1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
2.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
French language
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The
"arrêt" signs (French for "stop") are used in
Canada while the international stop, which is also a valid French word, is used in France as well as other French-speaking countries and regions.
French language
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Regions where French is the main language
French language
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Town sign in
Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of
Rechmaya in
Lebanon.
French language
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An obsolete 100
Lebanese pound note with the French language inscriptions "Banque du Liban" and "Cent livres".
3.
Baden, Pennsylvania
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Baden is a borough in Beaver County, Pennsylvania, along the Ohio River. The population was 4,135 at the 2010 census and it is the former site of Logstown, a significant Native American settlement. The site of Baden was the location of Logstown, a Native American village, settlers conversed and negotiated with Native Americans there, George Washington visited the area to speak with the Natives himself under Queen Alliquippa. The oldest recorded house in Baden was built in the early 1800s, Baden was founded as a village in 1838 and was named after the resort town of Baden-Baden in Germanys Black Forest. Early on, Baden was home to boat building yards, quarries, a lath mill, Baden is located at 40°38′23″N 80°13′36″W. Ambridge Harmony Township Conway As of the census of 2010, there were 4,135 people,1,897 households, the population density was 1,913.8 people per square mile. There were 1,995 housing units at a density of 868.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 96. 9% White,1. 5% African American,0. 1% Native American,0. 3% Asian,0. 2% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 9% of the population. 37. 4% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.08 and the average family size was 2.72. In the borough the population was out, with 17. 2% under the age of 18,6. 1% from 18 to 24,23. 5% from 25 to 44,28. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 47.3 years, for every 100 females there were 87.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.9 males, in 2000, the median income for a household in the borough was $32,924, and the median income for a family was $40,924. Males had an income of $31,025 versus $23,813 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $17,112, about 5. 1% of families and 7. 9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 12. 5% of those under age 18 and 9. 2% of those age 65 or over. List of cities and towns along the Ohio River Legionville
Baden, Pennsylvania
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Residential neighborhood on Berry Street
4.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
Native Americans in the United States
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Pushmataha
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States
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Charles Eastman
Native Americans in the United States
–
Wilma Mankiller
5.
Western Pennsylvania
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Western Pennsylvania refers to the western third of the state of Pennsylvania in the United States. Pittsburgh is the principal city, with a metropolitan area population of about 2.4 million people. Erie, Altoona, and Johnstown are its other metropolitan centers, as of the 2010 census, Western Pennsylvanias total population is nearly 4 million. In the 18th century, this caused some to rally for the formation of a 14th state in this region named Westsylvania. The strong cultural identity of Western Pennsylvania is reinforced by the supreme court holding sessions in Pittsburgh, in addition to Harrisburg. In alphabetical order those counties are, Long recognized as a powerhouse of American industry, Western Pennsylvania is a large geophysical and it encompasses that portion of the state to the west of the Appalachian divide and included within the Mississippi drainage system of rivers. The largest rivers in this area are the Allegheny River, which flows southward from the New York border, and the Monongahela River, which flows northward from West Virginia. These two rivers meet in Downtown Pittsburgh and join to form the Ohio River, which from that point flows an additional 981 miles southwest to the Mississippi River. The juncture of the Allegheny and Monongahela was historically regarded as strategic, at various times this juncture has been called the Forks of the Ohio, Fort Duquesne, Fort Pitt, the Golden Triangle, and today, at its apex, Point State Park. To the west and north of this point lies the Allegheny Plateau, Western Pennsylvania is home to more than two dozen institutions of higher learning, including those listed below. Perhaps the best known transportation innovation to simplify access to this area is the famous Pennsylvania Turnpike, the initial problem was economic marketing of a limited number of goods that could stand such high freight costs. Later marketing arrangements turned to access via the Ohio River, with Pittsburgh a barge, locally, a system of agriculture arose suitable to Western Pennsylvanias rugged terrain, emphasizing animal husbandry and dairying but with few exportable vegetable crops. The search for exploitable resources first resulted with the development of huge bituminous coal or soft coal deposits in the area for use in an iron foundry sector. The region also had large glass, pottery, brickmaking, and ceramic industries, which took advantage of the coal, the local glass industry produced 45 percent of the nations output in glass by the 1860s and more than 80 percent of the output by the 1920s. Other necessary economic concepts for description could well include economies of scale, diseconomies of scale, monopoly price equilibrium, other exploitable resources in Western Pennsylvania were also distinct. One was the drilling of the first oil well in the world at Titusville, during this time of intensive exploitation of forests a whole new sector, the wood chemistry industry, appeared and then later vanished. Finally, mention should also be made of management in the areas of a large animal population which supports the famous Pennsylvania deer-hunting cultural ethos. Since the early 1950s, a renaissance occurred in the development of institutions and abatement of pollution in Pittsburgh
Western Pennsylvania
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Pittsburgh
Western Pennsylvania
Western Pennsylvania
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Erie
Western Pennsylvania
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Altoona
6.
Ohio Company
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The Ohio Company, formally known as the Ohio Company of Virginia, was a land speculation company organized for the settlement by Virginians of the Ohio Country and to trade with the Native Americans. The company had a grant from Britain and a treaty with Indians, but France also claimed the area. Virginian explorers recognized the potential of the Ohio region for colonization and moved to capitalize on it, in 1748, Thomas Lee and brothers Lawrence and Augustine Washington organized the Ohio Company to represent the prospecting and trading interests of Virginian investors. The grant was in two parts, the first 200,000 acres were promised, and the following 300,000 acres were to be granted if the Ohio Company successfully settled one hundred families within seven years. Furthermore, the Ohio Company was required to construct a fort, but the land grant was rent and tax free for ten years to facilitate settlement. The organizers signed a treaty of friendship and permission at Logstown with the tribes in the region in 1752. A rival group of land speculators from Virginia, the Loyal Company of Virginia, was organized about the same time, and included influential Virginians such as Thomas Walker and Peter Jefferson. In 1752 George Mason, later to become a founding father, became treasurer of the Ohio Company. Cresap was given a contract to blaze a small road over the mountains to the Monongahela River, in 1750, the Ohio Company hired Christopher Gist, a skillful woodsman and surveyor, to explore the Ohio Valley in order to identify lands for potential settlement. He surveyed by estimating the Kanawhan Region and the Ohio Valley tributaries beginning in 1750,1751 and 1753 and his journals provide valuable insights of the greater Ohio Valley and the Alleghenies. Gist travelled as far west as the Miami Indian village of Pickawillany, the settlement efforts were complicated by the conflicting land claims of the time. The Ohio Country ceded by the King through Governor Dinwiddie included, in Dinwiddies opinion, in addition to the Pennsylvania colonial government claims of this territory, the French were fighting for and occupying much of the Ohio Valley, most notably at Fort Duquesne. Dinwiddie responded by sending a unit under the command of George Washington to the region. In 1763, the Ohio Company sent a representative to petition the British Crown for a grant renewal, the plans for settlement and military development continued, with Henry Bouquets 1764 plans to construct military posts around prospective western settlements. In 1768, the British government authorized Sir William Johnson to make the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, purchasing land rights from the Iroquois, the goal was acquiring 2.5 million acres of Ohio Country land. Benjamin Franklin was one of the shareholders, as well as included George Croghan. The Walpole Company, Indiana Company, and members of the Ohio Company reorganized, in 1772, the Grand Ohio Company received from the British government a grant of a large tract lying along the southern bank of the Ohio as far west as the mouth of the Scioto River. A colony to be called Vandalia was planned, however, the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War interrupted colonization and nothing was accomplished
Ohio Company
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Thomas Lee, president of the Virginia Council of State, organized the Ohio Company of Virginia in 1748.
Ohio Company
–
The Ohio Country, showing present-day U.S. state boundaries
Ohio Company
–
1755
Fry-Jefferson map showing earlier established colonial borders before the
French and Indian War.
Ohio Company
7.
French and Indian War
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The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
French and Indian War
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Iroquois engaging in trade with Europeans, 1722
French and Indian War
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French and Indian War
French and Indian War
–
Robert Dinwiddie, British lieutenant governor of Virginia
French and Indian War
–
Washington's map of the
Ohio River and surrounding region containing notes on French intentions, 1753 or 1754
8.
