1.
452d Air Mobility Wing
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The 452d Air Mobility Wing is an Air Reserve Component of the United States Air Force. It is assigned to the Fourth Air Force, Air Force Reserve Command, stationed at March Air Reserve Base, if mobilized, the Wing is gained by the Air Mobility Command. During World War II, its unit, the 452d Bombardment Group was an Eighth Air Force B-17 Flying Fortress unit in England. 1st Lieutenant Donald J. Gott and 2nd Lieutenant William E. Metzger, the 452d Air Mobility Wing’s mission is to organize, train and equip aircrews to provide air refueling and strategic airlift any time, any place. The wing’s aircraft operate under widely varying situations ranging from small movements in battle to large movements over long distances and it trained under the supervision of the 2347th Air Force Reserve Training Center. The wing trained for light bomber with the Douglas B-26 Invader, the wing was manned at 25% of normal strength but its combat group was authorized four squadrons rather than the three of active duty units. The wing, along with all combat and corollary units, was mobilized for the Korean war. Upon mobilization, the moved to George Air Force Base, California. On 15 October 1950, the first of five echelons of the 452d left George for Itazuke Air Base, Kyushu and its 731st Bombardment Squadron, trained in night operations, was detached to the 3d Bombardment Wing at Iwakuni Air Base, Honshu, Japan. The first B-26 of the 452d arrived at Itazuke on 25 October, on the last day of the month, the aircrews of the 452d learned they were in a real shooting war, as three Yakovlev fighters jumped one of their B-26s and a Mosquito controller near Yangsi. The B-26 crew shot down one of the Soviet-designed fighters, upon arrival in the theater, the 452d Bombardment Wing was the only B-26 unit conducting daylight operations. Until June 1951, it gave support to ground units in Korea and engaged in interdiction of communist-held airfields, supply lines. The wing moved to Miho Air Base on Honshu, Japan, on 10 December, four B-26s and all their crews were lost, only one to hostile fire. One aircraft hit a cable on a line during a low-level attack, a second flew into a mountain on takeoff in a snow squall. The fourth was knocked down by fire near Sunchon, North Korea. The 3 men in that crew parachuted free. On 25 April 1951, the enemy began a spring offensive, for the next eight days the wing dispatched thirty to thirty-six sorties a day, getting maximum use from the approximately eighteen aircraft available each day. This required a refuel and rearm turnaround mission for each aircraft each day, the effort placed a heavy flying burden on all combat personnel as each crew was required to fly nine of ten days. As their effort began to exhaust the combat crews, pilots and observers serving in wing staff and this surge in operations also produced a sharp increase in maintenance activity as the aircraft sustained extensive battle damage
2.
Airlift
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An airlift is the organized delivery of military supplies or military personnel primarily via military transport aircraft. Airlifting consists of two types, strategic and tactical airlifting. Typically, strategic airlifting involves moving material long distances, whereas a tactical airlift focuses on deploying resources, depending on the situation, airlifted supplies can be delivered by a variety of means. When the destination and surrounding airspace is considered secure, the aircraft land at an appropriate airport or airbase to have its cargo unloaded on the ground. However, when the area is too small for this method, as with a base, and/or is too dangerous to land in. Serbian Air Force, made first transport of wounded soldiers from Serbia through Albania to Corfu and that was the first Medevac operation in air history. April 1923 aircraft of the RAFs Iraq Command flew 280 Sikh troops from Kingarban to Kirkuk in the first British air trooping operation, the worlds first long-range combat airlift took place in July 1936. Luftwaffe Ju 52 and Italian Air Force Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 were used by the Spanish Nationalists to transport troops from Spanish Morocco to Spain at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War. Airlifts became practical during World War II as aircraft became large and this joint effort is estimated to have saved more than a million lives in Biafra. Most airplanes departed from the Portuguese colony of Sao Tome and Principe to the landing strip of Uli, the only operational airport in Biafra. Flights were made flying at night all lights off and under near-total radio silence to avoid Nigerian MIG aircraft. All the airplanes, crews and logistics were paid, set up, JCA and their crews and aircraft kept flying into Biafra at the cost of many crews lives. Strategic airlift is the use of transport aircraft to transport materiel, weaponry. Typically, this involves airlifting the required items between two airbases which are not in the same vicinity and this allows commanders to bring items into a combat theater from a point on the other side of the planet, if necessary. Aircraft which perform this role are considered strategic airlifters and this contrasts with tactical airlifters, such as the C-130 Hercules and Transall C-160, which can normally only move supplies within a given theater of operations. This difficulty has prompted investment in lighter armoured fighting vehicles, as well as some research into alternative airlift technologies such as ground effect vehicles. Civilian aircraft are commonly used for transportation. For some civilian airlines, such as Miami Air International and Volga-Dnepr Airlines, tactical airlift is a military term for the airborne transportation of supplies and equipment within a theatre of operations
3.
Lockheed Corporation
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The Lockheed Corporation was an American aerospace company. Lockheed was founded in 1912 and later merged with Martin Marietta to form Lockheed Martin in 1995, the Alco Hydro-Aeroplane Company was established in San Francisco in 1912 by the brothers Allan and Malcolm Loughead. Following the Model F-1, the company invested heavily in the design, however, the asking price of $2500 could not compete in a market that was saturated with post World War 1 $350 Curtiss JN-4s and De Haviland trainers. The Loughead Aircraft Manufacturing Company closed its doors in 1921, in 1926, Allan Loughead, Jack Northrop, and Kenneth Jay secured funding to form the Lockheed Aircraft Company in Hollywood. This new company utilized some of the technology originally developed for the Model S-1 to design the Vega Model. In March 1928, the relocated to Burbank, California. From 1926-28 the company produced over 80 aircraft and employed more than 300 workers who by April 1929 were building five aircraft per week, in July 1929, majority shareholder Fred Keeler sold 87% of the Lockheed Aircraft Company to Detroit Aircraft Corporation. In August 1929, Allan Lockheed resigned, the Great Depression ruined the aircraft market, and Detroit Aircraft went bankrupt. A group of headed by brothers Robert and Courtland Gross. The syndicate bought the company for a mere $40,000, ironically, Allan Lockheed himself had planned to bid for his own company, but had raised only $50,000, which he felt was too small a sum for a serious bid. In 1934, Robert E. Gross was named chairman of the new company, the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation and his brother Courtlandt S. Gross was a co-founder and executive, succeeding Robert as Chairman following his death in 1961. The company was named the Lockheed Corporation in 1977, in the 1930s, Lockheed spent $139,400 to develop the Model 10 Electra, a small twin-engined transport. The company sold 40 in the first year of production, amelia Earhart and her navigator, Fred Noonan, flew it in their failed attempt to circumnavigate the world in 1937. Subsequent designs, the Lockheed Model 12 Electra Junior and the Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra expanded their market. The Lockheed Model 14 formed the basis for the Hudson bomber and its primary role was submarine hunting. The Model 14 Super Electra were sold abroad, and more than 100 were license-built in Japan for use by the Imperial Japanese Army, the P-38 was the only American fighter aircraft in production throughout American involvement in the war, from Pearl Harbor to Victory over Japan Day. It filled ground-attack, air-to-air, and even strategic bombing roles in all theaters of the war in which the United States operated, the Lockheed Vega factory was located next to Burbanks Union Airport which it had purchased in 1940. During the war, the area was camouflaged to fool enemy aerial reconnaissance
4.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
5.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
6.
Strategic airlift
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An airlift is the organized delivery of military supplies or military personnel primarily via military transport aircraft. Airlifting consists of two types, strategic and tactical airlifting. Typically, strategic airlifting involves moving material long distances, whereas a tactical airlift focuses on deploying resources, depending on the situation, airlifted supplies can be delivered by a variety of means. When the destination and surrounding airspace is considered secure, the aircraft land at an appropriate airport or airbase to have its cargo unloaded on the ground. However, when the area is too small for this method, as with a base, and/or is too dangerous to land in. Serbian Air Force, made first transport of wounded soldiers from Serbia through Albania to Corfu and that was the first Medevac operation in air history. April 1923 aircraft of the RAFs Iraq Command flew 280 Sikh troops from Kingarban to Kirkuk in the first British air trooping operation, the worlds first long-range combat airlift took place in July 1936. Luftwaffe Ju 52 and Italian Air Force Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 were used by the Spanish Nationalists to transport troops from Spanish Morocco to Spain at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War. Airlifts became practical during World War II as aircraft became large and this joint effort is estimated to have saved more than a million lives in Biafra. Most airplanes departed from the Portuguese colony of Sao Tome and Principe to the landing strip of Uli, the only operational airport in Biafra. Flights were made flying at night all lights off and under near-total radio silence to avoid Nigerian MIG aircraft. All the airplanes, crews and logistics were paid, set up, JCA and their crews and aircraft kept flying into Biafra at the cost of many crews lives. Strategic airlift is the use of transport aircraft to transport materiel, weaponry. Typically, this involves airlifting the required items between two airbases which are not in the same vicinity and this allows commanders to bring items into a combat theater from a point on the other side of the planet, if necessary. Aircraft which perform this role are considered strategic airlifters and this contrasts with tactical airlifters, such as the C-130 Hercules and Transall C-160, which can normally only move supplies within a given theater of operations. This difficulty has prompted investment in lighter armoured fighting vehicles, as well as some research into alternative airlift technologies such as ground effect vehicles. Civilian aircraft are commonly used for transportation. For some civilian airlines, such as Miami Air International and Volga-Dnepr Airlines, tactical airlift is a military term for the airborne transportation of supplies and equipment within a theatre of operations
7.
Military Air Transport Service
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The Military Air Transport Service is an inactive Department of Defense Unified Command. Activated on 1 June 1948, MATS was a consolidation of the United States Navy Naval Air Transport Service and it was inactivated and discontinued on 8 January 1966 when the Air Force and Navy set up separate strategic airlift commands. In 1982, the World War II Air Transport Command and the Military Air Transport Service were consolidated with Military Airlift Command, the Military Air Transport Service was activated under United States Air Force Major General Laurence S. Kuter, in order to harness interservice efforts more efficiently. It was an amalgamation of Navy and Army air transport commands, MATS was the first Joint-Service command and Naval aircrews participated in every major MATS airlift operation. During the Berlin Airlift, Naval aviators flew transport aircraft from the United States to European supply depots, in the Korean War, in its original organization, a Rear Admiral commanded the MATS Pacific Division and another rear admiral served as MATS vice-commander. During the 1958 reorganization, senior Naval officers were on the staffs of the commanders of both EASTAF and WESTAF, and at MATS Headquarters. In 1965 conflicting views of the Air Force and Navy triggered by the demands of the Vietnam War led to the returning to separate airlift commands. In turn, MATS was disbanded and superseded in the Air Force by the Military Airlift Command, with the end of World War II, the United States Army Air Forces Air Transport Command found itself in limbo. Senior ATC officers, on the hand, thought that ATC should be developed into a national government operated airline. While the war had firmly established the necessity of a troop carrier mission, when the United States Air Force was established as a separate service in 1947, the Air Transport Command was not established as one of its major commands. The ATC commander and his staff took it upon themselves to convince the new leadership of the newly created Department of Defense that ATC had a mission. Williams had been pressing for the development of a troop carrier airplane when he made his statement. Also, as a measure, MATS would combine the resources of Air Transport Command with those of the Naval Air Transport Service. This way the command would be sanctioned by the Department of Defense, although MATS was under the operational control of the United States Air Force, the United States Navy was a full partner in the command and operational components of the organization. Major naval components of MATS were naval air transport squadrons, vR-3 and VR-6 were assigned to McGuire AFB and VR-22 was assigned to the Naval Air Transport Station at Naval Station Norfolk/Chambers Field, Virginia. Together they constituted MATS EASTAFs Naval Air Transport Wing, Atlantic, on the Pacific Coast, Naval Air Transport Wing, Pacific, consisted of Air Transport Squadron VR-7 and Maintenance Squadron VR-8, both at Naval Air Station Moffett Field, California. A detachment of VR-7 was also stationed at Tachikawa Air Base, Naval aviators flew scheduled MATS routes to Newfoundland, Iceland, Scotland, West Germany, Italy, Puerto Rico and Africa. In the Pacific, MATS naval aviators flew to all MATS stations from Hawaii to Japan to South Vietnam, Bangkok, India, Air Force pilots flew Navy MATS planes, just as naval aviators could be found piloting Air Force MATS transport aircraft
8.
