, a good number of university departments are also receiving grants under the Special Assistance Programme of the UGC in recognition of their outstanding academic work. DU is one of the most sought after institution of education in India. It is also among the university with highest publication count in India, K. Laxman, Scientist CNR Rao and former Prime Minister of United Kingdom - Gordon Brown. There are about 77 colleges affiliated to the University of Delhi, There are two main campuses of the University, the North Campus & the South Campus. North Campus hosts the three founding colleges of the university which constituted the University of Delhi when it was founded, ramjas College, St. Stephens College and Shri Ram College of Commerce. The extended off campus also has colleges in Old Rajendra Nagar, Pitampura, the campus also houses other centres and institutes of Delhi which includes Cluster Innovation Centre, Delhi School of Economics, etc. It moved to its present location on Benito Juarez Road, near Dhaula Kuan, the Campus is spread across 28 hectares of green, hilly terrain and its buildings blend attractively with the natural surroundings. The various Departments are located in the Faculty of Arts, Inter-disciplinary, Applied Sciences, Faculty of Applied Social Sciences & Humanities, The faculty has two departments namely - Business Economics and Slavonic & Finno-Ugrian Studies. Faculty of Commerce and Business Studies, It has two departments, - Commerce Financial Studies, Faculty of Education, There is only one department of Faculty of Education i. e. Department of Education
6.
Harvard Law School
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Harvard Law School is one of the professional graduate schools of Harvard University, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1817, it is the oldest continually-operating law school in the United States and is considered to be one of the most prestigious in the world. The school is ranked third by the U. S. News & World and its acceptance rate was 15. 4% in the 2013–14 admissions cycle, and its yield rate of 66. 2% was the second-highest of any law school in the United States. It is ranked first in the 2016 QS World University Rankings, Harvard Law admitted 16. 5% of applicants in its most recent class, compared to 9. 2% at Yale and 11. 2% at Stanford. With a current enrollment of 1,990, HLS has about as many students as its three closest-ranked peer institutions, first-ranked Yale, second-ranked Stanford, and fourth-ranked Chicago, combined. The first-year class is broken into seven sections of approximately 80 students, Harvards uniquely large class size and its prestige have led the law school to graduate a great many distinguished alumni in the judiciary, government, and the business world. According to Harvard Laws 2015 ABA-required disclosures,95. 33% of the Class of 2014 passed the Bar exam. Harvard Law Schools founding is linked to the funding of Harvards first professorship in law, paid for from a bequest from the estate of Isaac Royall. Today, it is home to the largest academic law library in the world, the current dean of Harvard Law School is Martha Minow, who assumed the role on July 1,2009. The law school has 328 faculty members, Harvard Law Schools founding is traced to the establishment of a law department at Harvard in 1817. Dating the founding to the year of the creation of the law department makes Harvard Law the oldest continuously-operating law school in the nation, William & Mary Law School opened first in 1779, but closed due to the American Civil War, reopening in 1920. The University of Maryland School of Law was chartered in 1816, but did not begin classes until 1824, and also closed during the Civil War. Or a Professor of Physick and Anatomy, whichever the said overseers and Corporation shall judge to be best. ”The value of the land, when fully liquidated in 1809, was $2,938, the Harvard Corporation allocated $400 from the income generated by those funds to create the Royall Professorship of Law in 1815. The dean of the law school traditionally held the Royall chair, deans Elena Kagan, royalls Medford estate, the Isaac Royall House, is now a museum which features the only remaining slave quarters in the northeast United States. The Royall family coat-of-arms, which shows three stacked wheat sheaves, was adopted as the school crest in 1936, topped with the university motto, in March 2016, following requests by students, the school decided to remove the emblem because of its association with slavery. By 1827, the school, with one faculty member, was struggling, nathan Dane, a prominent alumnus of the college, then endowed the Dane Professorship of Law, insisting that it be given to then Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story. For a while, the school was called Dane Law School, in 1829, John H. Ashmun, son of Eli Porter Ashmun and brother of George Ashmun, accepted a professorship and closed his Northampton Law School, with many of his students following him to Harvard. Enrollment remained low through the 19th century as university legal education was considered to be of little added benefit to apprenticeships in legal practice, at Harvard, Langdell also developed the case method of teaching law, now the dominant pedagogical model at U. S. law schools
7.