Harmony Township, Beaver County, Pennsylvania
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Harmony Township is a township and census-designated place in Beaver County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 3,197 at the 2010 census, Harmony Township is located in southeastern Beaver County at 40°36′25″N 80°13′13″W. It is bordered to the southwest by the borough of Ambridge, to the west by the city of Aliquippa, to the north by the borough of Baden, the southeast boundary of the township, formed by Big Sewickley Creek, is also the Beaver County line. To the southeast in Allegheny County are the borough of Bell Acres, Leet Township, and the borough of Leetsdale. According to the United States Census Bureau, Harmony Township has an area of 3.1 square miles, of which 2.9 square miles is land and 0.15 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 3,373 people,1,439 households, the population density was 1,176.3 people per square mile. There were 1,509 housing units at a density of 526. 2/sq mi. The racial makeup of the township was 97. 48% White,1. 45% Black or African American,0. 12% Asian,0. 12% Pacific Islander,0. 21% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 56% of the population. 28. 2% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.84. In the township the population was out, with 19. 1% under the age of 18,5. 3% from 18 to 24,26. 9% from 25 to 44,21. 8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 44 years, for every 100 females there were 90.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.7 males, the median income for a household in the township was $37,056, and the median income for a family was $48,824. Males had an income of $35,682 versus $24,464 for females. The per capita income for the township was $18,663, about 2. 6% of families and 4. 7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4. 0% of those under age 18 and 3. 9% of those age 65 or over
Harmony Township, Beaver County, Pennsylvania
–
Fields at
Legionville, a historic United States Army site in Harmony Township
9.
Forks of the Ohio
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Built on land acquired via eminent domain from industrial enterprises in the 1950s, the park opened in August 1974 when construction was completed on its iconic fountain. Pittsburgh settled on the current design after rejecting a plan for a Point Park Civic Center designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. The park also includes the outlines and remains of two of the oldest structures in Pittsburgh, Fort Pitt and Fort Duquesne. The Fort Pitt Museum, housed in the Monongahela Bastion of Fort Pitt, commemorates the French and Indian War, the park, a registered National Historic Landmark, is operated by the Pennsylvania Bureau of State Parks. The location of the fountain at the tip of the Point previously served as a connector for two old bridges, the Manchester Bridge and Point Bridge, both were removed in 1970 to make way for the fountain. In April 2009, the fountain was turned off for a $9.6 million upgrade and refurbishment, the fountain also serves as the western terminus for the Great Allegheny Passage, a 150-mile hiker-biker trail beginning at the 184. Michael DeBerardinis, Secretary of the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, the project was scheduled to be completed within four years, with the majority of the work to be completed in time for Pittsburghs 250th anniversary celebration in 2008. Sections of the park have fallen into disuse since it was established in the summer of 1974, the homeless have used the trenches surrounding the foundations of the remains of Fort Pitt as a temporary shelter for years. Graffiti on the structures of the park had become a major problem, sections of the park were littered with fence posts, cut logs, plastic drums, and rolled up snow drift fencing. The walkways were cracked and beginning to fall apart, the restoration project aimed to reestablish the park as a recreational destination. These plans were not put into place without some controversy, on January 25,2007,13 members of two local labor unions were arrested for blocking access by contractors to the work sites at the remnants of Fort Pitt. The unions were protesting the use of four nonrepresented workers by the contractor, in addition, advocates for historical preservation disagreed with the decision to bury the remnants of the forts walls, which could damage the bricks and remove the walls from public access. Point State Park was reopened to the public in the spring of 2008, the renovation process took a year and a half to complete. The confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, creating the Ohio River, has impacted the history of Point State Park. This confluence was referred to as the Forks of the Ohio and it was once at the center of river travel, trade, and even wars throughout the pioneer history of Western Pennsylvania. During the mid-18th century, the armies of France and the Great Britain carved paths through the wilderness to control the point area, the French built Fort Duquesne in 1754 on foundations of Fort Prince George, which had been built by the colonial forces of Virginia. The French held Fort Duquesne during the French and Indian War, the French held the fort successfully early in the war, turning back the 1755 expedition led by General Edward Braddock. A smaller attack by James Grant in September 1758 was repulsed, two months later, on November 25, the Forbes Expedition, under General John Forbes, captured the site after the French destroyed Fort Duquesne the day before
Forks of the Ohio
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Point State Park in Fall
Forks of the Ohio
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Point State Park
Forks of the Ohio
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This map from 1900 demonstrates how densely developed the site became.
Forks of the Ohio
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Brick pavers mark the outline of where Fort Duquesne was located.
10.
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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Pittsburgh is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States, and is the county seat of Allegheny County. The city proper has a population of 304,391. The metropolitan population of 2,353,045 is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 26th-largest in the U. S. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclines, a fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in manufacturing of aluminum, glass, shipbuilding, petroleum, foods, sports, transportation, computing, autos, and electronics. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment, Americas 1980s deindustrialization laid off area blue-collar workers and thousands of downtown white-collar workers when the longtime Pittsburgh-based world headquarters moved out. The area has served also as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research. The area is home to 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University, the region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, sustainable energy, and energy extraction. Pittsburgh was named in 1758 by General John Forbes, in honor of British statesman William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The current pronunciation, which is unusual in English speaking countries, is almost certainly a result of a printing error in some copies of the City Charter of March 18,1816. The error was repeated commonly enough throughout the rest of the 19th century that the pronunciation was lost. After a public campaign the original spelling was restored by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1911. The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by the Shawnee, the first known European to enter the region was the French explorer/trader Robert de La Salle from Quebec during his 1669 expedition down the Ohio River. European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century, Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year European fur traders established area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to unite Canada with French Louisiana via the rivers, during 1753–54, the British hastily built Fort Prince George before a larger French force drove them off. The French built Fort Duquesne based on LaSalles 1669 claims, the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British General Edward Braddock was dispatched with Major George Washington as his aide to take Fort Duquesne, the British and colonial force were defeated at Braddocks Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758, Forbes began construction on Fort Pitt, named after William Pitt the Elder while the settlement was named Pittsborough
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
–
Clockwise:
Cathedral of Learning at the
University of Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh skyline;
Carnegie Mellon University;
PNC Park;
Duquesne Incline
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
–
This article is about the Pennsylvania city. For other uses, see
Pittsburgh (disambiguation).
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
–
Monongahela River scene, 1857
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
–
Downtown facade memorializing Pittsburgh's
industrial heritage with an image of legendary steelworker
Joe Magarac
11.
Ohio River
–
The Ohio River, which streams westward from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Cairo, Illinois, is the largest tributary, by volume, of the Mississippi River in the United States. The 981-mile river flows through or along the border of six states, through its largest tributary, the Tennessee River, the basin includes many of the states of the southeastern U. S. It is the source of drinking water for three million people and it is named in Iroquoian or Seneca, Ohi, yó, lit. Good River or Shawnee, Pelewathiipi and Spelewathiipi, the river had great significance in the history of the Native Americans, as numerous civilizations formed along its valley. For thousands of years, Native Americans used the river as a major transportation, in 1669, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle led a French expedition to the Ohio River, becoming the first Europeans to see it. After European-American settlement, the served as a border between present-day Kentucky and Indian Territories. It was a transportation route for pioneers during the westward expansion of the early U. S. In his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1781–82, Thomas Jefferson stated and its current gentle, waters clear, and bosom smooth and unbroken by rocks and rapids, a single instance only excepted. During the 19th century, the river was the boundary of the Northwest Territory. Where the river was narrow, it was the way to freedom for thousands of slaves escaping to the North, many helped by free blacks and whites of the Underground Railroad resistance movement. The Ohio River is a transition area, as its water runs along the periphery of the humid subtropical. It is inhabited by fauna and flora of both climates, in winter, it regularly freezes over at Pittsburgh but rarely further south toward Cincinnati and Louisville. At Paducah, Kentucky, in the south, near the Ohios confluence with the Mississippi, Paducah was founded there because it is the northernmost ice-free reach of the Ohio. The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at Point State Park in Pittsburgh, from there, it flows northwest through Allegheny and Beaver counties, before making an abrupt turn to the south-southwest at the West Virginia–Ohio–Pennsylvania triple-state line. From there, it forms the border between West Virginia and Ohio, upstream of Wheeling, West Virginia, the river then follows a roughly southwest and then west-northwest course until Cincinnati, before bending to a west-southwest course for most of its length. The course forms the borders of West Virginia and Kentucky. The Ohio drains parts of 15 states in four regions, northeast New York, a small area of the southern border along the headwaters of the Allegheny. Pennsylvania, a corridor from the corner to north central border
Ohio River
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The widest point on the Ohio River is just west of
Downtown Louisville, where it is one mile (1.6 km) wide
Ohio River
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Ohio River basin
Ohio River
–
The
Allegheny River, left, and
Monongahela River join to form the Ohio River at
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the largest metropolitan area on the river.