Military Airlift Command
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The Military Airlift Command is an inactive United States Air Force major command that was headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois. In 1982, the heritage of the World War II Air Transport Command, mACs emblem reflected its predecessors history by incorporating the emblem of MATS into its shield. Under the USAF lineage system, they did not possess a permanent lineage or history and were discontinued upon inactivation, AFCON units were activated under MAC, to which USAF personnel and equipment formerly assigned to MATS MAJCOM units were reassigned effective 8 January 1966. No formal lineage or history between former MATS MAJCOM units and MAC AFCON units was ever made, with the establishment of MAC by the USAF, plans were also made to discontinue the role of the United States Navy within the new command. At first, MAC transports to Vietnam landed regularly only at Tan Son Nhut AB, New air bases opened at Da Nang AB and Cam Ranh AB in January 1966, and later at Pleiku, Bien Hoa and Phu Cat Air Bases, reducing the need for redistribution. Major unit movements by MAC aircraft from the United States usually required further airlifts to operating areas by in-country transports, eventually, however, C-5s could unload at Tan Son Nhut and elsewhere. Primarily, MAC transports carried high-value cargo such as aircraft and equipment parts, while MAC civilian-contract flights transported passengers to and from the combat zone. In the winter of 1965-66, MAC conducted Operation Blue Light, generally, patients requiring hospitalization for thirty days or more were moved to offshore hospitals, others were sometimes evacuated to keep an empty-bed reserve of fifty percent in Vietnam. Military Airlift Command transports carried the more serious cases from Clark AB to the United States, on 30 March 1972, North Vietnam launched an all-out invasion of South Vietnam, which came to be known as the Easter Offensive. The Vietnamization policy of the United States had resulted in the vast majority of US ground combat forces been withdrawn from South Vietnam with PACAFs tactical air units also being reduced. Military Airlift Commands C-141 force, accustomed to operating in and out of Vietnam from offshore were utilized for movement of large amounts of men and materiel to oppose the invasion. Beginning on 21 April, MAC C-141s began shuttling passengers and cargo between Tan Son Nhut AB and the other main bases, principally Da Nang AB, Bien Hoa AB. Planes and crews were based for one or more nights at Tan Son Nhut and this C-141 effort permitted the VNAF and PACAF C-130s to concentrate on drops, unit hauls, and deliveries to forward locations. The rapid American response to the invasion allowed the South Vietnamese forces to defeat the invaders for the moment, by the terms of the 1973 Paris Peace Accords, the cease-fire was to become effective in Vietnam the morning of 28 January 1973, Saigon time. American prisoners in North Vietnam were to be released and the last 23,700 American troops withdrawn from Vietnam within sixty days, planning for Operation Homecoming, the return of the Americans held by North Vietnam, was given to the Military Airlift Command. C-141s of the 63d Military Airlift Wing, stationed at Norton AFB, a second C-130 left Tan Son Nhut AB carrying members of the international commission to Hanoi oversee the repatriations. This C-130 arrived at Gia Lam Airport about one hour before the C-130 from CCK arrived, on the ground at Gia Lam the C-130 crew met the airport manager, and went indoors for tea offered by the North Vietnamese. The first of three C-141s flown in from Clark landed soon after and repatriation began, as the first returnee moved from the release desk, one of the C-130 flight engineers quickly moved to clear the way, leading the former prisoner by the arm
9.
Air Mobility Command
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Air Mobility Command is a Major Command of the U. S. Air Force. AMC is headquartered at Scott Air Force Base, Illinois, east of St. Louis, the Commander of AMC is Gen Carlton D. Everhart II, with Lt Gen Wayne Schatz Jr as Vice Commander and CMSgt Shelina Frey as Command Chief Master Sergeant. Air Mobility Command was established on June 1,1992 and it was formed from elements of the inactivated Military Airlift Command and Strategic Air Command. AMC melded a worldwide system with a tanker force that had been freed from its strategic nuclear strike commitments by the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Air Mobility Commands mission is to provide global air mobility, the command also plays a crucial role in providing humanitarian support at home and around the world. Many special duty and operational aircraft and stateside aeromedical evacuation missions are also assigned to AMC. U. S. forces must be able to provide a rapid, tailored response with a capability to intervene against a foe, hit hard. Rapid global mobility lies at the heart of U. S. strategy in this environment, without the capability to project forces, there is no conventional deterrent. As the number of U. S. forces stationed overseas continue to decline, global interests remain, Air Mobility Command also has the mission of establishing bare air bases in contingencies. To accomplish this mission, AMC established two Contingency Response Wings, and operates the Eagle Flag exercise, in addition to its status as a MAJCOM of the Air Force, AMC is also the Air Force component command of the United States Transportation Command. It provides airlift, special missions, aerial refueling, and aeromedical evacuation for the United States armed forces]], AMC also operates VIP flights such as Air Force One, Air Force Two, and other Special Assignment Airlift Missions. Finally, AMC acts as the manager, on behalf of United States Transportation Command. Principal aircraft assets of the include, C-17 Globemaster III, C-5 Galaxy, C-130 Hercules, KC-135 Stratotanker, KC-10 Extender, C-40 Clipper, C-37 Gulfstream V. As of 2015, the command is preparing for the addition of the KC-46 Pegasus. Additional aircraft in support of high-profile VIP airlift include, VC-25, C-32, C-20 and these units train and exercise frequently and routinely provide augmentative operational support to AMCs active duty forces. Instead, they report to AMC via the National Guard Bureau, civil Reserve Air Fleet AMC has undergone considerable change since its establishment. Focusing on the mission of strategic air mobility, the command divested itself of infrastructure. The Air Rescue Service, intratheater aeromedical airlift forces based overseas, as a result of the Global War on Terrorism, on October 1,2003, AMC underwent a major restructuring, bringing a war fighting role to its numbered air force
10.
Air Force Reserve Command
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The Air Force Reserve Command is a Major Command of the United States Air Force, with its headquarters at Robins Air Force Base, Georgia. It is the federally controlled Air Reserve Component of the U. S. Air Force, consisting of duly appointed commissioned officers, AFRC supports the Air Force mission to defend the United States through the control and exploitation of air and space by supporting Global Engagement. AFRC also plays an role in the day-to-day Air Force mission and is not strictly a force held in reserve for possible war or contingency operations. The inventory, both AFRC-controlled and active duty Regular Air Force-controlled, includes the latest, most capable models of aircraft that are assigned to the U. S. Air Force. On any given day,99 percent of AFRCs aircraft are mission-ready, in addition to flying units, AFRC has numerous ground organizations ranging from medical units to civil engineers, intelligence and space operations, and security forces, just to name a few. In combination with the Air National Guard, the Air Force Reserve comprises half of what is known as the Air Reserve Component of the United States Air Force, AFRC forces are under the administrative control of the Commander, Air Force Reserve Command. The Air Force Reserve also contains other specialized capabilities not found in active duty Air Force units. A third unique mission set in the Air Force Reserve, Aerial Firefighting, is conducted in tandem with the Air National Guard, there are several categories of service for personnel in the Air Force Reserve. However, many Air Force Reservists, especially those in a flying status, serve well in excess of this minimum duty requirement. A smaller but equally important category of TR is the Individual Mobilization Augmentee and their job is to bring Air Force Reserve expertise to the planning and decision-making processes at senior levels within the Air Force, other services, and the Unified Combatant Commands. Like the Air National Guard, the Air Force Reserve Command also requires two categories of personnel to perform functions that require full-time manning. These full-time positions are filled via the two programs as employed by the Air National Guard, the Active Guard and Reserve program. Air Force Reservists who become members of the Active Guard and Reserve receive full active duty pay, the majority of AGRs are former TRs and they serve four-year controlled tours of special duty that can be renewed. S. Air Force, on the staffs of Unified Combatant Commands, on the Joint Staff, AFRC Recruiting is another field that employs AGR personnel. AGRs also have the option with good performance to serve 20 or more years on duty and receive a retirement after 20 or more years. Another category of Air Force Reservists serving full-time are those in the Air Reserve Technician Program, ARTs are accessed from either the active duty Regular Air Force, the AGR program, Traditional Guardsmen in the Air National Guard, or TRs in the Air Force Reserve. This category also includes all full-time ART personnel and they are predominantly assigned to the Unit Program or as IMAs. Standby Reserve Includes Reservists whose civilian jobs are considered key to defense or who have temporary disability or personal hardship
11.
Air National Guard
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When Air National Guard units are used under the jurisdiction of the state governor they are fulfilling their militia role. However, if federalized by order of the President of the United States and they are jointly administered by the states and the National Guard Bureau, a joint bureau of the Army and Air Force that oversees the National Guard of the United States. The ANG of the territories of Guam and the Virgin Islands have no aircraft assigned, ANG units typically operate under Title 32 USC. However, when operating under Title 10 USC all ANG units are operationally-gained by an active duty USAF major command. ANG units of the Combat Air Forces based in the Continental United States, conversely, CONUS-based ANG units in the Mobility Air Forces, plus the Puerto Rico ANGs airlift wing and the Virgin Islands ANGs civil engineering squadron are gained by the Air Mobility Command. The vast majority of ANG units fall under either ACC or AMC, established under Title 10 and Title 32 of the U. S. S. When not in a status, the Air National Guard operates under their respective state. The exception to rule is the District of Columbia Air National Guard. Because both state Air National Guard and the Air National Guard of the United States relatively go hand-in-hand, Air National Guard of the United States units or members may be called up for federal active duty in times of Congressionally sanctioned war or national emergency. The United States Air National Guard has about 110,000 men and women in service, even traditional part-time air guardsmen, especially pilots, navigators/combat systems officers, air battle managers and enlisted aircrew, often serve 100 or more man-days annually. As such, the concept of Air National Guard service as representing only one weekend a month, the Georgia Air National Guard and the Kansas Air National Guard previously flew the B-1B Lancer prior to converting to the E-8 Joint STARS and KC-135R Stratotanker, respectively. In addition, the 131st Fighter Wing of the Missouri Air National Guard transitioned from flying the F-15C/D Eagle at St and these proposals were eventually overruled and cancelled by the U. S. Congress. As state militia units, the units in the Air National Guard are not in the normal United States Air Force chain of command and they are under the jurisdiction of the United States National Guard Bureau unless they are federalized by order of the President of the United States. Air National Guard units are trained and equipped by the United States Air Force, the state ANG units, depending on their mission, are operationally gained by a major command of the USAF if federalized. Air National Guard personnel are expected to adhere to the moral and physical standards as their full-time active duty Air Force. The same ranks and insignia of the U. S. Air Force are used by the Air National Guard, the Air National Guard also bestows a number of state awards for local services rendered in a service members home state or equivalent. The creation of the regiments was caused by the perceived need to defend the Bay Colony against American Indians. This organization formed the basis of subsequent colonial and, post-independence, state and this distinction accounts for why there are no National Guard components in the U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps or U. S. Coast Guard
12.
Air Education and Training Command
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Air Education and Training Command was established 1 July 1993, with the realignment of the former Air Training Command and the extant Air University. It is one of the U. S. Air Forces ten major commands and reports to Headquarters, AETC is headquartered at Randolph Air Force Base, Texas. Its commander is Lieutenant General Darryl Roberson, with Lieutenant General Douglas H. Owens as vice commander and Chief Master Sergeant Gerardo Tapia, more than 48,000 active duty and Air Reserve Component members and 14,000 civilian personnel make up AETC. The command has responsibility for approximately 1,600 aircraft, AETCs mission is to recruit, train and educate Airmen to deliver air power for America. AETCs mission begins with the Air Force Recruiting Service, an AETC activity also headquartered at Randolph AFB, Texas. Recruiters in more than 1,000 offices worldwide recruit the men and women needed as both enlisted airmen and commissioned officers to meet the demands of the U. S. Air Force. AFRS recruitment of commissioned officers is limited to 4-year college/university graduates via Air Force Officer Training School, the first stop for all Regular Air Force, Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve Command enlisted personnel is Basic Military Training at Lackland AFB, Texas. More than 36,000 new airmen will complete this recently lengthened eight-and-a-half-week program each year, a recently established technical training institute at Fort Sam Houston, Texas, also conducts training in several medical career fields. Each base is responsible for a portion of formal technical training airmen require to accomplish the Air Force mission. 2 AF also conducts specialized training for military working dogs and dog handlers at Lackland AFB, Texas, for the entire Department of Defense and the Federal Aviation Administration. Additionally, the Inter-American Air Forces Academy at Lackland AFB hosts more than 160 courses in aviation specialties, taught in Spanish, the Air Education and Training Command, along with the USAF Academy, are responsible for teaching these principles throughout the Air Force. When AETC was established in 1993, Nineteenth Air Force was also established as a numbered air force to 2 AF within AETC. On 12 July 2012,19 AF was temporarily inactivated for budgetary reasons in an effort to gain efficiencies, Air Force pilot candidates begin their flying careers with Initial Flight Screening at Pueblo Memorial Airport, Colorado. S. Air Force Academy, Air Force ROTC and Air Force OTS and this program was terminated on 25 July 2013 with the graduation of the final USAF student pilot from primary training at NAS Whiting Field. S. Air Force and various European air forces, during the primary phase, students master contact, instrument, low-level and formation flying. After the primary phase of SUPT and ENJJPT, student pilots elect one of three advanced training tracks based on their class standing and those qualified for fighter or bomber assignments are assigned to the fighter/bomber track and train in the T-38 Talon at the SUPT and ENJJPT bases. Following completion of the track, graduates will be assigned to the A-10, F-15 Eagle, F-15E Strike Eagle, F-16, F-22 and F-35, B-1. NOTE, The U-2 is not an option for new graduates of the Fighter/Bomber track, prospective U-2 pilots must be qualified in another fighter, bomber, reconnaissance or mobility aircraft before applying to fly the U-2
13.