14th Dalai Lama
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The 14th Dalai Lama (/ˈdɑːlaɪ ˈlɑːmə/, /ˌdælaɪ ˈlɑːmə/, is the current Dalai Lama. Dalai Lamas are important monks of the Gelug school, the newest school of Tibetan Buddhism which is headed by the Ganden Tripas. From the time of the 5th Dalai Lama to 1959, the government of Tibet. The Gelug schools government administered an area corresponding to the Tibet Autonomous Region just as the nascent PRC wished to assert central control over it. During the 1959 Tibetan uprising, the Dalai Lama fled to India, the 14th Dalai Lama received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989. His family was of Monguor extraction and his mother, Diki Tsering, gave birth to him on a straw mat in the cowshed behind the house. He was one of seven siblings to survive childhood, the eldest was his sister Tsering Dolma, eighteen years his senior. His eldest brother, Thupten Jigme Norbu, had been recognised at the age of eight as the reincarnation of the high Lama Taktser Rinpoche and his sister, Jetsun Pema, spent most of her adult life on the Tibetan Childrens Villages project. The Dalai Lamas first language was, in his own words, a broken Xining language which was the Chinese language, a form of Central Plains Mandarin, and his family did not speak the Tibetan language. Sir Basil Gould, British delegate to Lhasa in 1936, related his account of the team to Sir Charles Bell, former British resident in Lhasa. The Regent, Reting Rinpoche, shortly afterwards had a vision at the lake of Lhamo La-tso indicating Amdo as the region to search. This vision also indicated a large monastery with a roof and turquoise tiles. This team, led by Kewtsang Rinpoche, went first to meet the Panchen Lama, the Panchen Lama had been investigating births of unusual children in the area ever since the death of the 13th. He gave Kewtsang the names of three boys whom he had discovered and identified as candidates, within a year the Panchen Lama had died. There they found a house, as described in the vision, according to the 14th Dalai Lama, at the time the village of Taktser stood right on the real border between the region of Amdo and China. When the team visited, posing as pilgrims, its leader and he held an old rosary that had belonged to the 13th Dalai Lama and the boy Lhamo Dhondup, aged two, approached and asked for it. The monk said if you know who I am, you can have it, the child said Sera Lama, Sera Lama and spoke with him in a Lhasa accent, in a language the boys mother could not understand. The next time the party returned to the house, they revealed their real purpose, one test consisted of showing him various pairs of objects, one of which had belonged to the 13th Dalai Lama and one which had not
8.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
9.
Tibet
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Tibet is a region on the Tibetan Plateau in Asia, spanning about 2.4 million km2 and nearly a quarter of Chinas territory. Tibet is the highest region on Earth, with an elevation of 4,900 metres. The highest elevation in Tibet is Mount Everest, Earths highest mountain, the Tibetan Empire emerged in the 7th century, but with the fall of the empire the region soon divided into a variety of territories. The current borders of Tibet were generally established in the 18th century, following the Xinhai Revolution against the Qing dynasty in 1912, Qing soldiers were disarmed and escorted out of Tibet Area. The region subsequently declared its independence in 1913 without recognition by the subsequent Chinese Republican government, later, Lhasa took control of the western part of Xikang, China. There are tensions regarding Tibets political status and dissident groups that are active in exile and it is also said that Tibetan activists in Tibet have been arrested or tortured. The economy of Tibet is dominated by agriculture, though tourism has become a growing industry in recent decades. The dominant religion in Tibet is Tibetan Buddhism, in there is Bön, which is similar to Tibetan Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhism is an influence on the art, music. Tibetan architecture reflects Chinese and Indian influences, staple foods in Tibet are roasted barley, yak meat, and butter tea. The Tibetan name for their land, Bod བོད་, means Tibet or Tibetan Plateau, although it meant the central region around Lhasa. The Standard Tibetan pronunciation of Bod, is transcribed Bhö in Tournadre Phonetic Transcription, Bö in the THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription and Poi in Tibetan pinyin. Tibetan people, language, and culture, regardless of where they are from, are referred to as Zang although the geographical term Xīzàng is often limited to the Tibet Autonomous Region. The term Xīzàng was coined during the Qing dynasty in the reign of the Jiaqing Emperor through the addition of a prefix meaning west to Zang, the best-known medieval Chinese name for Tibet is Tubo. This name first appears in Chinese characters as 土番 in the 7th century, in the Middle Chinese spoken during that period, as reconstructed by William H. Baxter, 土番 was pronounced thux-phjon and 吐蕃 was pronounced thux-pjon. Other pre-modern Chinese names for Tibet include Wusiguo, Wusizang, Tubote, the English word Tibet or Thibet dates back to the 18th century. Historical linguists generally agree that Tibet names in European languages are loanwords from Semitic Ṭībat orTūbātt, itself deriving from Turkic Töbäd, literally, according to Matthew Kapstein, From the perspective of historical linguistics, Tibetan most closely resembles Burmese among the major languages of Asia. More controversial is the theory that the Tibeto-Burman family is part of a larger language family, called Sino-Tibetan
10.