Ohio River
–
The 1849
Wheeling Suspension Bridge was the first bridge across the river.
12.
Aliquippa, Pennsylvania
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Aliquippa is a city in Beaver County in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania, it is within the Pittsburgh Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 9,438 at the 2010 census, formerly the Borough of Aliquippa, it was formally named a city in 1987 by the Aliquippa Borough Council. Aliquippa was founded by the merger of three towns, Aliquippa, Woodlawn, and New Sheffield, there is no evidence connecting the Seneca Queen Aliquippa with the location of the borough. This was one of several Indian names selected arbitrarily by the Pittsburgh, Aliquippa is best known as the location of a productive steel mill that the Jones and Laughlin Steel Company constructed there along the Ohio River beginning in 1905. Employment at the facility sustained a population of 27,023 in 1940, the mill closed during the collapse of the steel industry during the 1980s. This major economic loss alongside suburbanization caused a population loss through the end of the 20th century. The oldest church within the current boundaries of Aliquippa is Mt. Carmel Presbyterian Church, many of the citys businesses have left since the closing of the mill. This has left the city economically depressed, with the crime rate dramatically rising over time, the B. F. Jones Memorial Library is a historical landmark of the community. As of the 2010 census, the city had 9,438 people, the city was 57. 6% White,38. 6% Black or African American,0. 1% Native American,0. 4% Asian, and 2. 8% were two or more races. 1. 3% of the population was of Hispanic or Latino ancestry, as of the census of 2000, there were 11,734 people,5,124 households, and 3,176 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,867.7 people per square mile, there were 5,843 housing units at an average density of 1,428.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 62. 59% White,35. 52% African American,0. 07% Native American,0. 18% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 18% from other races, and 1. 43% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 00% of the population, of all households 35. 0% were made up of individuals, and 17. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the family size was 2.92. In the city, the population was out, with 23. 5% under the age of 18,7. 6% from 18 to 24,25. 5% from 25 to 44,20. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 40 years, for every 100 females there were 82.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 77.2 males, the median income for a household in the city was $25,113, and the median income for a family was $34,003. Males had an income of $27,954 versus $21,358 for females
Aliquippa, Pennsylvania
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Franklin Avenue downtown
Aliquippa, Pennsylvania
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P&LE Station
13.
Pittsburgh International Airport
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Pittsburgh International Airport, formerly Greater Pittsburgh International Airport, is a civil–military international airport in the suburbs of the United States city of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It is located in Findlay and Moon townships of Allegheny County and it was built to replace Allegheny County Airport, which was closer to Pittsburgh but too small to handle the growing passenger traffic. The new airport began in 1946, with the airport opening in 1952. Over the decades, passenger traffic increased for the airport, especially as US Airways developed it as a major hub, additional runways were added or lengthened and changes made in the terminal. The new facilities opened in 1992 and have been ranked highly by travelers and industry journals and it was carrying debt and was unable to negotiate the terms or lower landing fees at the airport. Its reduction in flights through the end of the resulted in the closure of two concourses. The airport has had recent success in attracting new low-cost carriers, including Allegiant Air, Frontier Airlines and Spirit Airlines, along with international carriers Condor, Pittsburgh International Airport is the busiest airport in western Pennsylvania and the second-busiest airport in the state overall, after Philadelphia International Airport. In 2016 it served 8,309,754 passengers, the airport is encircled by I-376 and Business Loop I-376, which is the main access for Airport Cargo and Servicing as well as other flight industries. It is owned by Allegheny County and operated by the Allegheny County Airport Authority, PIT is primarily a passenger airport serving the Pittsburgh metropolitan area with 171 non-stop flights per day to 54 destinations on 16 airlines. S. Air Force and other U. S. Department of Defense activities, the airport also has an air cargo facility and supports general aviation operations. PIT is the second-busiest passenger airport in Pennsylvania and 47th-busiest in the United States, the airport has the longest runways of a commercial airport in Pennsylvania at 11,500 feet. It also undertook numerous renovations of facilities in the late 20th century to accommodate increased passenger traffic, until 2004, US Airways second largest hub was at PIT. In 2010, the airline remained PITs largest carrier, on October 17,2015, US Airways merged with American Airlines to become the worlds largest airline. The new American Airlines uses fifteen gates, more than any other airline at PIT, the airport has flights to Canada, Mexico, Caribbean, and Europe. Nonstop transatlantic flights resumed on June 3,2009 when Delta Air Lines began flights to Paris, the new seasonal service operates daily and was made possible by Deltas successful joint-venture with Air France. Other international destinations include Toronto Canada, Cancun Mexico, Punta Cana DR, Reykjavik Iceland, and seasonal service to Frankfurt Germany, the Bahamas, the Official Airline Guide Worldwide listed PIT on its short list of the worlds best airports for four consecutive years. The market research leader, JD Power and Associates, named PIT among the top five airports in its two most recent customer satisfaction surveys. Conde Nast Travelers Magazine ranked PIT as the best in 1999 in the United States, in 2011 Conde Nast Traveler ranked the facility as the 7th best for business travelers
Pittsburgh International Airport
Pittsburgh International Airport
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Airside Terminal, with the
Alexander Calder mobile Pittsburgh on display in center.
Pittsburgh International Airport
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A replica of PIT's original terrazzo compass located in the new main terminal
Pittsburgh International Airport
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Southwest Airlines Boeing 737-700 Pulling into the gate from Orlando, FL
14.
Shawnee
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The Shawnee are an Algonquian-speaking ethnic group indigenous to North America. Pushed west by European-American pressure, the Shawnee migrated to Missouri and Kansas, Other Shawnee did not remove to Oklahoma until after the Civil War. The Shawnee language, an Algonquian language, was spoken by 200 people in 2002, the language is written in the Latin script. It has a dictionary and portions of the Bible were translated into Shawnee, some scholars believe that the Shawnee are descendants of the people of the precontact Fort Ancient culture of the Ohio region, although this is not universally accepted. Fort Ancient culture flourished from 1000 to 1650 CE among a people who predominantly inhabited lands along the Ohio River in areas of southern Ohio, northern Kentucky, Fort Ancient culture was once thought to have been an extension of the Mississippian culture. But, scholars now believe Fort Ancient culture developed independently and was descended from the Hopewell culture, uncertainty surrounds the fate of the Fort Ancient people. There is a gap in the record between the most recent Fort Ancient sites and the oldest sites of the Shawnee. The latter were recorded by European explorers as occupying this area at the time of encounter, the Shawnee traditionally considered the Lenape of the East Coast mid-Atlantic region, who were also Algonquian speaking, as their grandfathers. The Algonquian nations of present-day Canada regarded the US Shawnee as their southernmost branch, along the East Coast, the Algonquian-speaking tribes were mostly located in coastal areas, from Quebec to the Carolinas. Algonquian languages have similar to the archaic shawano meaning south. However, the stem šawa- does not mean south in Shawnee, in one Shawnee tale, Sawage is the deity of the south wind. Curtin translates Sawage as it thaws, referring to the weather of the south. šaawaki is attested as the spirit of the South, or the South Wind, in account, in one of Voegelins tales. Europeans reported encountering Shawnee over a geographic area. One of the earliest mentions of the Shawnee may be a 1614 Dutch map showing some Sawwanew located just east of the Delaware River, later 17th-century Dutch sources also place them in this general location. Accounts by French explorers in the same century usually located the Shawnee along the Ohio River, where the French encountered them on forays from eastern Canada, a Shawnee town might have from forty to one hundred bark-covered houses similar in construction to Iroquois longhouses. Each village usually had a house or council house, perhaps sixty to ninety feet long. According to one European legend, some Shawnee were descended from a party sent by Chief Opechancanough, ruler of the Powhatan Confederacy 1618–1644, the party was led by his son, Sheewa-a-nee
Shawnee
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Shawnee portraits
Shawnee
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Fort Ancient Monongahela cultures by Herb Roe
Shawnee
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Serpent Mound, Peebles, Ohio
Shawnee
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Tecumseh, by Benson Lossing in 1848 based on 1808 drawing.
15.