Lockheed C-5 Galaxy
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The Lockheed C-5 Galaxy is a large military transport aircraft originally designed and built by Lockheed, and now maintained and upgraded by its successor, Lockheed Martin. It provides the United States Air Force with a heavy strategic airlift capability, one that can carry outsize and oversize loads. The Galaxy has many similarities to its smaller Lockheed C-141 Starlifter predecessor, the C-5 is among the largest military aircraft in the world. The C-5 Galaxys development was complicated, including significant cost overruns, shortly after entering service, cracks in the wings of many aircraft were discovered and the C-5 fleet was restricted in capability until corrective work was completed. The C-5M Super Galaxy is a version with new engines. The USAF has operated the C-5 since 1969, the Galaxy has also been used to distribute humanitarian aid and disaster relief, and supported the US Space Shuttle program. In 1961, several companies began studying heavy jet transport designs that would replace the Douglas C-133 Cargomaster. These studies led to the CX-4 design concept, but in 1962 the proposed design was rejected. By late 1963, the conceptual design was named CX-X. It was equipped with four engines, instead of six engines in the earlier CX-4 concept, the CX-X had a gross weight of 550,000 pounds, a maximum payload of 180,000 lb and a speed of Mach 0.75. The cargo compartment was 17.2 ft wide by 13.5 feet high and 100 ft long with front, to meet the power and range specifications with only four engines required a new engine with dramatically improved fuel efficiency. The criteria were finalized and an official request for proposal was issued in April 1964 for the Heavy Logistics System, in May 1964, proposals for aircraft were received from Boeing, Douglas, General Dynamics, Lockheed, and Martin Marietta. General Electric, Curtiss-Wright, and Pratt & Whitney submitted proposals for the engines, after a downselect, Boeing, Douglas and Lockheed were given one-year study contracts for the airframe, along with General Electric and Pratt & Whitney for the engines. All three of the designs shared a number of features, the cockpit was placed well above the cargo area to allow for cargo loading through a nose door. All of the designs had swept wings, as well as front, Lockheeds design featured a T-tail, while the designs by Boeing and Douglas had conventional tails. The Air Force considered Boeings design to be better than that of Lockheed, Lockheed was selected the winner in September 1965, then awarded a contract in December 1965. General Electrics TF39 engine was selected in August 1965 to power the new transport plane, the first C-5A Galaxy was rolled out of the manufacturing plant in Marietta, Georgia, on 2 March 1968. On 30 June 1968, flight testing of the C-5A began with the first flight, flown by Leo Sullivan, flight tests revealed that the aircraft exhibited a higher drag divergence Mach number than predicted by wind tunnel data
14.
Boeing C-17 Globemaster III
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The Boeing C-17 Globemaster III is a large military transport aircraft. It was developed for the United States Air Force from the 1980s to the early 1990s by McDonnell Douglas, the C-17 carries forward the name of two previous piston-engined military cargo aircraft, the Douglas C-74 Globemaster and the Douglas C-124 Globemaster II. The C-17 commonly performs tactical and strategic missions, transporting troops and cargo throughout the world, additional roles include medical evacuation. It was designed to replace the Lockheed C-141 Starlifter, and also some of the duties of the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy. Boeing, which merged with McDonnell Douglas in the 1990s, continued to manufacture C-17s for export customers following the end of deliveries to the U. S. Air Force. Aside from the United States, the C-17 is in service with the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, NATO Heavy Airlift Wing, India, the final C-17 was completed at the Long Beach, California plant and flown on 29 November 2015. In the 1970s, the U. S. Air Force began looking for a replacement for its Lockheed C-130 Hercules tactical cargo aircraft, the Advanced Medium STOL Transport competition was held, with Boeing proposing the YC-14, and McDonnell Douglas proposing the YC-15. Though both entrants exceeded specified requirements, the AMST competition was canceled before a winner was selected, the Air Force started the C-X program in November 1979 to develop a larger AMST with longer range to augment its strategic airlift. By 1980, the USAF found itself with a fleet of aging C-141 Starlifter cargo aircraft. Compounding matters, USAF needed increased strategic airlift capabilities to fulfill its rapid-deployment airlift requirements, the USAF set mission requirements and released a request for proposals for C-X in October 1980. McDonnell Douglas elected to develop a new aircraft based on the YC-15, Boeing bid an enlarged three-engine version of its AMST YC-14. Lockheed submitted two designs, a C-5-based design and an enlarged C-141 design, on 28 August 1981, McDonnell Douglas was chosen to build its proposed aircraft, then designated C-17. Compared to the YC-15, the new aircraft differed in having swept wings, increased size and this would allow it to perform the work done by the C-141, and to fulfill some of the duties of the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, freeing the C-5 fleet for outsize cargo. Alternate proposals were pursued to fill airlift needs after the C-X contest and these were lengthening of C-141As into C-141Bs, ordering more C-5s, continued purchases of KC-10s, and expansion of the Civil Reserve Air Fleet. Limited budgets reduced program funding, requiring a delay of four years, during this time contracts were awarded for preliminary design work and for the completion of engine certification. In December 1985, a development contract was awarded. At this time, first flight was planned for 1990, the Air Force had formed a requirement for 210 aircraft. Development problems and limited funding caused delays in the late 1980s, criticisms were made of the developing aircraft and questions were raised about more cost-effective alternatives during this time
15.
Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker
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The Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker is a military aerial refueling aircraft. It and the Boeing 707 airliner were developed from the Boeing 367-80 prototype and it is the predominant variant of the C-135 Stratolifter family of transport aircraft. The KC-135 was the US Air Forces first jet-powered refueling tanker, the KC-135 entered service with the United States Air Force in 1957, it is one of six military fixed-wing aircraft with over 50 years of continuous service with its original operator. The KC-135 is supplemented by the larger KC-10, studies have concluded that many of the aircraft could be flown until 2040, although maintenance costs have greatly increased. The aircraft will eventually be replaced by the Boeing KC-46 Pegasus, like its sibling, the commercial Boeing 707 jet airliner, the KC-135 was derived from the Boeing 367-80 jet transport proof of concept demonstrator, which was commonly called the Dash-80. The KC-135 is similar in appearance to the 707, but has a fuselage and is shorter than the 707. The KC-135 predates the 707, and is quite different from the civilian airliner. Boeing gave the future KC-135 tanker the initial designation Model 717, in 1954 USAFs Strategic Air Command held a competition for a jet-powered aerial refueling tanker. Lockheeds tanker version of the proposed Lockheed L-193 airliner with rear fuselage-mounted engines was declared the winner in 1955, in the end, orders for the Lockheed tanker were dropped rather than supporting two tanker designs. Lockheed never produced its jet airliner, while Boeing would eventually dominate the market with a family of airliners based on the 707. In 1954, the Air Force placed an order for 29 KC-135As. The first aircraft flew in August 1956 and the initial production Stratotanker was delivered to Castle Air Force Base, California, the last KC-135 was delivered to the Air Force in 1965. These basic features make it resemble the commercial Boeing 707 and 720 aircraft. The USAF EC-135 Looking Glass was subsequently replaced in its role by the U. S. Navy E-6 Mercury aircraft, the KC-135Q variant was modified to carry JP-7 fuel necessary for the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, segregating the JP-7 from the KC-135s own fuel supply. The tanker also had special fuel systems for moving the different fuels between different tanks, the only external difference between a KC-135R and a KC-135T is the presence of a clear window on the underside of the empennage of the KC-135T where a remote controlled searchlight is mounted. It also has two ground refueling ports, located in rear wheel well so ground crews can fuel both the body tanks and wing tanks separately. Eight KC-135R aircraft are receiver-capable tankers, commonly referred to as KC-135R, All eight aircraft were with the 22d Air Refueling Wing at McConnell AFB, Kansas, in 1994. They are primarily used for extension and Special Operations missions
16.
Douglas C-124 Globemaster II
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The Douglas C-124 Globemaster II, nicknamed Old Shaky, was a heavy-lift cargo aircraft built by the Douglas Aircraft Company in Long Beach, California. The C-124 was the primary transport for United States Air Force Military Air Transport Service during the 1950s and early 1960s. It served in MATS-gained, later Military Airlift Command -gained, units of the Air Force Reserve, Douglas Aircraft developed the C-124 from 1947 to 1949, from a prototype they created from a World War II–design Douglas C-74 Globemaster, and based on lessons learned during the Berlin Airlift. The aircraft was powered by four large Pratt & Whitney R-4360 piston engines producing 3,800 hp each, the C-124s design featured two large clamshell doors and a hydraulically actuated ramp in the nose as well as a cargo elevator under the aft fuselage. The C-124 was capable of carrying 68,500 lb of cargo, and it was the only aircraft of its time capable of transporting heavy equipment such as tanks and bulldozers without disassembly. The C-124 first flew on 27 November 1949, with the C-124A being delivered from May 1950, the C-124C was next, featuring more powerful engines, and an APS-42 weather radar fitted in a thimble-like structure on the nose. Wingtip-mounted combustion heaters were added to heat the cabin, and enable wing, the C-124As were later equipped with these improvements. One C-124C, 52-1069, c/n 43978, was used as a JC-124C, for testing the 15,000 shp Pratt & Whitney XT57 turboprop, first deliveries of the 448 production aircraft began in May 1950 and continued until 1955. The C-124 was operational during the Korean War, and was used to assist supply operations for Operation Deep Freeze in Antarctica. They performed heavy lift cargo operations for the US military worldwide, including flights to Southeast Asia, Africa, from 1959 to 1961 they transported Thor missiles across the Atlantic to England. The C-124 was also used extensively during the Vietnam War transporting materiel from the U. S. to Vietnam, until the C-5A became operational, the C-124, and its sister C-133 Cargomaster were the only aircraft available that could transport very large loads. The United States Air Forces Strategic Air Command was the operator of the C-124 Globemaster. Four squadrons operated the type, consisting of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and their primary duty was to transport nuclear weapons between air bases and to provide airlift of SAC personnel and equipment during exercises and overseas deployments. The Military Air Transport Service was the operator until January 1966. The first ANG unit to receive the C-124C, the 165th Tactical Airlift Group of the Georgia Air National Guard, was the last Air Force unit to retire their aircraft in September 1974. YC-124 Prototype rebuilt from a C-74 with a new fuselage and powered by four 3,500 hp R-4360-39 engines, YC-124A Prototype YC-124 re-engined with four 3,800 hp R-4360-35A engines. C-124A Douglas Model 1129A, production version with four 3,500 hp R-4360-20WA engines,204 built, most retrofitted later with nose-radar and combustion heaters in wingtip fairings. C-124C Douglas Model 1317, same as C-124A but with four 3,800 hp R-4360-63A engines, nose radar, wingtip combustion heaters and they began jettisoning the crates and announced they were ditching
17.
Douglas C-133 Cargomaster
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The Douglas C-133 Cargomaster was a large turboprop cargo aircraft built between 1956 and 1961 by the Douglas Aircraft Company for use with the United States Air Force. The C-133 was the USAFs only production turboprop-powered strategic airlifter, entering service shortly after the Lockheed C-130 Hercules and it provided airlift services in a wide range of applications, being replaced by the C-5 Galaxy in the early 1970s. The C-133 was designed to meet the requirements for the USAFs Logistic Carrier Support System SS402L for a new strategic transport, the aircraft differed considerably from the C-74 Globemaster and C-124 Globemaster IIs that had preceded it. The cargo compartment was pressurized, heated, and ventilated, the Cargomasters went directly into production as C-133A, no prototypes were built. The first Cargomaster flew on 23 April 1956, the first C-133As were delivered to the Military Air Transport Service in August 1957 and began flying MATS air routes throughout the world. Two C-133s established transatlantic speed records for aircraft on their first flights to Europe. The fleet of 50 aircraft proved itself invaluable during the Vietnam War, the Cargomaster soldiered on until the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy entered service in the early 1970s. The C-133 was then retired and most airplanes were cut up within months of being delivered to Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Tucson, Arizona, fifty aircraft were constructed and put into service with the USAF. A single C-133A and a C-133B were built and kept at Douglas Long Beach as test articles and they had no construction numbers or USAF tail numbers. The C-133 had large doors and side doors and a large. Several hundred Minuteman and other ICBMs were airlifted to and from their bases by C-133s. The C-133 also transported Atlas, Saturn and Titan rockets to Cape Canaveral for use as launch boosters in the Gemini, Mercury and Apollo space programs. After the Apollo capsules splashed down, they were airlifted in C-133s from Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia or Hickam AFB, Hawaii to Ellington AFB, Texas, the C-133 was for many years the only USAF aircraft capable of hauling very large or very heavy cargo. The C-133 continued in service after the formation of the USAFs Military Airlift Command on 1 January 1966, by 1971, shortly before the introduction of the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy, the Cargomaster was obsolete as well as being worn out, and all were withdrawn from service in 1971. The C-133 was originally a 10, 000-hour airframe that had been life-extended to 19,000 hours, severe vibration had caused critical stress corrosion of the airframes to the point that the aircraft were beyond economical operation any longer. The Air Force managed to keep as many of the C-133 fleet in service as possible until the C-5 finally entered squadron service, C-133s set a number of unofficial records, including records for military transport aircraft on trans-Atlantic and trans-Pacific routes. Among the longest were non-stop flights from Tachikawa Airfield, Japan, to Travis Air Force Base, California and Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii to Dover Air Force Base, Delaware in about 16 hours. The only FAI officially-sanctioned record was in December 1958, when C-133A62008 lifted a payload of 117,900 lb to an altitude of 10,000 ft at Dover Air Force Base, Delaware
18.