Richard Gere
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Richard Tiffany Gere is an American actor and humanitarian activist. He began acting in the 1970s, playing a role in Looking for Mr. Goodbar. He came to prominence in 1980 for his role in the film American Gigolo, which established him as a leading man, Gere was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His mother, Doris Ann, was a housewife and his father, Homer George Gere, was an insurance agent for the Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company, and had originally intended to become a minister. Gere is their eldest son and second child and his paternal great-grandfather had changed the spelling of the surname from Geer. Both of his parents were Mayflower descendants, Geres ancestors include Pilgrims Francis Eaton, John Billington, George Soule, Richard Warren, Degory Priest, Francis Cooke and William Brewster. In 1967, Gere graduated from North Syracuse Central High School and he attended the University of Massachusetts Amherst on a gymnastics scholarship, majoring in philosophy, but did not graduate, leaving after two years. Gere first worked professionally at the Seattle Repertory Theatre and Provincetown Playhouse on Cape Cod in 1971 and his first major acting role was in the original London stage version of Grease in 1973. He began appearing in Hollywood films in the mid-1970s, originally cast in a starring role in The Lords of Flatbush, he was replaced after fighting with another star of the film, Sylvester Stallone. He played a small but memorable part in Looking for Mr. Goodbar and starred in the director Terrence Malicks well-reviewed 1978 film, Days of Heaven. Gere was one of the first notable Hollywood actors to play a gay character, Gere won a Theatre World Award for his performance. Gere experienced several box office failures after 1982, but his career rebounded with the releases of Internal Affairs and he starred in several successful films throughout the 1990s, including Sommersby, Primal Fear and Runaway Bride. He also took a role in the 1997 action movie The Jackal. Geres 2004 ballroom dancing drama Shall We Dance. was also a performer that grossed $170 million worldwide. His next film, the 2005 adapted novel Bee Season, was a commercial failure, in 2008, Gere co-starred with Diane Lane in the romantic drama Nights in Rodanthe. The film was panned by critics, but grossed over $84 million worldwide. Later in his career, Gere was honored twice for his lifetime achievement, regarding his 2012 performance in Arbitrage, Lou Lumenick of the New York Post said Richard Gere gives the best performance of his career. He received an award from the 34th Cairo International Film Festival in December 2010, Gere had a relationship with actress Penelope Milford from 1971 to 1978
11.