Ambridge, Pennsylvania
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Ambridge is a borough in Beaver County in Western Pennsylvania, incorporated in 1905 and named after the American Bridge Company. Ambridge is located 16 miles northwest of Pittsburgh, alongside the Ohio River, the population was 7,050 at the 2010 census. The town is near the location of Legionville, the camp for General Mad Anthony Waynes Legion of the United States. Waynes was the first attempt to provide training for regular U. S. Army recruits. The Harmony Society first settled the area in the early 19th century, although initially successful, accumulating significant landholdings, the sect went into decline. By the end of the 19th century, only a few Harmonists remained, the Society was dissolved and its vast real estate holdings sold, much of it to the American Bridge Company, who subsequently enlarged the town and incorporated it as Ambridge in 1905. American Bridge attracted thousands of immigrants who came to fulfill their dreams of work, freedom, the steel mills became the focal point of the town. Most of the employees were relatives of relatives and the town grew. In addition, many of the ethnicities had their own church, club, many were from Eastern and Southern Europe including Italian, Greek, Slovak, Croatian, Ukrainian, Polish, Slovene, and Carpartho-Rusyn to name a few. With the growth of the mills, Ambridge became a worldwide leader in steel production. The borough became known for building, metal molding. During World War II, the American Bridge Company fabricated steel for the building of LSTs, the steel was then sent by rail to the adjacent American Bridge naval shipyard in Leetsdale, PA where the LSTs were built. The area was home to several other steel mills like Armco, the pipe mill which manufactured oil piping. Byers, an iron and tool fabricator. Eventually competition by foreign steel producers began to cause the share of the market for U. S. manufacturers to dwindle. With the shift of steel production overseas, the American Bridge Company ended operations in Ambridge in 1983, the legacy of American Bridge can be seen today in bridges around the world. The decline of both the industry and the town in chronicled in Rust Belt Boy by Ambridge native Paul Hertneky. The site interprets the Harmony Society, one of Americas most successful 19th century Christian communal societies, Old Economy Village also provides public education and preservation of the Societys unique material culture
Ambridge, Pennsylvania
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The Rapp House in
Old Economy Village
Ambridge, Pennsylvania
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Presbyterian church in Ambridge from a pre-1923 postcard
16.
Beaver County, Pennsylvania
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Beaver County is a county located in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. As of the 2010 census, the population was 170,539, the county was created on March 12,1800, from parts of Allegheny and Washington Counties. It took its name from the Beaver River, Beaver County is part of the Pittsburgh, PA Metropolitan Statistical Area. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 444 square miles. The Ohio River flows north through Beaver County from a point near Ambridge, then turns west near Beaver and on to the Ohio and it divides the southern third of the county from the northern two-thirds. The Beaver River flows south from Lawrence County entering Beaver County near Koppel, the population density was 418 people per square mile. There were 77,765 housing units at a density of 179 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 92. 55% White,5. 96% Black or African American,0. 10% Native American,0. 25% Asian,0. 01% Pacific Islander,0. 20% from other races, and 0. 92% from two or more races. 0. 72% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,23. 0% were of German,17. 4% Italian,9. 9% Irish,6. 5% English,6. 4% Polish and 5. 8% American ancestry according to Census 2000. 26. 90% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 2.96. In the county, the age distribution of the population shows 22. 60% under the age of 18,7. 40% from 18 to 24,27. 30% from 25 to 44,24. 20% from 45 to 64, the median age was 41 years. For every 100 females there were 91.90 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.20 males. Birth rate Beaver Countys live birth rate was 2,437 births in 1990, Beaver Countys live birth rate in 2000 was 1,891 births, while in 2011 it had declined to 1,690 babies. Over the past 50 years, rural Pennsylvania saw a decline in both the number and proportion of residents under 18 years old. In 1960,1.06 million rural residents, or 35 percent of the population, were children. Teen Pregnancy rate Beaver County reported 1,069 babies born to teens in 2011, in 2015, the number of teen births in Beaver County was 1,025. The statewide poverty rate was 13. 6% in 2014, the child poverty rate is collected by the school districts as part of the federal free school lunch program. In November 2008, there were 118,269 registered voters in Beaver County, Democratic,70,819 Republican,36,239 Other Parties/Non-partisan,11,211 By April 2016, there were 109,091 registered voters, a decrease of 7. 7% since 2008
Beaver County, Pennsylvania
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Beaver County Courthouse
17.
Maize
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Maize, also known as corn, is a large grain plant first domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, the leafy stalk of the plant produces separate pollen and ovuliferous inflorescences or ears, which are fruits, yielding kernels or seeds. Maize kernels are used in cooking as a starch. Most historians believe maize was domesticated in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico, recent research modified this view somewhat, scholars now indicate the adjacent Balsas River Valley of south-central Mexico as the center of domestication. The Olmec and Mayans cultivated maize in numerous varieties throughout Mesoamerica, cooked and its believed that beginning about 2500 BC, the crop spread through much of the Americas. The region developed a network based on surplus and varieties of maize crops. Nevertheless, recent data indicates that the spread of maize took place even earlier, according to Piperno, A large corpus of data indicates that it was dispersed into lower Central America by 7600 BP and had moved into the inter-Andean valleys of Colombia between 7000 and 6000 BP. Since then, even earlier dates have been published, the study also demonstrated that the oldest surviving maize types are those of the Mexican highlands. Later, maize spread from this region over the Americas along two major paths and this is consistent with a model based on the archaeological record suggesting that maize diversified in the highlands of Mexico before spreading to the lowlands. Before they were domesticated, maize plants only grew small,25 millimetres long corn cobs, Maize is the most widely grown grain crop throughout the Americas, with 361 million metric tons grown in the United States in 2014. Approximately 40% of the crop—130 million tons—is used for corn ethanol, genetically modified maize made up 85% of the maize planted in the United States in 2009. After the arrival of Europeans in 1492, Spanish settlers consumed maize and explorers and traders carried it back to Europe, Spanish settlers far preferred wheat bread to maize, cassava, or potatoes. Maize flour could not be substituted for wheat for bread, since in Christian belief only wheat could undergo transubstantiation. At another level, Spaniards worried that by eating indigenous foods, which they did not consider nutritious, that not only would they weaken, despite these worries, Spaniards did consume maize and archeological evidence from Florida sites indicate they cultivated it as well. Maize spread to the rest of the world because of its ability to grow in diverse climates and it was cultivated in Spain just a few decades after Columbuss voyages and then spread to Italy, West Africa and elsewhere. The word maize derives from the Spanish form of the indigenous Taíno word for the plant and it is known by other names around the world. The word corn outside North America, Australia, and New Zealand refers to any cereal crop, in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, corn primarily means maize, this usage started as a shortening of Indian corn. Indian corn primarily means maize, but can more specifically to multicolored flint corn used for decoration
Maize
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Maize
Maize
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A maize heap at the harvest site, India
Maize
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Many small male flowers make up the male inflorescence, called the tassel.
Maize
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Female inflorescence, with young
silk
18.
Fort Duquesne
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Fort Duquesne was a fort established by the French in 1754, at the convergence point of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers in what is now downtown Pittsburgh in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. It was destroyed by the British, and replaced by Fort Pitt in 1758, the site of both forts is now occupied by Point State Park, where the outlines of the two forts have been laid in brick. Englishman William Trent had established a successful trading post at the forks as early as the 1740s. Both the French and the British were keen to gain advantage in the area, as the area was within the drainage basin of the Mississippi River, the French claimed it as theirs. Lieutenant Governor of the Virginia Colony, Robert Dinwiddie, saw this as threatening to the claims to land in the area by Virginians. Washington reached Fort Le Boeuf in December and was rebuffed by the French. Following Washingtons return to Virginia in January 1754, Dinwiddie sent Virginians to build Fort Prince George at the Forks of the Ohio, work began on the fort on February 17. By April 18, a much larger French force of five hundred under the command of Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur arrived at the forks, the French knocked down the tiny British fort and built Fort Duquesne, named in honor of Marquis Duquesne, the governor-general of New France. The fort was built on the model as Fort Frontenac on Lake Ontario. Meanwhile, Washington, newly promoted to Colonel of the newly created Virginia Regiment, set out on 2 April 1754 with a force to build a road to. Washington was at Wills Creek in south central Pennsylvania when he received news of the forts surrender, on May 25, Washington assumed command of the expedition upon the death of Colonel Joshua Fry. Two days later, Washington encountered a Canadian scouting party near a place now known as Jumonville Glen, Washington attacked the Canadians killing 10 in the early morning hours, and took 21 prisoners, of whom many were killed by the natives. More importantly for world history, the Battle of Jumonville Glen is widely considered the start of the French and Indian War. Washington then ordered construction of Fort Necessity at a large clearing known as the Great Meadows, on 3 July 1754, the counterattacking French and Canadians forced Washington to surrender Fort Necessity, but allowed Washington and his men to return home without their armaments. Even though Fort Duquesnes location at the forks looked strong on a map—controlling the confluence of three rivers—the reality was rather different, the site was low, swampy, and prone to flooding. In addition, the position was dominated by highlands located directly across the Monongahela River, Pécaudy de Contrecœur was preparing to abandon the fort in the face of Braddocks advance in 1755, and was only saved when the advancing British force was annihilated. The French held Fort Duquesne during the French and Indian War, the French held the fort successfully early in the war, turning back the expedition led by General Edward Braddock during the 1755 Battle of the Monongahela. George Washington served as one of General Braddocks aides, a smaller attack by James Grant in September 1758 was repulsed with heavy losses
Fort Duquesne
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Fort Duquesne
Fort Duquesne
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A 1755 map clearly showing the location of Fort Duquesne on the upper border.