Boeing C-135 Stratolifter
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The Boeing C-135 Stratolifter is a transport aircraft derived from the prototype Boeing 367-80 jet airliner in the early 1950s. It has a fuselage and is shorter than the 707. Boeing gave the aircraft the designation of Model 717. Since the first one was built in August 1956, the C-135, a large majority of the 820 units were developed as KC-135A Stratotankers for mid-air refueling. However, they have performed numerous transport and special-duty functions. Forty-five base-model aircraft were built as C-135A or C-135B transports with the tanking equipment excluded, as is the case with the KC-135, the C-135 is also recognized as the Model 717 by Boeing. Fifteen C-135As, powered by Pratt & Whitney J57 turbojets, were built, in later years, almost all were upgraded with Pratt & Whitney TF33 turbofan engines and wide-span tail planes, and were re-designated C-135E. Most were converted to special roles, including airborne command posts, missile-tracking platforms, and VIP transports. Thirty C-135Bs were built with the TF33 turbofans and wide-span tail planes from the start, ten were modified for a weather reconnaissance role and designated WC-135B Stratolifter. Additional airframes were converted to RC-135s from the 1970s to 2006, the C-135C designation applies to three WC-135B weather reconnaissance aircraft, which reverted to transport status. Most of the other C-135Bs were converted to various special mission variants following their service with the Military Airlift Command, developmental tests using this aircraft have demonstrated the capability to fly precision approaches using a local area differential GPS system. This modified C-135 has been fitted with a millimeter wave camera, Speckled Trout is the official name of a combined SAF/CSAF support mission and concurrent test mission. It was also the nickname given to a modified C-135C, serial number 61-2669, that was used by the Secretary. The 412th Flight Test Squadron of the Air Force Material Command at Edwards AFB, California operated the C-135 Speckled Trout airframe, the name Speckled Trout applies to both the organization and the aircraft. The name was chosen in honor of a program monitor, Faye Trout. The word speckled was added because Trout apparently had a lot of freckles, Speckled Trout acquired the C-135C, serial number 61-2669, in 1974 and retired the aircraft on 13 January 2006. The current KC-135R Speckled Trout also supports additional tests and air refueling requirements that the C-135C could not, the C-135F were new-built aircraft used by France as dual-role tanker/cargo and troop carrier aircraft. C-135A Cargo/passenger variant of the KC-135A with seating for 126 passengers and it is given the Boeing model number 717-157
19.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
20.
Boeing
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The Boeing Company is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, and satellites worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support services, Boeing stock is a component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The Boeing Companys corporate headquarters are located in Chicago and the company is led by President, Boeing is organized into five primary divisions, Boeing Commercial Airplanes, Boeing Defense, Space & Security, Engineering, Operations & Technology, Boeing Capital, and Boeing Shared Services Group. Boeing bought Heaths shipyard in Seattle on the Duwamish River, which became his first airplane factory. Boeing was incorporated in Seattle by William Boeing, on July 15,1916, Boeing was later incorporated in Delaware, the original Certificate of Incorporation was filed with the Secretary of State of Delaware on July 19,1934. Boeing, who studied at Yale University, worked initially in the timber industry and this knowledge proved invaluable in his subsequent design and assembly of airplanes. The company stayed in Seattle to take advantage of the supply of spruce wood. William Boeing founded his company a few months after the June 15 maiden flight of one of the two B&W seaplanes built with the assistance of George Conrad Westervelt, a U. S. Navy engineer. Boeing and Westervelt decided to build the B&W seaplane after having flown in a Curtiss aircraft, Boeing bought a Glenn Martin Flying Birdcage seaplane and was taught to fly by Glenn Martin himself. Boeing soon crashed the Birdcage and when Martin informed Boeing that replacement parts would not become available for months, Westervelt agreed to build a better airplane and soon produced the B&W Seaplane. This first Boeing airplane was assembled in a hangar located on the northeast shore of Seattles Lake Union. Many of Boeings early planes were seaplanes, on April 6,1917, the U. S. declared War on Germany and later in the year entered World War I. On May 9,1917, the became the Boeing Airplane Company. With the U. S. entering the war, Boeing knew that the U. S. Navy needed seaplanes for training, so Boeing shipped two new Model Cs to Pensacola, Florida, where the planes were flown for the Navy. The Navy liked the Model C and ordered 50 more, the company moved its operations to a larger former shipbuilding facility known as Boeing Plant 1, located on the lower Duwamish River, Washington state. Others, including Boeing, started selling other products, Boeing built dressers, counters, and furniture, along with flat-bottom boats called Sea Sleds. In 1919 the Boeing B-1, flying boat made its first flight and it accommodated one pilot and two passengers and some mail. Over the course of eight years, it made international airmail flights from Seattle to Victoria, on May 24,1920, the Boeing Model 8 made its first flight
21.
General Dynamics
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General Dynamics Corporation is an American aerospace and defense multinational corporation. Formed by mergers and divestitures, it is the worlds fifth-largest defense contractor based on 2012 revenues, General Dynamics is headquartered in West Falls Church, Fairfax County, Virginia. The company has changed markedly in the post–Cold War era of defense consolidation and it has four main business segments, Marine Systems, Combat Systems, Information Systems Technology, and Aerospace. General Dynamics former Fort Worth Division manufactured one of the Western worlds most-produced jet fighters, the F-16 Fighting Falcon—until 1993, in 1999, the company re-entered the airframe business with its purchase of Gulfstream Aerospace. General Dynamics traces its ancestry to John Philip Hollands Holland Torpedo Boat Company and this company was responsible for developing the U. S. Navys first submarines built at Lewis Nixons Crescent Shipyard, located in Elizabethport, New Jersey. The revolutionary submarine boat Holland VI was built there, its keel being laid down in 1896, crescents superintendent and naval architect, Arthur Leopold Busch, supervised the construction of this submarine. After being launched on 17 May 1897, it was purchased by the Navy. The Holland was officially commissioned on 12 October 1900 and became the United States Navys first submarine, the Navy placed an order for more submarines, which were developed in rapid succession and were assembled at two different locations on both coasts. These submarines were known as the A-Class or Adder Class, Holland effectively lost control of the company and found himself earning a salary of $90 a week as chief engineer, while the company that he founded was selling submarines for $300,000 each. Holland resigned from the company effective April 1904, rice became Electric Boats first President, remaining there from that time until 1915 when he stepped down just prior to his death on 2 November 1915. Electric Boat gained a reputation for unscrupulous arms dealing in 1904-05, when it sold submarines to Japans Imperial Japanese Navy and Russias Imperial Russian Navy, who were then at war. Holland submarines were sold to the British Royal Navy through the English armaments company Vickers. The new pioneering craft originally developed by the company was now legitimized as genuine naval weapons by the worlds most powerful navies. In the post-World War II wind-down, Electric Boat was cash-flush but lacking in work, hoping to diversify, president and chief executive officer John Jay Hopkins started looking for companies that would fit into Electric Boats market. Hopkins quickly found that Canadair, owned by the Canadian government, was suffering from similar post-war malaise and was up for sale, Hopkins bought the company for $10 million in 1946. Even by the Canadian governments calculations, the factory alone was more than $22 million. When Electric Boat purchased Canadair, its line and inventory systems were in disorder. Hopkins hired Canadian-born mass-production specialist H. Oliver West to take over the presidents role, as defense spending increased with the onset of the Cold War, Canadair went on to win many Canadian military contracts for the Royal Canadian Air Force, and became a major aerospace company
22.
436th Airlift Wing
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The 436th Airlift Wing is an active United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the Air Mobility Command Eighteenth Air Force, known as the Eagle Wing, the 436 AW consists of the operations, logistics, support, and medical groups, in addition to 12 divisions and two detachments. The wing has over 4,000 active-duty military and civilian employees, the 436th is the only combat-ready C-5 Galaxy wing capable of employing airdrop and special operations tactics in support of worldwide airlift. Additionally, the Eagle Wing operates the largest and busiest aerial port in the Department of Defense with its passenger terminal moving over 100,000 passengers in 1998. In between, ordered to service and inactivated almost immediately, personnel serving as fillers for other USAF units during the Korean War. In January 1966 the 436th was again activated at Dover Air Force Base, the wing initially flew strategic airlift missions with propeller-driven C-124 Globemaster II and C-133 Cargomaster aircraft. However the C-124s were replaced by C-141 Starlifter jet transports in the late 1960s, and the C-133s were replaced by the C-5 Galaxy in 1971. In 1973, the 436th exchanged their C-141s with the 437th Military Airlift Wing at Charleston AFB, South Carolina, during the Vietnam War, the wing flew numerous missions to Southeast Asia, although the wing flew routes worldwide to Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. It participated in joint training with U. S. Army, taking part in tactical exercises in the United States and overseas. Wing aircrews were also augmented by attached Reserve aircrews from the 512th Airlift Wing and it airlifted personnel and equipment for operations in Grenada,24 October 1983 –18 December 1983, and Panama,19 December 1989-14 January 1990. The 436th deployed an Airlift Control Element at Tocumen International Airport and it also provided airlift of personnel and equipment, and logistical support for operations in Southwest Asia, August 1990-May 1991. The wings 436th Operations Group, is Air Mobility Commands main active-duty heavy-lift organization, flying missions worldwide, and supporting combat operations in Southwest Asia and in Afghanistan. On 26 April,2015, the wing and its associate 512th Airlift Wing dispatched the first USAF aircraft, a Dover C-17, carrying cargo and personnel for humanitarian aid following the earthquake in Nepal. The plane carried a United States Agency for International Development Disaster Assistance Response Team, the history of Dover Air Force Base and the heritage of the 436th Airlift Wing. Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage & Honors Histories 1947-1977, washington, DC, Office of Air Force History. USAFHRA 436th Airlift Wing Factsheet Aircraft Serial Number Search Dover AFB Home Page
23.
Brisbane Airport
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Brisbane Airport is the primary international airport serving Brisbane and South East Queensland. It is the third busiest Australian airport by aircraft movements, the airport services 26 airlines flying to 42 domestic and 28 international destinations, in total amounting in more than 22.3 million passengers who travelled through the airport in 2015. Brisbane Airport is a hub for Virgin Australia, and a secondary hub for both Qantas and its low cost subsidiary Jetstar. Tigerair Australia also opened a base at Brisbane Airport on 11 March 2014, Brisbane has the third highest number of domestic connections in Australia following Sydney and Melbourne. It is also home to Qantas A330 and B737 heavy maintenance facilities, Virgin Australia has a smaller maintenance facility at the Airport, where line-maintenance on the Airlines 737 fleet is performed. Other airlines, namely QantasLink, and Alliance Airlines also conduct maintenance at their facilities at the Airport. The airport has international and domestic terminals, a cargo terminal. Although Qantas started operations there in 1926, most of the flights in Brisbane operated at the Archerfield Airport, while in operation, Charles Kingsford Smith landed there on 9 June 1928, after completing the first trans-pacific flight in his Fokker F. VII, the Southern Cross. There is now a museum containing the aircraft, along with a memorial located within the Brisbane Airport precinct. During the Second World War, Brisbane was the headquarters of the Supreme Commander of Allied forces in the South West Pacific Area, General Douglas MacArthur. The United States armed forces upgraded the airfield to cater for military flights, by the 1970s it was clear that the facilities at Eagle Farm Airport were inadequate for a city of Brisbanes size and anticipated growth. Many long-haul international services to Asia were required to make an en route stop, disadvantaging the city to lure prospective carriers, the TAA and Ansett domestic terminals at Eagle Farm Airport were reached from Lamington Avenue, near the Doomben Racecourse. The main runway ran from there to the north-east, and its north-east end survives as taxiway Papa of the present airport and this terminal is now the cargo terminal. Eagle Farm Airports runways were, Main Runway 04/222,365 m ×60 m and secondary runway 1,539 m ×30 m, in a T-shape, navigation aids were a VOR/DME beacon, a NDB, and an instrument landing system category one on runway 22. 2,421,109 passengers used the airport in 1977, much of the old Eagle Farm Airport disappeared under the Gateway Motorway. The Federal Government announced the construction of Brisbane Airport to be immediately north east of Eagle Farm Airport. The new airport was built by Leighton Holdings and opened in 1988 with a new domestic terminal, the new airport was built on the former Brisbane residential suburb of Cribb Island that was demolished to make way for the airport. Large amounts of sand were pumped from nearby Moreton Bay to raise the land above the tidal range
24.
Lyndon B. Johnson
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A Democrat from Texas, he previously served as a United States Representative from 1937 to 1949 and then as a United States Senator from 1949 to 1961. He spent six years as Senate Majority Leader, two as Senate Minority Leader, and two more as Senate Majority Whip, Johnson ran for the Democratic nomination in the 1960 presidential election. Although unsuccessful, he was chosen by then-Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts to be his running mate and they went on to win a close election over Richard Nixon and Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Johnson was sworn in as Vice President on January 20,1961. Two years and ten months later, on November 22,1963 and he successfully ran for a full term in the 1964 election, winning by a landslide over Republican opponent Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona. He is one of four people who have served as President, Vice President, Senator. Johnson was renowned for his personality and the Johnson treatment. Assisted in part by an economy, the War on Poverty helped millions of Americans rise above the poverty line during his administration. With the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, Johnson escalated American involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which granted Johnson the power to use force in Southeast Asia without having to ask for an official declaration of war. The number of American military personnel in Vietnam increased dramatically, from 16,000 advisors in non-combat roles in 1963 to 550,000 in early 1968, American casualties soared and the peace process bogged down. Growing unease with the war stimulated a large, angry antiwar movement based especially on university campuses in the U. S. and abroad. Johnson faced further troubles when summer riots broke out in most major cities after 1965, while he began his presidency with widespread approval, support for Johnson declined as the public became upset with both the war and the growing violence at home. In 1968, the Democratic Party factionalized as antiwar elements denounced Johnson, Republican Richard Nixon was elected to succeed him, as the New Deal coalition that had dominated presidential politics for 36 years collapsed. After he left office in January 1969, Johnson returned to his Texas ranch, historians argue that Johnsons presidency marked the peak of modern liberalism in the United States after the New Deal era. Johnson is ranked favorably by some historians because of his policies and the passage of many major laws, affecting civil rights, gun control, wilderness preservation. Lyndon Baines Johnson was born on August 27,1908, near Stonewall, Texas, in a farmhouse on the Pedernales River. Johnson had one brother, Sam Houston Johnson, and three sisters, Rebekah, Josefa, and Lucia, the nearby small town of Johnson City, Texas, was named after LBJs cousin, James Polk Johnson, whose forebears had moved west from Oglethorpe County, Georgia. Johnson had English, German, and Ulster Scots ancestry and he was maternally descended from pioneer Baptist clergyman George Washington Baines, who pastored eight churches in Texas, as well as others in Arkansas and Louisiana
25.