Foreign relations of Tibet
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The foreign relations of Tibet are documented from the 7th century onward, when Buddhism was introduced by missionaries from India. The Tibetan Empire sparred with Tang China for control over territory, Tibet was conquered by the Mongol Empire and that changed its internal system of government, introducing the Dalai Lamas, as well as subjecting Tibet to foreign hegemony under the Yuan Dynasty. Tibetan foreign relations during the Ming Dynasty are opaque, with Tibet being either a state or under full Chinese sovereignty. But by the 18th century, the Qing Dynasty indisputably made Tibet a subject, in the early 20th century, after a successful invasion, Britain established a trading relationship with Tibet and was permitted limited diplomatic access to Outer Tibet, basically Shigatse and Lhasa. Though the sovereignty of Tibet was unrecognized, Tibet was courted in unofficial visits from Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, the foreign relations of Tibet ended with the Seventeen Point Agreement that formalized Chinese sovereignty over most all of political Tibet in 1951. Little is known of Tibet before the 7th century when Buddhism was introduced by missionaries from India and it also contains an account of the brief capture of Changan, the Chinese capital, in 763 CE during the reign of Emperor Daizong of Tang. As of 1993 the pillar was surrounded by buildings and wire so it could not be approached closely, in 785, Wei Kao, a Chinese serving as an official in Shuh repulsed Tibetan invasions of the area. A stone monument dating to 823 and setting out the terms of peace, the monument, a treaty of friendship, is written in both Tibetan and Chinese. The inscribed pillar was erected by the Chinese in 1793 during a smallpox epidemic and it records the Sino-Tibetan treaty of 822 concluded by King Ralpacan and includes the following inscription, Tibet and China shall abide by the frontiers of which they are now in occupation. All to the east is the country of Great China, and all to the west is, without question, henceforth on neither side shall there be waging of war nor seizing of territory. If any person incurs suspicion he shall be arrested, his business shall be inquired into, the inscription also carried advice on hygiene measures to prevent smallpox. The relations between the two appears to have been complex. On the one hand, the monument describes connections between China and Tibet as similar to those between uncle and nephew, on the other hand, the monument seems to describe the two countries as equals. The text has been published several times, during this expedition the Kadampa monasteries of Rwa-sgreng and Rgyal-lha-khang were burned, and 500 people killed. The death of Ögödei the Mongol Khan in 1241 brought Mongol military activity around the ground, temporarily. Mongol interests in Tibet resumed in 1244 when Prince Köden sent an invitation to Sakya Pandita to come to his capital, Sakya Pandita arrived in Kokonor with his two nephews Phags-pa and Phyag-na Rdo-rje in 1246. After an internecine feud among the Mongol princes Kublai was appointed by Möngke Khan to take charge over the Chinese campaigns in 1253, since Sakya Pandita had already died Kublai took Phags-pa into his camp as a symbol of Tibets surrender. Kublai was elected Khagan in 1260 following the death of his brother Möngke, at that point he named Phags-pa as State Preceptor
12.
BBC News
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BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs. The department is the worlds largest broadcast news organisation and generates about 120 hours of radio and television output each day, the service maintains 50 foreign news bureaux with more than 250 correspondents around the world. James Harding has been Director of News and Current Affairs since April 2013, the departments annual budget is in excess of £350 million, it has 3,500 staff,2,000 of whom are journalists. BBC News domestic, global and online news divisions are housed within the largest live newsroom in Europe, parliamentary coverage is produced and broadcast from studios in Millbank in London. Through the BBC English Regions, the BBC also has regional centres across England, as well as national news centres in Northern Ireland, Scotland, all nations and English regions produce their own local news programmes and other current affairs and sport programmes. As with all media outlets, though, it has been accused of political bias from across the political spectrum. The British Broadcasting Company broadcast its first radio bulletin from radio station 2LO on 14 November 1922, on Easter weekend in 1930, this reliance on newspaper wire services left the radio news service with no information to report. The BBC gradually gained the right to edit the copy and, in 1934, however, it could not broadcast news before 6 PM until World War II. Gaumont British and Movietone cinema newsreels had been broadcast on the TV service since 1936, a weekly Childrens Newsreel was inaugurated on 23 April 1950, to around 350,000 receivers. The network began simulcasting its radio news on television in 1946, televised bulletins began on 5 July 1954, broadcast from leased studios within Alexandra Palace in London. The publics interest in television and live events was stimulated by Elizabeth IIs coronation in 1953 and it is estimated that up to 27 million people viewed the programme in the UK, overtaking radios audience of 12 million for the first time. Those live pictures were fed from 21 cameras in central London to Alexandra Palace for transmission and that year, there were around two million TV Licences held in the UK, rising to over three million the following year, and four and a half million by 1955. This was then followed by the customary Television Newsreel with a commentary by John Snagge. It was revealed that this had been due to producers fearing a newsreader with visible facial movements would distract the viewer from the story. On-screen newsreaders were finally introduced a year later in 1955 – Kenneth Kendall, Robert Dougall, mainstream television production had started to move out of Alexandra Palace in 1950 to larger premises – mainly at Lime Grove Studios in Shepherds Bush, west London – taking Current Affairs with it. It was from here that the first Panorama, a new programme, was transmitted on 11 November 1953. On 28 October 1957, the Today programme, a radio programme, was launched in central London on the Home Service. In 1958, Hugh Carleton Greene became head of News and Current Affairs and he set up a BBC study group whose findings, published in 1959, were critical of what the television news operation had become under his predecessor, Tahu Hole