Fort Duquesne
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At
Point State Park, bricks mark the outline of the former site of Fort Duquesne.
Fort Duquesne
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Fort Duquesne commemorative stamp 1958 issue
19.
Haudenosaunee
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The Iroquois or Haudenosaunee are a historically powerful northeast Native American confederacy. The Iroquois have absorbed many other peoples into their cultures as a result of warfare, adoption of captives, the historic Erie, Susquehannock, Wyandot, and St. Lawrence Iroquoians, all independent peoples, spoke Iroquoian languages. In 2010, more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, the most common name for the confederacy, Iroquois, is of somewhat obscure origin. The first time it appears in writing is in the account of Samuel de Champlain of his journey to Tadoussac in 1603, other spellings occurring in the earliest sources include Erocoise, Hiroquois, Hyroquoise, Irecoies, Iriquois, Iroquaes, Irroquois, and Yroquois. In the French spoken at the time, this would have been pronounced as or. In 1883, Horatio Hale wrote that the Charlevoix etymology was dubious, Hale suggested instead that the term came from Huron, and was cognate with Mohawk ierokwa they who smoke or Cayuga iakwai a bear. Hewitt responded to Hales etymology in 1888 by expressing doubt that either of those words even exist in the respective languages, a more modern etymology is that advocated by Gordon M. Day in 1968, who elaborates upon an earlier etymology given by Charles Arnaud in 1880. Arnaud had claimed that the word came from Montagnais irnokué, meaning terrible man, Day proposes a hypothetical Montagnais phrase irno kwédač, meaning a man, an Iroquois, as the origin of this term. More recently, Peter Bakker has proposed a Basque origin for Iroquois. g and he proposes instead that the word derives from hilokoa, from the Basque roots hil to kill, ko, and a. He also argues that the /l/ was rendered as /r/ since the former is not attested in the inventory of any language in the region. Thus the word according to Bakker is translatable as the killer people, a different term, Haudenosaunee, is the designation more commonly used by the Iroquois to refer to themselves. It is also preferred by scholars of Native American history who consider the name Iroquois to be derogatory in origin. An alternate designation, Ganonsyoni, is encountered as well. More transparently, the Iroquois confederacy is also referred to simply as the Six Nations. The history of the Iroquois Confederacy goes back to its formation by the Peacemaker in 1142, each nation within the Iroquoian family had a distinct language, territory and function in the League. Iroquois influence extended into present-day Canada, westward along the Great Lakes, the League is governed by a Grand Council, an assembly of fifty chiefs or sachems, each representing one of the clans of one of the nations. The original Iroquois League or Five Nations, occupied areas of present-day New York State up to the St. Lawrence River, west of the Hudson River. The League was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, in or close to 1722, the Tuscarora tribe joined the League, having migrated from the Carolinas after being displaced by Anglo-European settlement
Haudenosaunee
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Meeting of Hiawatha and Deganawidah by
Sanford Plummer
Haudenosaunee
Haudenosaunee
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Engraving based on a drawing by Champlain of his 1609 voyage. It depicts a battle between Iroquois and Algonquian tribes near
Lake Champlain
Haudenosaunee
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Iroquois conquests 1638–1711
20.
Conrad Weiser
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Conrad Weiser, born Johann Conrad Weiser, Jr. was a Pennsylvania Dutch pioneer, interpreter and diplomat between the Pennsylvania Colony and Native Americans. He was a farmer, soldier, monk, tanner and judge and he contributed as an emissary in councils between Native Americans and the colonies, especially Pennsylvania, during the 18th centurys tensions of the French and Indian War. Conrad Weiser was born in 1696 in the village of Affstätt in Herrenberg, in the Duchy of Württemberg. Soon after Conrads birth, his father received a discharge from the Blue Dragoons and moved back to the family ancestral home of Großaspach. In 1709 fever claimed the life of his mother, Anna Magdalena, after the land and people were ravaged by French invasions related to wars, pestilence. Conrad Weiser wrote for his children, Buried beside Her Ancestors, she was a god-fearing woman and her motto was Jesus I live for thee, I die for thee, thine am I in life and death. Conrad Weiser and his family were among thousands of refugees who left German lands that year and they traveled down the Rhine River and then to England, which had offered some support for the Protestant refugees. The following year in 1710, the Crown arranged for transport in ten ships of the nearly 3,000 Germans to the New York colony, the Crown supported migration of the immigrants to help settle the New York colony. The plan was that they would work off their passage in a form of indenture in camps devoted to producing ships stores, such as tar, later they would be allowed to trade their work for land. Most of the Germans were first located in what were called the East and West Camps on the Hudson River and it was not until 1723 that some 100 heads of families received land grants in the central Mohawk Valley, under Governor Burnetsfield. Weiser senior managed to get his family to the Schoharie Valley earlier than that, when Conrad was 16, his father agreed to a chiefs proposal for the youth to live with the Mohawks in the upper Schoharie Valley. During his stay in the winter and spring of 1712-1713, Weiser learned much about the Mohawk language and the customs of the Iroquois, while enduring hardships of cold, hunger, Conrad Weiser returned to his own people towards the end of July 1713. On November 22,1720, at the age of 24, Weiser married Anna Eve Feck, in 1725 the couple followed the Susquehanna River south out of New York and settled their young family on a farm in Womelsdorf, Pennsylvania near present-day Reading. The couple had fourteen children, of only seven reached adulthood. Weisers colonial service began in 1731, the Iroquois sent Shikellamy, an Oneida chief, as an emissary to other tribes and the British. Shikellamy lived on the Susquehanna River at Shamokin village, near present-day Sunbury, an oral tradition holds that Weiser met Shikellamy while hunting. In any case, the two became friends, when Shikellamy traveled to Philadelphia for a council with the province of Pennsylvania, he brought Weiser with him. The Iroquois trusted him and considered him a son of the Mohawks
Conrad Weiser
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Conrad Weiser
Conrad Weiser
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Conrad Weiser Homestead, Womelsdorf, Berks County, PA
Conrad Weiser
21.