Pratt & Whitney JT3D
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The Pratt & Whitney JT3D is an early turbofan aircraft engine derived from the Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojet. It was first run in 1958 and was first flown in 1959 under a B-45 Tornado test aircraft, over 8,000 JT3Ds were produced between 1959 and 1985. Most JT3D engines still in service today are used on military aircraft, a 2-stage fan replaced the first 3 stages of the 9-stage JT3C LP compressor. On the LP turbine, the stage was enlarged and a third stage added. Unlike GE with the CJ805-23, Pratt & Whitney had not undertaken any transonic fan research prior to designing the JT3D, instead P&W designed a 2-stage unit based on some research they had done to support the J91 nuclear turbojet. Nevertheless, the overall P&W engine design was quite an elegant solution to produce a turbofan to compete with the Rolls-Royce Conway in a short timescale. Indeed,55 years later, the architecture of the JT3D can still be seen in modern large American civil turbofans, such as the GE90, PW4000. On the Boeing 707 the JT3D fan nacelle was relatively short, Pratt & Whitney provided a kit whereby JT3Cs could be converted to the JT3D standard in an overhaul shop. In 1959, important orders for the engine were the Boeing 707-120B and Boeing 720B when American Airlines ordered one 707 powered by JT3D turbofans, the earlier 707s had been powered by the turbojet JT3C and the improved efficiency of the turbofan soon attracted the airlines. A JT3D powered 707-123B and 720-023B entered service with American Airlines on the same day, the Boeing KC-135 Stratotankers were all originally powered by turbojet engines. Over 150 aircraft were modified and the former KC-135A were re-designated the KC-135E, after long service for both airlines and air forces the number of JT3D powered aircraft is steadily decreasing. 135 KC-135s use the JT3D while 354 were fitted with CFM International CFM56 engines which provide greater thrust, the noise of the JT3D is one of the reasons NATO has debated re-engining their E-3 Sentry AWACS fleet, since the aircraft are subject to restrictions that modern-engined aircraft are not. Another well known aircraft which is fitted with the JT3D is the Boeing B-52H Stratofortress, the H model of the B-52 was the only production variant of the famous bomber to be fitted with turbofan engines, and the only model remaining in US Air Force service
26.
LGM-30 Minuteman
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The LGM-30 Minuteman is a U. S. land-based intercontinental ballistic missile, in service with the Air Force Global Strike Command. As of 2016, the LGM-30G Minuteman III version is the only land-based ICBM in service in the United States, development of the Minuteman began in the mid-1950s as the outgrowth of basic research into solid fuel rocket motors which indicated an ICBM based on solids was possible. Such a missile could stand ready for extended periods of time with little maintenance, in comparison, existing U. S. missile designs using liquid fuels required a lengthy fueling process immediately before launch, which left them open to the possibility of surprise attack. This potential for immediate launch gave the missile its name, like the Revolutionary Wars Minutemen, Minuteman entered service in 1962 as a weapon tasked primarily with the deterrence role, threatening Soviet cities with a counterattack if the U. S. was attacked. However, with the development of the U. S, the Minuteman-II entered service in 1965 with a host of upgrades to improve its accuracy and survivability in the face of an anti-ballistic missile system the Soviets were known to be developing. Minuteman-III was the first multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle ICBM to be deployed, each missile can carry up to three nuclear warheads, which have a yield in the range of 300 to 500 kilotons. By February 2018 this will be reduced to 400 armed missiles, with 50 unarmed missiles in reserve, the Air Force plans to keep the missile in service until at least 2030. It is one component of the U. S. nuclear triad—the other two parts of the triad being the Trident submarine-launched ballistic missile, and nuclear weapons carried by long-range strategic bombers, Minuteman owes its existence largely to the efforts of then Air Force Colonel Edward N. Hall. Solid fuels were already used in rockets, but strictly for short-range uses. But Hall was convinced that they could be used for a true ICBM with 5,500 nautical miles range, to achieve the required energy, that year Hall began funding research at Boeing and Thiokol into the use of ammonium perchlorate composite propellant. Adapting a concept developed in the UK, they cast the fuel into large cylinders with a hole running along the inner axis. This allowed the fuel to burn along the length of the cylinder, rather than just the end as in earlier designs. The increased burn rate meant increased thrust, in comparison, older designs burned primarily from one end to the other, meaning that at any instant one small section of the fuselage was being subject to extreme loads and temperatures. Guidance of an ICBM is based not only on the direction the missile is travelling, too much thrust and the warhead will overshoot its target, too little and it will fall short. This appeared at first to be a problem, but in the end was solved in almost trivial fashion. A series of ports were added inside the nozzle that were opened when the guidance systems called for engine cut-off. The reduction in pressure was so abrupt that the last burning fuel ejected itself, the first to make use of these developments was not the Air Force, but the Navy. They had been involved in a joint program with the US Army to develop the liquid-fueled Jupiter missile and they felt that liquid fuels were too dangerous to use onboard ships, and especially submarines
27.
Apollo 11
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Apollo 11 was the spaceflight that landed the first two humans on the Moon. Mission commander Neil Armstrong and pilot Buzz Aldrin, both American, landed the lunar module Eagle on July 20,1969, at 20,18 UTC. Armstrong became the first to step onto the lunar surface six hours later on July 21 at 02,56,15 UTC and they spent about two and a quarter hours together outside the spacecraft, and collected 47.5 pounds of lunar material to bring back to Earth. Michael Collins piloted the command module Columbia alone in lunar orbit while they were on the Moons surface, Armstrong and Aldrin spent just under a day on the lunar surface before rendezvousing with Columbia in lunar orbit. Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center in Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16, and was the fifth manned mission of NASAs Apollo program. After being sent toward the Moon by the Saturn Vs upper stage, Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into the lunar module Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility. They stayed a total of about 21.5 hours on the lunar surface, the astronauts used Eagles upper stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that blasted them out of orbit on a trajectory back to Earth. They returned to Earth and landed in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience, Armstrong stepped onto the lunar surface and described the event as one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. Apollo 11 was the second all-veteran multi-person crew in human spaceflight history, a previous solo veteran flight had been made on Soyuz 1 in 1967 by Soviet cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov. Collins was originally slated to be the Command Module Pilot on Apollo 8 but was removed when he required surgery on his back and was replaced by Jim Lovell, his backup for that flight. In early 1969, Anders accepted a job with the National Space Council effective August 1969, charlie Duke, Capsule Communicator Ronald Evans Owen K. Garriott Don L. Low to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. During early mission planning, the names Snowcone and Haystack were used and put in the news release, the Command Module was named Columbia after the Columbiad, the giant cannon shell spacecraft fired by a giant cannon in Jules Vernes 1865 novel From the Earth to the Moon. The Lunar Module was named Eagle for the bird of the United States, the bald eagle. The Apollo 11 mission insignia was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for peaceful lunar landing by the United States and he chose an eagle as the symbol, put an olive branch in its beak, and drew a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. NASA officials said the talons of the eagle looked too warlike and after some discussion, All colors are natural, with blue and gold borders around the patch. When the Eisenhower dollar coin was released in 1971, the design provided the eagle for its reverse side. The design was used for the smaller Susan B
28.
Mobile Quarantine Facility
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The Mobile Quarantine Facility is a converted Airstream trailer used by NASA to quarantine astronauts returning from Apollo lunar missions. Its purpose was to prevent the spread of any contagions from the moon and it functioned by maintaining a lower pressure inside and filtering any air vented. The MQF contained living and sleeping facilities as well as communications which the astronauts used to converse with their families, the Apollo 11 crew also used this to speak with President Nixon who personally welcomed them back to Earth aboard the recovery ship USS Hornet after splashdown. The trailers housed the three crew as well as a doctor and an assistant for cleaning and cooking. Four MQFs were built for NASA, The quarantine requirement was eliminated following Apollo 14 once it was proven that the moon was void of life, film Footage of President Richard Nixon Speaking with the Apollo 11 Astronauts in their Mobile Quarantine Facility on the USS Hornet Crew transport vehicle
29.
Ellington Field Joint Reserve Base
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The host wing for the installation is the Texas Air National Guards 147th Reconnaissance Wing. Opened in 1917, Ellington Field was one of thirty-two Air Service training camps established after the United States entry into World War I. It is named for 1st Lt. Eric Ellington, a U. S. Army aviator who was killed in a crash in San Diego. The United States Air Forces 147th Reconnaissance Wing is an Air National Guard unit operationally-gained by the Air Combat Command, the 147 RW provides a 24/7 capability with MQ-1B Predator Unmanned Aerial Systems. A collocated Air Support Operations Squadron provides terminal control for weapons employment in a Close Air Support scenario, integrating combat air, new construction designated under the Grow the Army project was completed in 2010. The project consisted of ten buildings for the Army National Guard and reserve units, “This will be a tremendous cost benefit to the Army Reserve as travel and logistical costs will be streamlined, ” noted Major General Eldon Regua, 75th division commander. The $80 million construction project includes a 40, 000-square-foot Battle Command Training Center, a second Armed Forces Reserve Center with an assembly hall and offices, a Welcome Center, which will handle retention, recruitment and military identification services. In 1917, the U. S. government purchased 1,280 acres of land from Dr. R. W. Knox, the location, near Genoa Township in southeast Houston, was selected because the weather conditions were ideal for flight training. Soldiers from nearby Camp Logan briefly assisted with the construction of the airfield when civilian workers went on strike. Soon after construction began on the airfield, the base was named after Lt. Eric Lamar Ellington, the base, which consisted of a few hangars and some wooden headquarters buildings, was completed in a matter of months. In December, the first planes from Ellington Field flew over Houston for a benefit for the American Red Cross, a flight of ten JN-4s took off from grass runways and followed the interurban tracks stretching north from Genoa to Houston. Throngs of men, women, and children watched in amazement as the JN-4s flew overhead, the roar of the aircraft was almost drowned out by the wail of sirens and factory whistles as the planes passed over. As the planes circled the city, they dropped paper flyers for the American Red Cross, next, the formation flew to Camp Logan and then turned south toward Galveston Island. The entire flight took about an hour, during World War I, Ellington served as an advanced flight training base. As of 1918, Ellington had its own gunnery and bombing range on a peninsula in the Gulf of Mexico near San Leon. Within the year, however, this changed for the worse. By August 1918, Ellington Field recorded the most pilot fatalities of the 18 U. S. Army Air Service training bases in the United States, before the end of the war, approximately 5,000 men and 250 aircraft were assigned to the base. Ellington was considered surplus to requirements after World War I and the base was inactivated as an active duty airfield in January 1920, in May 1923, the War Department had ordered the small caretaker force at Ellington Field to dismantle all remaining structures and to sell them as surplus
30.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade
31.
Flying Tiger Line
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Flying Tiger Line, also known as Flying Tigers, was the first scheduled cargo airline in the United States and a major military charter operator during the Cold War era for both cargo and personnel. The airline was bought by Federal Express in 1988, the company was started by Robert William Prescott. It was headquartered on the grounds of Los Angeles International Airport in Westchester, Los Angeles, the airline was named after the Flying Tigers fighter unit of World War II, officially the 1st American Volunteer Group. The pilots and two ground crew provided half of the investment, with the balance coming from California oil tycoon Samuel B. The airline also played a role in the construction of the Distant Early Warning Line, flying equipment to remote outposts in northern Canada. Flying Tiger Line adopted the Canadair CL-44 swing-tail aircraft in 1961, in 1965, Flying Tiger Line began operating jet aircraft when on September,27, the first of four Boeing 707 was delivered. The Boeing 707 remained in the only few years, and later sold, upon arrival of the higher-payload Douglas DC-8. The first Douglas DC-8-63F registered as N779FT was delivered to the airline on June 26,1968, in 1974, the airline took delivery of its first Boeing 747. Tigers Ad Hoc Charter livestock flights provided airlift for exotic animals, two examples were thoroughbred racehorses and show animals from Stansted, England to the Melbourne Cup, as well as breeding stock cattle to nations such as Japan and Thailand. They became known for carrying a number of cargoes, including Shamu the SeaWorld killer whale. By the mid-1980s, Flying Tigers operated scheduled service to six continents. It surpassed Pan American World Airways in 1980 as the worlds largest air carrier after acquiring its rival cargo airline Seaboard World Airlines on 1 October 1980. Louis, Missouri via Japan, Alaska, and Los Angeles during the 1980s, at its peak, the Tigers employed approximately 251 flight attendants and carried up to a record 594 passengers and crew on its MAC all-coach passenger flights. Approximately 998 pilots worked for the airline based throughout the country, large crew bases were situated at Los Angeles, New York City and Lockbourne, Ohio. The Los Angeles headquarters operation included its own shop and jet maintenance business. Flying Tigers also made livestock carriers for airplanes, some comparable in external size and they even operated a recording company subsidiary, Happy Tiger Records, from 1969 to 1971. The scheduled Boeing 747 passenger service route was New York City JFK Airport - Brussels - Tel Aviv, then-CEO Stephen Wolf sold Flying Tigers to Federal Express in December 1988. On August 7,1989 Federal Express merged Flying Tigers into its operations, on January 7,1953, Flying Tiger Line Flight 841, a Douglas C-54, struck the base of Squak Mountain due to pilot error, killing all seven on board
32.
Slick Airways
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Slick Airways was a cargo airline from the United States, that operated scheduled and chartered flights between 1946 and 1966. The airline was founded by Earl Slick, a Texas aviator, the airline was formed in January 1946 as the air cargo division of the Slick Corporation, headquartered in San Antonio. Slick Airways had its original fleet of Curtiss C-46 Commando aircraft based at Lockheed Air Terminal, in 1949, scheduled freighter flights to domestic destinations were commenced, and by 1951, the company had become the largest all-cargo airline of the United States. On 16 April of that year, Slick Airways became the first airline to operate the freighter variant of the Douglas DC-6. In 1958, the company was forced to suspend all scheduled services, though it continued to charter flights on behalf of the United States Armed Forces. This operation was supplemented by Canadair CL-44s from 1962, in October 1962 scheduled flights were resumed, when Slick Airways was granted permanent permission to operate its transcontinental Route 101. The trunk routing went from either San Francisco or Burbank to Dallas, St. Louis, Chicago, Indianapolis, the DC-6 was used on side routes. Additionally, Slick Airways operated on so called Quicktrans domestic routes on behalf of the United States Navy, in 1965, the L-1049 was withdrawn from the Route 101 in favor of the CL-44. On 27 August 1965, scheduled flights once again were discontinued because of the financial situation Slick Airways was in. On 1 July 1966, Slick Airways was shut down, in total,19 people lost their lives. In 1947, three of the companys Curtiss C-46 Commando aircraft crashed, on 14 February at 04,20 local time, the C-46 registered NC59486 crashed during a flawed ILS approach into Stapleton Airfield, killing the two pilots. On 17 September at 11,12, another C-46 was destroyed in an accident at Lockheed Air Terminal in Burbank. On its flight from Denver, the crew had encountered strong headwinds, an emergency landing was carried out on a taxiway, and the aircraft skidded across an adjacent highway and railroad track. On 16 May 1948, the two pilots of a C-46 were killed when the aircraft crashed near Port Columbus International Airport at 20,42. They had been flying from New York City to Chicago, when they encountered severe turbulences, in which the rudder of the plane was damaged, rendering it uncontrollable. On 9 October 1949 at 17,54, another C-46 crashed whilst approaching Cheyenne Regional Airport in heavy winds and icing conditions, on 23 February 1951, another C-46 encountered severe icing during a flight from Burbank to San Francisco. The pilots carried out a landing on a highway near Newhall. This time, there were no fatalities, on 4 March 1953, a Slick Airways C-46 crashed during approach of Windsor Locks-Bradley Field on a flight from New York City, killing the two pilots
33.
Tinker Air Force Base
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Tinker Air Force Base is a major United States Air Force base, with tenant U. S. Navy and other Department of Defense missions, located geographically in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. The base, originally known as Midwest Air Depot, is named in honor of Oklahoma native Major General Clarence L. Tinker, the commander of OC-ALC is Lieutenant General Bruce A. Litchfield. The host unit at Tinker is the 72d Air Base Wing which provides services and support for the Oklahoma City Air Logistics Center, the Wing and Installation Commander of Tinker Air Force Base is Col. Stephanie Wilson. Tinker AFB is home to major Department of Defense, Air Force, the Oklahoma City Air Logistics Complex is the largest air logistics center in the Air Force Materiel Command. It provides depot maintenance, product support, services and supply chain management and it is the contracting office for the Air Forces Contract Field Teams program. The 72d Air Base Wing is a multi-unit, multi-mission wing that includes base services and support for the Oklahoma City Air Logistics Center, associate organizations, dependents, and retirees. Oklahoma Wing Civil Air Patrol Headquarters is located at the base ops building, the Flying Castle Composite Squadron is a Civil Air Patrol squadron that is composed of cadet and senior members that meet Tuesday evenings. The 552d Air Control Wing flies Air Combat Commands E-3 Sentry AWACS aircraft, the E-3s radar and other sensors provide deep-look surveillance, warning, interception control and airborne battle management. The 552 ACW encompasses 3 groups, 552d Operations Group, 552d Maintenance Group, two Air Reserve Component wings operate twelve KC-135R Stratotanker air refueling aircraft at Tinker. The aircraft are operationally gained by Air Mobility Command, but the two units have different administrative chains, the 507th Air Refueling Wing of the Air Force Reserve Command is one of two Air Force Reserve flying units in the state of Oklahoma and administratively reports to Fourth Air Force. As an associate unit, the 507 ARW also operates the Federal Aviation Administrations British Aerospace 125-800 aircraft in the aviation standards, the Oklahoma Air National Guards 137th Air Refueling Wing assumed an aerial refueling mission in 2008 in accordance with the 2005 BRAC Recommendations. The wing also operates facilities for E-6B aircraft at Travis AFB, California and Naval Air Station Patuxent River. Defense Mega Center Oklahoma City is the branch of the Defense Information Systems Agency. The Mega center operates computer systems for the base and serves 110 other bases in 46 states, support to the Air Logistics Center is primarily for programmed depot maintenance for aircraft and engines. DLA Document Services provides a portfolio of document services including traditional offset printing, on-demand printing. DLA Document Services locations in Oklahoma include Fort Sill in Lawton, Oklahoma, the McAlester Army Ammunition Plant, while these partnerships are technically separate facilities, Tinkers security perimeter is extended around these facilities. The MROTC is a 370-acre MRO facility, on the south east site of Tinker AFB, sharing runways, the facility currently houses three hangars, one leased by Boeing, a second hangar for 767 for lease, and a third hangar designed to accommodate Boeing 707-300 class aircraft. A 50-year lease-purchase agreement was executed in September 2008 between Oklahoma County and the Air Force, covering the 2.5 million square foot facility, previously, the largest single building at the base was Building 3001 at 1,300,000 square feet
34.
Travis Air Force Base
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The base is named for Brigadier General Robert F. Travis, who died in the crash of a B-29 Superfortress while transporting a nuclear weapon. The host unit at Travis AFB is the 60th Air Mobility Wing, the 60th AMW is the largest wing in the Air Forces Air Mobility Command, with a versatile fleet of C-5 Galaxies, KC-10 Extenders, and C-17 Globemaster III aircraft. Today, Travis AFB includes approximately 7,260 active USAF military personnel,4,250 Air Force Reserve personnel and 3,770 civilians. Travis AFB has an impact on the community as a number of military families and retirees have chosen to make Fairfield their permanent home. Travis AFB is the largest employer in the City and Solano County as well, the Base also contributes a large number of highly skilled people to the local labor pool. The facility has undergone numerous anti-terror upgrades since 9/11/01 including extensive installation of barriers, inspection stations. In September 2015, Nick Champi Enterprises of Hanford, California completed a 5-year project to install crash rated fencing, gates, and traffic controls at the main entrance to the facility. The base is also host to David Grant USAF Medical Center, a 265-bed, $200 million Air Force teaching hospital, Travis AFB also plays host to the Travis Air Force Base Heritage Center, one of the largest collections of military aircraft on the west coast. Museum of Military Aviation History, The Museum has a collection of American military aircraft from various periods, fighters, bombers, trainers, cargo. Originally named Fairfield-Suisun Army Air Base, construction began on Travis in June 1942, initially, Fourth Air Force intended to station medium attack bombers at the new air base, and in the autumn of 1942, some of its aircraft used the runways for practice landings. During this period, United States Navy planes also practiced maneuvers at the same field, for a few months, in fact, the outline of the deck of an aircraft carrier was painted on one runway. This helped newly commissioned Navy pilots, flying F6F Hellcats and SB2C Helldivers, practice carrier landings, despite its plans, Fourth Air Force never officially occupied the base. Its proximity to rail, highway, and water transportation plus its location near San Francisco figured heavily in this decision, ATC assigned the airfield to the West Coast Sector of its Pacific Wing. The first unit to take up permanent residence at the airfield was a group of ten enlisted men and these supply and food service workers arrived on 10 May 1943 to prepare the base for the arrival, in turn, of the first ATC personnel. One week later, on 17 May, ATC officially activated Fairfield-Suisun AAB, the bases primary mission during World War II was ferrying aircraft and supplies to the Pacific Theater. The installations first commander was Lt Col. Arthur Stevenson, by the end of World War II, Fairfield-Suisun AAB had become the West Coasts largest aerial port. The airlift of troops and supplies to occupied Japan and Korea, following the establishment of the United States Air Force as a separate service in 1947, the installation was renamed Fairfield-Suisun Air Force Base. On 1 June 1948, the Military Air Transport Service assumed jurisdiction of the base, in July, two of the bases air transport squadrons left for USAFE to assist in the Berlin Airlift
35.
Operation Deep Freeze
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The U. S. Navy already had a record of earlier exploration in Antarctica. As early as 1839, Captain Charles Wilkes led the first U. S. Naval expedition into Antarctic waters. In 1929, Admiral Richard E. Byrd established a base at Little America I, led an expedition to explore further inland. From 1934–35, the second Byrd Expedition explored much further inland, the third Byrd Expedition in 1940 charted the Ross Sea. Byrd was instrumental in the Navys Operation Highjump after World War II from 1946–47, in 1948, Commander Finn Ronne led an expedition that photographed over 450,000 square miles by air. Then in 1954–55, the icebreaker USS Atka made an expedition for future landing sites. The impetus behind Operation Deep Freeze I was the International Geophysical Year 1957–58, IGY as it was known was a collaborative effort among forty nations to carry out earth science studies from the North Pole to the South Pole and at points in between. The United States along with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, Japan, Norway, Chile, Argentina, and the U. S. S. R. agreed to go to the South Pole, the least explored area on Earth. Their goal was to advance knowledge of Antarctic hydrography and weather systems, glacial movements. The U. S. Navy was charged with supporting the U. S. scientists for their portion of the IGY studies, in 1955, Task Force 43 was formed to carry out this work. Operation Deep Freeze I prepared a permanent research station and paved the way for more research in later Deep Freeze operations. The expedition transpired over the Antarctic summer of November 1955 to April 1956, Dufek and others successfully landed an R4D Skytrain aircraft at the South Pole, as part of the expeditions mounted for the IGY. This was the first aircraft to land at the South Pole, the aircraft was named Que Sera, Sera after a popular song and is now on display at the Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida. This marked the beginning of the establishment of the first permanent base, by airlift, the Operation Deep Freeze activities were succeeded by Operation Deep Freeze II, and so on, continuing a constant US presence in Antarctica since that date. The Navys Antarctic Development Squadron Six had been flying the missions, the 109th operated ski-equipped LC-130s and had been flying some National Science Foundation support missions to Antarctica since 1988. It had flown scientific and military missions to Greenland and the Arctic since 1975, the Antarctic operation would be fully funded by the National Science Foundation. The 109th expected to add approximately 235 full-time personnel to support that operation, the possibility of the Air National Guard assuming operational control of the mission had first emerged in 1988. The 109th Airlift Wing had been notified that, almost overnight, the other sites would soon follow, and the 109th would be largely out of business because its primary mission had ended
36.
Yom Kippur War
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The fighting mostly took place in the Sinai and the Golan Heights, territories that had been occupied by Israel since the Six-Day War of 1967. Egyptian President Anwar Sadat wanted also to reopen the Suez Canal, neither specifically planned to destroy Israel, although the Israeli leaders could not be sure of that. Egyptian and Syrian forces crossed ceasefire lines to enter the Sinai Peninsula, both the United States and the Soviet Union initiated massive resupply efforts to their respective allies during the war, and this led to a near-confrontation between the two nuclear superpowers. The war began with a massive and successful Egyptian crossing of the Suez Canal, after crossing the cease-fire lines, Egyptian forces advanced virtually unopposed into the Sinai Peninsula. After three days, Israel had mobilized most of its forces and halted the Egyptian offensive, resulting in a military stalemate, the Syrians coordinated their attack on the Golan Heights to coincide with the Egyptian offensive and initially made threatening gains into Israeli-held territory. Within three days, however, Israeli forces had pushed the Syrians back to the ceasefire lines. The Israel Defense Forces then launched a four-day counter-offensive deep into Syria, within a week, Israeli artillery began to shell the outskirts of Damascus. He therefore ordered the Egyptians to go back on the offensive, on October 22 a United Nations–brokered ceasefire quickly unraveled, with each side blaming the other for the breach. By October 24, the Israelis had improved their positions considerably and completed their encirclement of Egypts Third Army and this development led to tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. As a result, a ceasefire was imposed cooperatively on October 25 to end the war. These changes paved the way for the subsequent peace process, the 1978 Camp David Accords that followed led to the return of the Sinai to Egypt and normalized relations—the first peaceful recognition of Israel by an Arab country. Egypt continued its drift away from the Soviet Union and left the Soviet sphere of influence entirely, the war was part of the Arab–Israeli conflict, an ongoing dispute that included many battles and wars since 1948, when the state of Israel was formed. During the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel had captured Egypts Sinai Peninsula, roughly half of Syrias Golan Heights, and the territories of the West Bank which had been held by Jordan since 1948. On June 19,1967, shortly after the Six-Day War, the Israeli government voted to return the Sinai to Egypt, the Arab position, as it emerged in September 1967 at the Khartoum Arab Summit, was to reject any peaceful settlement with the state of Israel. Prior to that, King Hussein of Jordan had stated that he could not rule out a possibility of a real, permanent peace between Israel and the Arab states. Armed hostilities continued on a limited scale after the Six-Day War and escalated into the War of Attrition, a ceasefire was signed in August 1970. President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt died in September 1970 and he was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. A peace initiative led by both Sadat and UN intermediary Gunnar Jarring was tabled in 1971 and it resembled a proposal independently made by Moshe Dayan
37.