Iroquois
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The Iroquois or Haudenosaunee are a historically powerful northeast Native American confederacy. The Iroquois have absorbed many other peoples into their cultures as a result of warfare, adoption of captives, the historic Erie, Susquehannock, Wyandot, and St. Lawrence Iroquoians, all independent peoples, spoke Iroquoian languages. In 2010, more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, the most common name for the confederacy, Iroquois, is of somewhat obscure origin. The first time it appears in writing is in the account of Samuel de Champlain of his journey to Tadoussac in 1603, other spellings occurring in the earliest sources include Erocoise, Hiroquois, Hyroquoise, Irecoies, Iriquois, Iroquaes, Irroquois, and Yroquois. In the French spoken at the time, this would have been pronounced as or. In 1883, Horatio Hale wrote that the Charlevoix etymology was dubious, Hale suggested instead that the term came from Huron, and was cognate with Mohawk ierokwa they who smoke or Cayuga iakwai a bear. Hewitt responded to Hales etymology in 1888 by expressing doubt that either of those words even exist in the respective languages, a more modern etymology is that advocated by Gordon M. Day in 1968, who elaborates upon an earlier etymology given by Charles Arnaud in 1880. Arnaud had claimed that the word came from Montagnais irnokué, meaning terrible man, Day proposes a hypothetical Montagnais phrase irno kwédač, meaning a man, an Iroquois, as the origin of this term. More recently, Peter Bakker has proposed a Basque origin for Iroquois. g and he proposes instead that the word derives from hilokoa, from the Basque roots hil to kill, ko, and a. He also argues that the /l/ was rendered as /r/ since the former is not attested in the inventory of any language in the region. Thus the word according to Bakker is translatable as the killer people, a different term, Haudenosaunee, is the designation more commonly used by the Iroquois to refer to themselves. It is also preferred by scholars of Native American history who consider the name Iroquois to be derogatory in origin. An alternate designation, Ganonsyoni, is encountered as well. More transparently, the Iroquois confederacy is also referred to simply as the Six Nations. The history of the Iroquois Confederacy goes back to its formation by the Peacemaker in 1142, each nation within the Iroquoian family had a distinct language, territory and function in the League. Iroquois influence extended into present-day Canada, westward along the Great Lakes, the League is governed by a Grand Council, an assembly of fifty chiefs or sachems, each representing one of the clans of one of the nations. The original Iroquois League or Five Nations, occupied areas of present-day New York State up to the St. Lawrence River, west of the Hudson River. The League was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, in or close to 1722, the Tuscarora tribe joined the League, having migrated from the Carolinas after being displaced by Anglo-European settlement
Iroquois
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Meeting of Hiawatha and Deganawidah by
Sanford Plummer
Iroquois
Iroquois
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Engraving based on a drawing by Champlain of his 1609 voyage. It depicts a battle between Iroquois and Algonquian tribes near
Lake Champlain
Iroquois
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Iroquois conquests 1638–1711
22.
Senecas
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The Seneca are a group of indigenous Iroquoian-speaking people native to North America who historically lived south of Lake Ontario. They were the nation located farthest to the west within the Six Nations or Iroquois League in New York before the American Revolution, in the 21st century, more than 10,000 Seneca live in the United States, which has three federally recognized Seneca tribes. Two are in New York, the Seneca Nation of New York, the Seneca-Cayuga Nation is located in Oklahoma, where their ancestors were relocated from Ohio during Indian Removal. Approximately 1,000 Seneca live in Canada, near Brantford, Ontario and they are descendants of Seneca who resettled there after the American Revolution, as they had been allies of the British and forced to cede much of their lands. The Seneca nations own name is Onöndowága, meaning Great Hill Place and it is identical to the endonym used by the Onondaga people. At the time of formation of the Haudenosaunee, they lived as the farthest west of the five nations within the league and they were referred to as the Keepers of the Western Door. Other nations called them Seneca after their village of Osininka. Since Osininka sounds like the Anishinaabe word Asinikaa, meaning Those at the Place Full of Stones, non-Haudenosaunee nations confused the Seneca nations name with that of the Oneida nations endonym Onyotaa, ka, meaning People of the Standing Stone. A legend of the Seneca tribe states that the tribe originated in a village called Nundawao, near the end of Canandaigua Lake. Close to South Hill stands the 865 foot -high Bare Hill, Bare Hill is part of the Bare Hill Unique Area, which began to be acquired by the state in 1989. Bare Hill had been the site of a Seneca or pre-Seneca indigenous fort and they indicate defenses raised by Indian hands, or more probably belong to the labors of a race that preceded the Indian occupation. The wall is now about tumbled down, the stones seem somewhat scattered, in the early 1920s, the material that made up the Bare Hill fort was used by the Town of Middlesex highway department for road fill. The Seneca traditionally lived in what is now New York state between the Genesee River and Canandaigua Lake, the dating of an oral tradition mentioning a solar eclipse yields 1142 AD as the year for the Seneca joining the Iroquois. The Seneca were by far the most populous of the Haudenosaunee nations, the villages were the homes and headquarters of the Seneca. While the Seneca maintained substantial permanent settlements and raised crops in the vicinity of their villages. The villages, where hunting and military campaigns were planned and executed, major Seneca villages were protected with wooden palisades. Ganondagan, with 150 longhouses, was the largest Seneca village of the 17th century, while Chenussio, the Seneca had two branches, the western and the eastern. Each branch distinct, they were incorporated and recognized by the Iroquois Confederacy Council
Senecas
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President Barry E. Snyder, Jr.
Seneca Nation of New York, 2009
Senecas
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Seneca Chief
Cornplanter Portrait by F. Bartoli, 1796
Senecas
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Seneca woman Ah-Weh-Eyu (Pretty Flower), 1908.
Senecas
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Seneca people
message stick, inviting tribes to
Six Nations dance, received in 1905. Exhibit from the Native American Collection,
Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
23.
Onondaga (tribe)
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The Onondaga people are one of the original five constituent nations of the Iroquois Confederacy in northeast North America. Their traditional homeland is in and around present-day Onondaga County, New York and they are known as Gana’dagwëni, io’geh to the other Iroquois tribes. Being centrally located, they are considered the Keepers of the Fire in the figurative longhouse that shelters the Five Nations, the Cayuga and Seneca have territory to their west and the Oneida and Mohawk to their east. For this reason, the League of the Iroquois historically met at the Iroquois governments capital at Onondaga, according to oral tradition, The Great Peacemaker approached the Onondaga and other tribes to found the Haudenosaunee. The tradition tells that at the time the Seneca nation debated joining the Haudenosaunee based on the Great Peacemakers teachings, the most likely eclipse to be recounted was in 1142AD, which was visible to the people in the land of the Seneca. This oral tradition is supported by archeological studies, carbon dating of particular sites of Onondaga habitation shows dates starting close to 1200AD ±60 years with growth for hundreds of years. In the American Revolutionary War, the Onondaga were at first officially neutral, after Americans attacked on their main village on April 20,1779, the Onondaga later sided with the majority of the League and fought against the American colonists in alliance with the British. After the United States was accorded independence, many Onondaga followed Joseph Brant to Upper Canada, in 1816,450 Onondaga were living in New York,210 of whom lived on Buffalo Creek Reservation. The Onondaga in New York have a form of government, with chiefs nominated by clan mothers. They hope to obtain increased influence over environmental restoration efforts at Onondaga Lake, there is potential for the lawsuit to be dismissed based on the precedent established in the Cayuga nations land claim and other defenses. Onondaga Reservation, New York United States Census Bureau Onondaga Nation web page
Onondaga (tribe)
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Sketch by
Samuel de Champlain of his attack on an Onondaga village.
Onondaga (tribe)
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Rose Doctor, Onondaga people Wolf Clan,
Clanmother
24.
Oneidas
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The Oneida are a Native American tribe and First Nations band. They are one of the five founding nations of the Iroquois Confederacy in the area of upstate New York, the Iroquois call themselves Haudenosaunee in reference to their communal lifestyle and the construction style of their dwellings. Originally the Oneida inhabited the area later became central New York, particularly around Oneida Lake. The name Oneida is derived from the English pronunciation of Onyotaa, ka, Onyotaa, ka means People of the Standing Stone. This identity is based on an ancient legend, the Oneida people were being pursued on foot by an enemy tribe. As their enemies chased the Oneida into a clearing within the woodlands, the enemy could not find them, and so it was said that the Oneida had shapeshifted into the stones that stood in the clearing. As a result, they known as the People of the Standing Stone. Older legends have the Oneida people identifying as the Big Tree People, not much is written about this. Iroquoian elders would have to be consulted on the history of this identification. The association may correspond to Iroquoian concepts of the Great Tree of Peace, individuals born into the Oneida Nation are identified according to their spirit name, or what may be called an Indian name, their clan, and their family unit within a clan. The people have a kinship system, and children are considered to be born into the mothers clan, through which descent. Each gender, clan, and family unit within a clan has particular duties and responsibilities in the tribe, clan identities go back to the Creation Story of the Onyotaa, ka peoples. The people identify with three clans, the Wolf, Turtle or Bear clans, children take their social status from their mothers clan. Because of this, her eldest brother is a significant figure for the children and he supervises the boys passage into adulthood as men. During the early 17th century, the Oneidas occupied and maintained roughly 6 million acres of land in what is modern day central New York State, on September 4,1784, the governor of New York, George Clinton, requested from the Oneidas the borders of their land. The Oneidas replied with their easterly borders, at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1786, the Oneidas eastern border was formally established with Sir William Johnson. The Oneida, along with the five tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy. This policy allowed the Confederacy increased leverage against both sides in the war, because they could threaten to join one side or the other in the event of any provocation, the preponderance of the Mohawks, Senecas, Cayugas, and Onondagas sided with the Loyalists and British
Oneidas
25.