Operation Nickel Grass
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Operation Nickel Grass was an overt strategic airlift and operation conducted by the United States to deliver weapons and supplies to Israel during the 1973 Yom Kippur War. The U. S. support helped ensure that Israel survived a coordinated and surprise attack from the Soviet-backed Arab Republic of Egypt and Syrian Arab Republic. Following a U. S. This, and the failure of major pricing. In an attempt to undermine the United States ally, the Arab states were trained, prepared and supplied by Moscow. The Soviet Union had supplied Egypt and Syria over 600 advanced surface-to-air missiles,300 MiG-21 fighters,1,200 tanks, a modest effort soon began, but Kissinger still hoped to keep any visible involvement at a minimum. Kissinger learned of this threatening nuclear escalation on the morning of 9 October, on that same day, Meir issued a personal appeal for military assistance, which European nations declined. U. S. President Richard Nixon, however, ordered the commencement of Operation Nickel Grass, the decision was taken the same day the Soviets began their own resupply operation of Arab forces by sea. Anecdotal evidence suggests that Kissinger had told Anwar El Sadat that the reason for the U. S. airlift was that the Israelis were close to going nuclear. However, subsequent interviews with Kissinger, James Schlesinger, and William Quandt suggested that the aspect was not a major factor in the decision to re-supply. These officials cited the ongoing Soviet re-supply effort and Sadats early rejection of a ceasefire as the primary motivators. Initially, only the Israeli national airline, El Al, provided transport, and supplies began to arrive in Israel on 10 October, nonetheless, it was soon clear that El Als limited supply of ill-configured passenger aircraft were insufficient. Still wanting to avoid direct US involvement, starting 10 October, none of these were willing to accept the job for fear of being refused entry to Arab nations after the war. On 12 October, Nixon decided that no more delays could be allowed, within nine hours, C-141s and C-5s were en route to Israel. Portugal seemed willing to help though, so aircraft were dispatched to Lajes Field in the Azores Islands, after a few hours in the air, word came through that Portugal would permit them to land, and Lajes became a key staging point for the rest of the airlift. Strategic Air Command KC-135As were the first to arrive at Lajes Air Base, louis, Missouri to Ben Gurion Airport. To comply with the demands of other European nations, even U. S. supplies already stationed in Europe were routed through Lajes, between Portugal and Israel, the aircraft had to follow an extremely precise route. Flying exactly along the border between hostile Arab nations to the south and European nations to the north, the transport craft flew down the middle of the Mediterranean Sea to Israel. Along the Mediterranean route, American ships were stationed every 300 miles, and these precautions appeared justified when unidentified Arab fighters made threats over the radio, but no conflict ensued
38.
Gulf War
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The Iraqi Armys occupation of Kuwait that began 2 August 1990 was met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. US President George H. W. Bush deployed US forces into Saudi Arabia, an array of nations joined the coalition, the largest military alliance since World War II. The great majority of the military forces were from the US, with Saudi Arabia, the United Kingdom. Kuwait and Saudi Arabia paid around US$32 billion of the US$60 billion cost, the war was marked by the introduction of live news broadcasts from the front lines of the battle, principally by the US network CNN. The war has also earned the nickname Video Game War after the daily broadcast of images from cameras on board US bombers during Operation Desert Storm. The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial and naval bombardment on 17 January 1991 and this was followed by a ground assault on 24 February. This was a victory for the coalition forces, who liberated Kuwait. The coalition ceased its advance, and declared a ceasefire 100 hours after the campaign started. Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel. The following names have been used to describe the conflict itself, Gulf War, a problem with these terms is that the usage is ambiguous, having now been applied to at least three conflicts, see Gulf War. The use of the term Persian Gulf is also disputed, see Persian Gulf naming dispute, with no consensus of naming, various publications have attempted to refine the name. Other language terms include French, la Guerre du Golfe and German, Golfkrieg, German, Zweiter Golfkrieg, French, most of the coalition states used various names for their operations and the wars operational phases. Operation Desert Storm was the US name of the conflict from 17 January 1991. Operation Desert Sabre was the US name for the offensive against the Iraqi Army in the Kuwaiti Theater of Operations from 24–28 February 1991, in itself. Operation Desert Farewell was the given to the return of US units and equipment to the US in 1991 after Kuwaits liberation. Operation Granby was the British name for British military activities during the operations, Opération Daguet was the French name for French military activities in the conflict. Operation Friction was the name of the Canadian operations Operazione Locusta was the Italian name for the operations, in addition, various phases of each operation may have a unique operational name. The US divided the conflict into three campaigns, Defense of Saudi Arabian country for the period 2 August 1990, through 16 January 1991
39.
437th Airlift Wing
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The 437th Airlift Wing is an active unit of the United States Air Force, assigned to 18th Air Force, Air Mobility Command. It is the wing at Charleston Air Force Base, Joint Base Charleston, in the City of North Charleston. The 437 AW is responsible for flying and maintaining the C-17 Globemaster III jet cargo aircraft, on 15 August 1950, the main contingent of the 437th Troop Carrier Wing was called up for active service in the Korean War. Moved to Shaw AFB, South Carolina, At that time 1,441 men were assigned to the 437th Troop Carrier Wing, on 15 October, the day before the 437th left Shaw, it got up to its full wartime strength of 1,569. Most of the men came from the Regular Air Force, including 60 from Sewart AFB, Tennessee. The Wing had a total of forty-eight C-46s, obtained from various units, augmented by a few maintenance personnel, the command and operations elements of the wing deployed their C-46s to Japan. They arrived at Brady AB, Kyushu, Japan, at sundown on 8 November, just as the body of the wing. The maintenance force quickly removed the fuel tanks which had been installed for the overwater flight. The 437th Troop Carrier Wing conducted operations for Combat Cargo Command, during the last 52 days of 1950, the wing flew almost 3,500 hours, conducting more than 1,500 effective combat sorties carrying passengers, cargo, or patients. When the 437th arrived in the theater, United Nations forces were driving north, as the Chinese Communist forces struck south, however, the 437th helped evacuate these bases. Soon 437th aircrews were helping move everything out of the airstrips near Pyongyang, in December 1950, the 437th acquired the responsibility for conducting Combat Cargo Conmand’s scheduled courier operation, connecting all the major Japanese and Korean air bases and strips. As the U. N. forces pressed their attack in the months of 1951. On 24 February the 437th conducted the first of many missions to resupply frontline U. S, the wing participated in its first combat personnel airborne drop on March 23,1951, at Munsan-ni. The unit and the C-119 Flying Boxcar-equipped 314th Troop Carrier Wing conducted an intensive training preparing to drop the 187th Regimental Combat Team at Chunchon. Then on 21 March, forty-eight hours before it was to go, the 187th was now to be dropped at Munsan-ni instead of Chunchon, and that, on the morning of the 23d, not the 21st. In addition to 55 C-46s, the 437th provided several members who had recently transitioned into C-119s to augment the 314ths crews. The wing’s planes dropped 1,446 troops and 15 1/2 tons of ammunition, food, enemy interference was meager, and the wing suffered no injuries to personnel nor damage to aircraft. On 25 January 1951, Far East Air Forces discontinued Combat Cargo Command, like its predecessor, the 315th was directly subordinated to Far East Air Forces
40.
Charleston Air Force Base
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Charleston Air Force Base is a United States military facility located in the City of North Charleston, South Carolina. The facility is under the jurisdiction of the United States Air Forces 628th Air Base Wing and it is part of Joint Base Charleston, which combined Charleston Air Force Base with Naval Support Activity Charleston. The 437th Airlift Wing of the Air Mobility Command and the 315th Airlift Wing of the Air Force Reserve Command operate the C-17A Globemaster III from the base. The installation has also in the past maintained an alert site for rotational Air Combat Command, Charleston Air Force Base is home to the 628th Air Base Wing, the host wing for installation support. Additionally, they also provide expeditionary Airmen to combatant commanders in support of joint, the air base has four operational groups consisting of 21 squadrons and two wing staff directorates. It is augmented by a parallel, collocated Air Force Reserve Command associate wing, the 315th Airlift Wing, which shares the same C-17 aircraft with the 437 AW. In addition, the USAF Auxiliary / Civil Air Patrols Coastal Charleston Composite Squadron is also assigned to Charleston Field, utilizing the Charleston AFB Aero Club facility near the control tower. The history of Charleston Air Force Base began in 1919 when U. S. Army Colonel Herbert A. Dargue, then Chief of the Air Service, visited the area looking for a suitable landing field for aeroplanes. But it was Charles Lindberghs nonstop solo crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in 1927 that heightened city officials interest to air operations in Charleston. In 1928, the City of Charleston rented land and began operating a simple airfield about twelve miles north of city limits, foreseeing a commercial future in air travel, the city formed the Charleston Aircraft Corporation to acquire the land for a municipal airport. In May 1931, the corporation purchased 432 acres for $25,000 from the South Carolina Mining and Manufacturing Company, later in the year, the city acquired the airport facility for $60,000 and immediately began improvements. During the 1930s, airport operations expanded to keep pace with advances in general and commercial aviation being experienced throughout the country, despite the Great Depression, the Federal Government stepped in to assist the city with modernizing the airport. In 1935, the Works Progress Administration literally poured $313,000 into the airport, workers paved one 3, 500-foot-long runway and constructed a second 3, 000-foot one. The project also improved upon the existing lighting system with up-to-date field lighting, given the continuing growth in passenger aviation, Pan American Airways selected Charleston Airport as its western terminus for trans-Atlantic flights. Although this plan never came to fruition, it contributed to a increase in traffic for the airport. As a result, the city purchased 300 more acres of surrounding the airport for $300,000 in 1937 to accommodate additional service buildings. In 1939, with world tensions heightening, the United States Army Air Corps began a buildup of troops, bases. As a result, Charleston acquired more land in 1940 for additional improvements that included construction of a hangar
41.
445th Airlift Wing
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The 445th Airlift Wing is an Air Reserve Component of the United States Air Force. It is assigned to the Fourth Air Force, Air Force Reserve Command, stationed at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, if mobilized, the wing is gained by the Air Mobility Command. The 445th Airlift Wing flies the Boeing C-17 Globemaster III, the C-17 is capable of delivering troops and all types of cargo to main operating bases or directly to forward bases in the deployment area. Led by Colonel Adam Willis, the mission of the 445th Airlift Wing is to provide transport of personnel and equipment worldwide. The wing accomplishes this task by recruiting and training personnel to attain and maintain operational readiness, the wing is composed of nearly 2000 airmen, approximately separated into 250 officers and 1700 enlisted personnel. To facilitate day-to-day operations the wing employs approximately 350 Air Reserve Technicians who work full-time for the unit and its initial equipment was the North American T-6 Texan, which remained its primary aircraft until 1955. It began to receive North American F-51 Mustangs and Lockheed F-80 Shooting Stars the following year, the wing and its components moved to nearby Niagara Falls Municipal Airport, where it received Republic F-84 Thunderjets, in 1955. Despite the wings Fighter-Bomber designation, reserve fighter bomber wings had an air defense role if mobilized, in 1956, The Joint Chiefs of Staff were pressuring the Air Force to provide more wartime airlift. At the same time, about 150 Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcars became available from the active force, consequently, in November 1956 the Air Force directed Continental Air Command to convert three fighter bomber wings to the troop carrier mission by September 1957. In addition, within the Air Staff was a recommendation that the fighter mission given to the Air National Guard. Cuts in the budget in 1957 led to a reduction in the number of wings from 24 to 15. As a result of reductions, the 445ths fighter operations at Niagara Falls ceased. In November, the wing was replaced by a single squadron, the termination of reserve fighter operations at Niagara Falls did not end the wings life. Since 1955, the Air Force had been detaching Air Force Reserve squadrons from their parent wing locations to separate sites, communities were more likely to accept the smaller squadrons than the large wings and the location of separate squadrons in smaller population centers would facilitate recruiting and manning. The 701st, and 702d Troop Carrier Squadron were both stationed at Memphis Municipal Airport under what was called the Dispersed Squadron Concept and it was reorganized in September 1958 under the Dual Deputy model. The 445th Troop Carrier Group was inactivated, and the squadrons were assigned directly to the wing. Simultaneously, the wing was redesignated as a troop carrier organization. The wing initially trained with the 2589th Air Reserve Flying Center, but in 1958 and this weakness was demonstrated in the partial mobilization of reserve units during the Berlin Crisis of 1961
42.
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base
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Wright-Patterson Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base and census-designated place just east of Dayton, Ohio, in Greene and Montgomery counties. It includes both Wright and Patterson Fields, which were originally Wilbur Wright Field and Fairfield Aviation General Supply Depot, Patterson Field is approximately 10 miles northeast of Dayton, Wright Field is approximately 5 miles northeast of Dayton. The host unit at Wright-Patterson AFB is the 88th Air Base Wing, assigned to the Air Force Life Cycle Management Center and Air Force Materiel Command. The bases origins begin with the establishment of Wilbur Wright Field on 22 May and McCook Field in November 1917, McCook was used as a testing field and for aviation experiments. Wright was used as a field, Fairfield Aviation General Supply Depot, armorers’ school. McCooks functions were transferred to Wright Field when it was closed in October 1927, Wright-Patterson AFB was established in 1948 as a merger of Patterson and Wright Fields. In 1995, negotiations to end the Bosnian War were held at the resulting in the Dayton Agreement that ended the war. The 88th Air Base Wing is commanded by Col. John M. Devillier Its Command Chief Master Sergeant is Chief Master Sergeant John M. Mazza, the base had a total of 27,406 military, civilian and contract employees in 2010. The Greene County portion of the base is a census-designated place, Wright-Patterson AFB is one of the largest, most diverse, and organizationally complex bases in the Air Force with a long history of flight tests spanning from the Wright Brothers into the Space Age. It is the headquarters of the Air Force Materiel Command, one of the commands of the Air Force. It is also the base of the 445th Airlift Wing of the Air Force Reserve Command. Wright-Patterson is also the headquarters of the Aeronautical Systems Center and the Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson is the host of the annual United States Air Force Marathon which occurs the weekend closest to the Air Forces anniversary. The Wing reports to the Aeronautical Systems Center, a major development and their flight exhibition company and the Wright Company School of Aviation returned 1910–1916 to use the flying field. In 1918, Wilbur Wright Field agreed to let McCook Field use hangar and shop space as well as its enlisted mechanics to assemble, after World War I,347 German aircraft were brought to the United States—some were incorporated into the Army Aeronautical Museum. The training school at Wilbur Wright Field was discontinued, Wilbur Wright Field and the depot merged after World War I to form the Fairfield Air Depot. In 1924, the Committee presented the deeds to president Calvin Coolidge for the construction of a new engineering center. The entire acreage was designated Wright Field, which had such as the Headquarters, 5th Division Air Service. New facilities were built 1925–27 on the portion of Wright Field west of Huffman Dam to house all of the McCook Field functions being relocated, on 1 July 1931, the portion of Wright Field east of Huffman Dam was redesignated Patterson Field in honor of Lieutenant Frank Stuart Patterson
43.
Iraq
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The capital, and largest city, is Baghdad. The main ethnic groups are Arabs and Kurds, others include Assyrians, Turkmen, Shabakis, Yazidis, Armenians, Mandeans, Circassians, around 95% of the countrys 36 million citizens are Muslims, with Christianity, Yarsan, Yezidism, and Mandeanism also present. The official languages of Iraq are Arabic and Kurdish, two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run south through Iraq and into the Shatt al-Arab near the Persian Gulf. These rivers provide Iraq with significant amounts of fertile land, the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, historically known as Mesopotamia, is often referred to as the cradle of civilisation. It was here that mankind first began to read, write, create laws, the area has been home to successive civilisations since the 6th millennium BC. Iraq was the centre of the Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian and it was also part of the Median, Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, Ayyubid, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires. Iraqs modern borders were mostly demarcated in 1920 by the League of Nations when the Ottoman Empire was divided by the Treaty of Sèvres, Iraq was placed under the authority of the United Kingdom as the British Mandate of Mesopotamia. A monarchy was established in 1921 and the Kingdom of Iraq gained independence from Britain in 1932, in 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and the Iraqi Republic created. Iraq was controlled by the Arab Socialist Baath Party from 1968 until 2003, after an invasion by the United States and its allies in 2003, Saddam Husseins Baath Party was removed from power and multi-party parliamentary elections were held in 2005. The American presence in Iraq ended in 2011, but the Iraqi insurgency continued and intensified as fighters from the Syrian Civil War spilled into the country, the Arabic name العراق al-ʿIrāq has been in use since before the 6th century. There are several suggested origins for the name, one dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk and is thus ultimately of Sumerian origin, as Uruk was the Akkadian name for the Sumerian city of Urug, containing the Sumerian word for city, UR. An Arabic folk etymology for the name is rooted, well-watered. During the medieval period, there was a region called ʿIrāq ʿArabī for Lower Mesopotamia and ʿIrāq ʿajamī, for the region now situated in Central and Western Iran. The term historically included the south of the Hamrin Mountains. The term Sawad was also used in early Islamic times for the region of the plain of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. In English, it is either /ɪˈrɑːk/ or /ɪˈræk/, the American Heritage Dictionary, the pronunciation /aɪˈræk/ is frequently heard in U. S. media. Since approximately 10,000 BC, Iraq was one of centres of a Caucasoid Neolithic culture where agriculture, the following Neolithic period is represented by rectangular houses. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gypsum, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations
44.
Afghanistan
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Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located within South Asia and Central Asia. It has a population of approximately 32 million, making it the 42nd most populous country in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north and its territory covers 652,000 km2, making it the 41st largest country in the world. The land also served as the source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Khiljis, Mughals, Hotaks, Durranis, the political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the Hotak and Durrani dynasties in the 18th century. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a state in the Great Game between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, King Amanullah unsuccessfully attempted to modernize the country and it remained peaceful during Zahir Shahs forty years of monarchy. A series of coups in the 1970s was followed by a series of wars that devastated much of Afghanistan. The name Afghānistān is believed to be as old as the ethnonym Afghan, the root name Afghan was used historically in reference to a member of the ethnic Pashtuns, and the suffix -stan means place of in Persian. Therefore, Afghanistan translates to land of the Afghans or, more specifically in a historical sense, however, the modern Constitution of Afghanistan states that he word Afghan shall apply to every citizen of Afghanistan. An important site of historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and it has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the ancient Iranian peoples who established the dominant role of Indo-Iranian languages in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within large regional empires, among them the Achaemenid Empire, the Macedonian Empire, the Indian Maurya Empire, and the Islamic Empire. Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak may have been a colony of the nearby Indus Valley Civilization. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilisation stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilisation today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, in more detail, it extended from what today is northwest Pakistan to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well, after 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan, among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, the region at the time was referred to as Ariana
45.
National Museum of the United States Air Force
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The National Museum of the United States Air Force is the official museum of the United States Air Force located at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base,6 miles northeast of Dayton, Ohio. The NMUSAF has one of the worlds largest collections with more than 360 aircraft, the museum draws more than 1 million visitors each year, making it one of the most frequently visited tourist attractions in Ohio. The museum dates to 1923, when the Engineering Division at Daytons McCook Field first collected technical artifacts for preservation, in 1927, it moved to then-Wright Field in a laboratory building. In 1932, the collection was named the Army Aeronautical Museum, in 1948, the collection remained private as the Air Force Technical Museum. In 1954, the Air Force Museum became public and was housed in its first permanent facility, Building 89 of the former Patterson Field in Fairborn, many of its aircraft were parked outside and exposed to the weather. It remained there until 1971, when the current facility opened. Not including its annex on Wright Field proper, the museum has more than tripled in square footage since 1971, with the addition of a hangar in 1988, a third in 2003. The museum announced a new name for the facility in October 2004, the former name, United States Air Force Museum, changed to National Museum of the United States Air Force. The museum is a component of the National Aviation Heritage Area. The museums collection contains many rare aircraft of historical or technological importance, in 2010, the museum launched its 360-degree Virtual Tour, allowing most aircraft and exhibits to be viewed online. The museum has several Presidential aircraft, including those used by Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower. The centerpiece of the aircraft collection is SAM26000, a modified Boeing 707 known as a VC-137C, used regularly by Presidents John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson. This aircraft took President and Mrs. Kennedy to Dallas on November 22, vice President Johnson was sworn in as president aboard it shortly after the assassination, and the aircraft then carried Kennedys body back to Washington. It became the presidential aircraft after Nixons first term. It was temporarily removed from display on December 5,2009, all presidential aircraft are now displayed in the Presidential Gallery, in the new fourth building. A large section of the museum is dedicated to pioneers of flight, especially the Wright Brothers, a replica of the Wrights 1909 Military Flyer is on display, as well as other Wright brothers artifacts. The building also hosts the National Aviation Hall of Fame, which includes educational exhibits. The museum has many pieces of U. S. Army Air Forces and U. S. Air Force clothing, at any time, more than 50 World War II-vintage A-2 leather flying jackets are on display, many of which belonged to famous figures in Air Force history
46.
Hanoi Taxi
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The Hanoi Taxi is currently housed at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, near Dayton, Ohio. For much of the late 1960s and early 1970s, 66-0177 flew out of Norton Air Force Base, San Bernardino, the Hanoi Taxi flew Bob Hope to USO shows in South Vietnam. The Hanoi Taxi was used in 1973, in the days of the Vietnam War. Arizona Senator John McCain was one of the POWs who flew home on the Hanoi Taxi, the Hanoi Taxis name comes from the writing on the flight engineers panel by the POWs aboard the plane for the freedom flight. Later in its career it was transferred to the 445th Airlift Wing at Wright Patterson Air Force Base Area A in Ohio, signatures of the freed prisoners have been preserved on the panel over the years and are the centerpiece of what is essentially a flying museum. Plaques, documents and photographs of the homecoming are part of the on-board exhibit researched and created by the 445th Airlift Wing, etchings of the names of those who are missing in action were taken from engravings on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington and are mounted on the plane. Framed photographs, plaques, and other memorabilia adorn the interior, following its restoration the aircraft was first exhibited to the public at the 2003 Dayton Air Show. It appeared at other venues until its retirement in May 2006. In 2005, Hanoi Taxi was one of the aircraft marshalled by the Air Force to provide evacuation for those seeking refuge from Hurricane Katrina and this aircraft and others evacuated thousands of people, including the medical evacuation of hundreds of ill and injured. Area B is the Wright Field portion of the base which its runways are no longer in service except for inbound flights to the museum. Hanoi Taxi is now part of the permanent static display collection of the Museum, 445th Airlift Wing fact sheet on Hanoi Taxi
47.
Operation Homecoming
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Operation Homecoming was the return of 591 American prisoners of war held by North Vietnam following the Paris Peace Accords that ended U. S. involvement in the Vietnam War. On January 27,1973, Henry Kissinger agreed to a ceasefire with representatives of North Vietnam that provided for the withdrawal of American military forces from South Vietnam. The agreement also postulated for the release of nearly 600 American prisoners of war held by North Vietnam, the deal would come to be known as Operation Homecoming and was divided into three phases. The former prisoners were to then be flown to Clark Air Base in the Philippines where they were to be processed at a center, debriefed. The final phase was the relocation of the POWs to military hospitals, on Feb.12,1973, three C-141 transports flew to Hanoi, North Vietnam, and one C-9A aircraft was sent to Saigon, South Vietnam to pick up released prisoners of war. The first flight of 40 U. S. prisoners of war left Hanoi in a C-141A, from February 12 to April 4, there were 54 C-141 missions flying out of Hanoi, bringing the former POWs home. During the early part of Operation Homecoming, groups of POWs released were selected on the basis of longest length of time in prison, the first group had spent 6–8 years as prisoners of war. The last POWs were turned over to allied hands on March 29,1973 raising the number of Americans returned to 591. The remaining 266 consisted of 138 United States Naval personnel,77 soldiers serving in the United States Army,26 United States Marines, a majority of the prisoners were held at camps in North Vietnam, however some POWs were held in at various locations throughout Southeast Asia. The prisoners returned included future politicians Senator John McCain of Arizona, some of the repatriated soldiers, including Borling and John McCain, did not retire from the military, but instead decided to further their careers in the armed forces. The culture of the POWs held at the infamous Hanoi Hilton prison was on display with the story that would come to be known as the Kissinger Twenty. One of the tenets of the agreed upon code between those held at the Hanoi Hilton stipulated that the POWs, unless injured, would not accept an early release. The rule entailed that the prisoners would return home in the order that they were shot down, the POWs held at the Hanoi Hilton were to deny early release because the communist government of North Vietnam could possibly use this tactic as propaganda or as a reward for military intelligence. The first round of POWs to be released in February 1973 mostly included injured soldiers in need of medical attention, consequently, in adherence with their code, the men did not accept release by refusing to follow instructions or put on their clothes. Finally, on the day of protest Colonel Norm Gaddis. The men followed orders, but with the stipulation that no photographs were to be taken of them. It turned out that when Henry Kissinger went to Hanoi after the first round of releases the North Vietnamese gave him a list of the next 112 men scheduled to be sent home. They asked Kissinger to select twenty more men to be released early as a sign of good will, unaware of the code agreed upon by the POWs, Kissinger ignored their shot down dates and circled twenty names at random
48.
Vietnam War
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It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
49.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Prisoner of war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
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