Cayugas
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The Cayuga people was one of the five original constituents of the Haudenosaunee, a confederacy of American Indians in New York. The Cayuga homeland lay in the Finger Lakes region along Cayuga Lake, today Cayuga people belong to the Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation in Ontario, and the federally recognized Cayuga Nation of New York and the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma. Political relations between the Cayuga, the British, and the Thirteen Colonies during the American Revolution were complicated and variable, most of the Iroquois nations allied with the British, in part hoping to end encroachment on their lands by colonists. The campaign mobilized 6200 troops and devastated the Cayuga and other Iroquois homelands and those destroyed included major Cayuga villages such as Cayuga Castle and Chonodote. The expedition, with attacks from the spring through the fall, also destroyed the crops and winter stores of the Iroquois, survivors fled to other Iroquois tribes, or to Upper Canada. Some were granted land there by the British in recognition of their loyalty to the Crown and these tribes became known as the Mingo or Black Mingo, for they had a bad reputation, so were able to take in their kin after that systematic bloodletting in 1779. After the Sullivan Campaign, more Cayuga joined them, as well as other bands of Iroquois who left New York before the end of the Revolutionary War. As the American Revolution was nearing its end, settlers resumed trekking west of the Alleghenies in a trickle that by 1810, became a flood. Only weakened cobbled together tribes, such as the Mingo were in the land, by 1831 those Indians left in the lands east of Ohio were encouraged by bigotry, and at times forcibly removed to the Indian Territory, in what became Oklahoma. Their remnants, consequently, the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma is a recognized tribe. It was the treaty the United States entered into. It recognized the rights of the Haudenosaunee as sovereign nations, the Pacer Test remains an operating legal document, the U. S. government continues to send the requisite gift of muslin fabric to the nations each year. The state of New York made additional treaties with the tribes, the state rapidly arranged sales of more than 5 million acres of former Iroquois lands at inexpensive prices to encourage development in the state. It also granted some lands to war veterans in lieu of pay. Speculators bought up as much land as they could and resold it to new settlers, land-hungry Yankees from New England flooded into New York in waves of new settlement, as did some settlers from the Mohawk Valley. Immigrants also came from the British Isles and France after the war, today, there are three Cayuga bands. The two largest, the Lower Cayuga and Upper Cayuga, still live in Ontario, both at Six Nations of the Grand River, a recognized by the Canada. Two federally recognized tribes of Cayuga constitute the third band in the United States, the Cayuga Nation of New York in Seneca Falls, New York, the Cayuga Nation of New York does not have a reservation
Cayugas
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Tammy Rahr, a Cayuga bead artist
26.
Mohawks
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The Mohawk people are the most easterly tribe of the Haudenosaunee, or Iroquois Confederacy. They are an Iroquoian-speaking indigenous people of North America, the Mohawk were historically based in the Mohawk Valley in present-day upstate New York west of the Hudson River, their territory ranged north to the St. As one of the five members of the Iroquois League. For hundreds of years, they guarded the Iroquois Confederation against invasion from that direction by tribes from the New England and their current major settlements include areas around Lake Ontario and the St Lawrence River in Canada and New York. In the Mohawk language, the say that they are from Kanienkehá. The Mohawk became wealthy traders as other nations in their confederacy needed their flint for tool making and their Algonquian-speaking neighbors, the people of Muh-heck Haeek Ing, a name transliterated by the Dutch as Mohican or Mahican, referred to the People of Ka-nee-en Ka as Maw Unk Lin. The Dutch heard and wrote this term as Mohawk, and also referred to the Mohawk as Egil or Maqua, the French colonists adapted these latter terms as Aignier and Maqui, respectively. They also referred to the people by the generic Iroquois, a French derivation of the Algonquian term for the Five Nations, the Algonquians and Iroquois were traditional competitors and enemies. The Mohawk had extended their own influence into the St. Lawrence River Valley and they are believed to have defeated the St. Lawrence Iroquoians in the 16th century, and kept control of their territory. In addition to hunting and fishing, for centuries the Mohawk cultivated productive maize fields on the floodplains along the Mohawk River. The Dutch were primarily merchants and the French also conducted fur trading and their Jesuit missionaries were active among First Nations and Native Americans, seeking converts to Catholicism. In 1614, the Dutch opened a trading post at Fort Nassau, the Dutch initially traded for furs with the local Mahican, who occupied the territory along the Hudson River. European contact resulted in a smallpox epidemic among the Mohawk in 1635. For instance, Johannes Megapolensis, a Dutch minister, recorded the spelling of the three villages as Asserué, Banagiro, and Thenondiogo. While the Dutch later established settlements in present-day Schenectady and Schoharie, further west in the Mohawk Valley, Schenectady was established essentially as a farming settlement, where Dutch took over some of the former Mohawk maize fields in the floodplain along the river. Through trading, the Mohawk and Dutch became allies of a kind, during their alliance, the Mohawks allowed Dutch Protestant missionary Johannes Megapolensis to come into their tribe and teach the Christian message. He operated from the Fort Nassau area about six years, writing a record in 1644 of his observations of the Mohawk, their language, and their culture. While he noted their ritual of torture of captives, he recognized that their society had few other killings, especially compared to the Netherlands of that period
Mohawks
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Thayendanegea or
Joseph Brant, painted by
Gilbert Stuart, 1786
Mohawks
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Teyoninhokovrawen (
John Norton) played a prominent role in the War of 1812, leading Iroquois warriors from Grand River into battle against Americans. Norton was part
Cherokee and part
Scottish.
Mohawks
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Mohawk dancer at a pow wow in 2015
Mohawks
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Pauline Johnson, Mohawk writer
27.
Wyandots
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By the 15th century, the pre-contact Wyandots settled in the large area from the north shores of most of present-day Lake Ontario, northwards up to Georgian Bay. They were located in the part of what is now the Canadian province of Ontario around Georgian Bay. Drastically reduced in number by epidemic diseases after 1634, they were dispersed by war in 1649 from the Iroquois, today the Wyandot have a First Nations reserve in Quebec, Canada. They also have three major settlements in the United States, two of which have independently governed, federally recognized tribes, due to differing development of the groups, they speak distinct forms of Wendat and Wyandot languages. Early theories placed Huron origin in the St. Lawrence Valley, with some arguing for a presence near Montreal, in 1975 and 1978, archeologists excavated a large 15th-century Huron village, now called the Draper Site, in Pickering, Ontario near Lake Ontario. In 2003 a larger village was discovered five kilometres away in Whitchurch-Stouffville, the sites each were surrounded by a palisade, as was typical of Iroquoian cultures. The Mantle Site had more than 70 multi-family longhouses, subsequently they moved from there to their historic territory on Georgian Bay, where they were encountered by Champlain in 1615. In the early 17th century, this Iroquoian people called themselves the Wendat, the Wendat historic territory was bordered on three sides, by the waters of Georgian Bay and Lake Simcoe. Early French explorers referred to these natives as the Huron, either from the French huron, according to tradition, French sailors thought that the bristly hairstyle of Wendat warriors resembled that of a boar. However, these negative etymological meanings conflict with the bon Iroquois attitude held by the French fur traders and explorers, an alternate etymology is from the Algonquin words ronon, or Irri-ronon. It was pronounced Hirri-ronon by the French, eventually shortened to Hirr-on, other etymological possibilities come from the Algonquin words ka-ron or tu-ron. The Wendat were not a tribe, but a confederacy of four or more tribes with mutually intelligible languages, according to tradition, this Wendat Confederacy was initiated by the Attignawantans and the Attigneenongnahacs, who made their alliance in the 15th century. They were joined by the Arendarhonons about 1590, and the Tahontaenrats around 1610, a fifth group, the Ataronchronons, may not have attained full membership in the confederacy, and may have been a division of the Attignawantan. The largest Wendat settlement, and capital of the confederacy, was located at Ossossane, near modern-day Elmvale and they called their traditional territory Wendake. Closely related to the people of the Huron Confederacy were the Tionontate and they lived further south and were divided into two groups, the Deer and the Wolves. Considering that they formed the nucleus of the later known as the Wyandot. Tuberculosis was endemic among the Huron, aggravated by the close, despite this, the Huron on the whole were healthy, the Jesuits wrote that the Huron effectively employed natural remedies and were more healthy than we. The earliest written accounts of the Huron were made by the French, news of the Europeans reached the Huron, particularly when Samuel de Champlain explored the Saint Lawrence River in the early 17th century
Wyandots
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Huron-Plume group – Spencerwood, Quebec City, 1880
Wyandots
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Wyandot Wendat-Huron
Wyandots
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Tribe totems
Wyandots
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Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons,
Gabriel Sagard, 1632
28.
Shawnees
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The Shawnee are an Algonquian-speaking ethnic group indigenous to North America. Pushed west by European-American pressure, the Shawnee migrated to Missouri and Kansas, Other Shawnee did not remove to Oklahoma until after the Civil War. The Shawnee language, an Algonquian language, was spoken by 200 people in 2002, the language is written in the Latin script. It has a dictionary and portions of the Bible were translated into Shawnee, some scholars believe that the Shawnee are descendants of the people of the precontact Fort Ancient culture of the Ohio region, although this is not universally accepted. Fort Ancient culture flourished from 1000 to 1650 CE among a people who predominantly inhabited lands along the Ohio River in areas of southern Ohio, northern Kentucky, Fort Ancient culture was once thought to have been an extension of the Mississippian culture. But, scholars now believe Fort Ancient culture developed independently and was descended from the Hopewell culture, uncertainty surrounds the fate of the Fort Ancient people. There is a gap in the record between the most recent Fort Ancient sites and the oldest sites of the Shawnee. The latter were recorded by European explorers as occupying this area at the time of encounter, the Shawnee traditionally considered the Lenape of the East Coast mid-Atlantic region, who were also Algonquian speaking, as their grandfathers. The Algonquian nations of present-day Canada regarded the US Shawnee as their southernmost branch, along the East Coast, the Algonquian-speaking tribes were mostly located in coastal areas, from Quebec to the Carolinas. Algonquian languages have similar to the archaic shawano meaning south. However, the stem šawa- does not mean south in Shawnee, in one Shawnee tale, Sawage is the deity of the south wind. Curtin translates Sawage as it thaws, referring to the weather of the south. šaawaki is attested as the spirit of the South, or the South Wind, in account, in one of Voegelins tales. Europeans reported encountering Shawnee over a geographic area. One of the earliest mentions of the Shawnee may be a 1614 Dutch map showing some Sawwanew located just east of the Delaware River, later 17th-century Dutch sources also place them in this general location. Accounts by French explorers in the same century usually located the Shawnee along the Ohio River, where the French encountered them on forays from eastern Canada, a Shawnee town might have from forty to one hundred bark-covered houses similar in construction to Iroquois longhouses. Each village usually had a house or council house, perhaps sixty to ninety feet long. According to one European legend, some Shawnee were descended from a party sent by Chief Opechancanough, ruler of the Powhatan Confederacy 1618–1644, the party was led by his son, Sheewa-a-nee
Shawnees
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Shawnee portraits
Shawnees
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Fort Ancient Monongahela cultures by Herb Roe
Shawnees
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Serpent Mound, Peebles, Ohio
Shawnees
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Tecumseh, by Benson Lossing in 1848 based on 1808 drawing.
29.
Tisagechroamis
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The Mississauga are a subtribe of the Anishinaabe-speaking First Nations people located in southern Ontario, Canada. They are closely related to the Ojibwa, the name Mississauga comes from the Anishinaabe word Misi-zaagiing, meaning Great River-mouth. It closely related to the Ojibwe word Misswezahging, which means ‘a river with many outlets and they became lost both physically and spiritually. The Mississaugas migrated along a route by the Credit River. These were considered their traditional lands on the shores of Lake Superior. The Mississaugas called for the core Anishinaabe to Midewiwin meaning return to the path of the good life, by the time the French explorers arrived in 1534, the Mississaugas were a distinct tribe of Anishinaabe peoples, living along the Mississagi River and on Manitoulin Island. On the 1675 Carte du Mississippi et des lacs Supérieur, Michigan et Huron and they had moved from the Mississagi River area southward into the Kawartha lakes region. From this location, a smaller contingent moved southwest to an area along the Credit River, the French identified the peoples as Mississauga. Alternate spellings of the name are Mississaga, Massassauga and Missisauga, when Conrad Weiser conducted a census in Logstown in 1748, he identified the people as Tisagechroamis, his attempt at conveying the sound of their exonym, name in Wendat. Other variants of the spelling were Tisagechroamis, Tisaghechroamis, Tisagechroan, Tisagechroanu, the Tisagechroanu were the Mississagas from Lake Huron, a large tribe of French Indians, or under French influences. The name Tisagechroanue here is probably a misprint, for it is most often found Zisaugeghroanu. They wanted to land grants to Loyalists who left property in the Thirteen Colonies to reward them for loyalty. The city of Mississauga is named after the Mississauga Western and Eastern massasauga rattlesnake are named after them, fort Mississauga is named after them. Historically, there were five First Nations that made up the Mississauga Nations, as of 2005, the Mississaugas of New Credit have a population of 1,375. All the Mississaugas are a part of the Ojibwa nation of 200,000 people. Crawford Purchase Toronto Purchase Mississaugas of the New Credit First Nations Mississaugas of Alderville First Nation United Anishnaabeg Council Ogemawahj Tribal Council
Tisagechroamis
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Range of Anishinaabe-Anishinini including Mississaugas around 1800
30.
Mohicans
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Following the disruption of the American Revolutionary War, most of the Mahican descendants first migrated westward to join the Iroquois Oneida on their reservation in central New York. The Oneida gave them about 22,000 acres for their use, after more than two decades, in the 1820s and 1830s, the Oneida and the Stockbridge moved again, pressured to relocate to northeastern Wisconsin under the federal Indian Removal program. Therefore, they, along with tribes living along the Hudson River, were called the River Indians by the Dutch. The Dutch heard and wrote the term for the people of the area variously as, Mahigan, Mahikander, Mahinganak, Maikan and Mawhickon, which the English simplified later to Mahican or Mohican. The Mahican were living in and around the Hudson River at the time of their first contact with Europeans traders along the Hudson River in the 1590s, after 1609 at the time of the settlement of New Netherland, they also ranged along the Mohawk River and the Hoosic River. In their own language, the Mahican referred to collectively as the Muhhekunneuw. The original Mahican homeland was the Hudson River Valley from the Catskill Mountains north to the end of Lake Champlain. Usually consisting of 20 to 30 mid-sized longhouses, they were located on hills, agriculture provided most of their diet but was supplemented by game, fish, and wild foods. Mahican villages were governed by hereditary sachems advised by a council of clan elders, a general council of sachems met regularly at Shodac to decide important matters affecting the entire confederacy. The Mahican were a confederacy of five tribes and as many as forty villages, Mahican proper, Mechkentowoon Wawyachtonoc Westenhuck Wiekagjoc The Mahican traded with Henry Hudson when he sailed up the Hudson River in September,1609. Hudson returned to Holland with a cargo of furs which immediately attracted Dutch merchants to the area. The first Dutch fur traders arrived on the Hudson River the following year to trade with the Mahican, besides exposing them to European epidemics, the fur trade destabilized the region. Many settled in the town of Stockbridge, Massachusetts, where they became known as the Stockbridge Indians. Etow Oh Koam, one of their chiefs, accompanied three Mohawk chiefs on a visit to Queen Anne and her government in England in 1710. They were popularly referred to as the Four Mohawk Kings, the Stockbridge Indians allowed Protestant missionaries, including Jonathan Edwards, to live among them. In the 18th century, many converted to Christianity, while keeping certain traditions of their own and they fought on the side of the British colonists in the French and Indian War. During the American Revolution, they sided with the colonists, Henry Rauch reached out to two Mahican leaders, Maumauntissekun, also known as Shabash, and Wassamapah, who took him back to Shekomeko. They named him the new religious teacher, over time, Rauch won listeners, as the Mahicans had suffered much from disease and warfare, which had disrupted their society
Mohicans
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The Mahican chief Etow Oh Koam, referred to as one of the
Four Mohawk Kings in a state visit to
Queen Anne in 1710. By
John Simon, c1750.
Mohicans
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Historic territory of the Mahicans.
