1.
Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park
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It contains the athletes Olympic Village and several of the sporting venues including the London Stadium and London Aquatics Centre, besides the London Olympics Media Centre. The park is overlooked by the ArcelorMittal Orbit, an observation tower and it was simply called Olympic Park during the Games but was later renamed to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II. The park occupies an area straddling four east London boroughs, Newham, Tower Hamlets, Hackney, part of the park reopened in July 2013, with a large majority of the rest reopening in April 2014. The site covers parts of Stratford, Bow, Leyton, and Hackney Wick in east London, the site was previously a mixture of greenfield and brownfield land, including parts of Hackney Marshes. The Royal Mail gave the park and Stratford City the postcode E20, the park was designed by the EDAW Consortium, working with Arup and WS Atkins. Detailed landscape architecture was by LDA Design in conjunction with Hargreaves Associates, LDA design contracted Wallace Whittle to carry out various aspects of the M+E Building services design. The NHBC carried out the Sustainability assessments, the park was illuminated with a lighting scheme designed by Sutton Vane Associates. The fencing arena was also cancelled, with the events taking place at ExCeL London. The remaining indoor arenas are the Basketball Arena and the Copper Box, in addition to the Water Polo Arena, the Aquatics Centre, the final design of the park was approved by the Olympic Delivery Authority and its planning-decisions committee. The Legacy List is the independent charity for Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, Sarah Weir, who is an Executive Director of the Almeida Theatre and was running Arts Council England, found The Legacy List, the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park charity. In autumn 2013 Sarah moved on to take up the role of Chief Executive at Waddesdon Manor, during its construction over 80,000 workers were engaged on the project. The construction of the Olympic Park was managed by CLM Delivery Partner, comprising CH2M Hill, Laing ORourke, CLM specifically managed the white space between the venue construction zones, including managing the internal road network. No one, except perhaps the admirable Oudolf, wants to do the quiet stuff, great care was taken to make the Athletes Village aesthetically orderly, to the point where it began to resemble Ceausescus Bucharest, this eruption makes such efforts futile. Robert Holden and Tom Turner, in a review of the Olympic Parks landscape architecture state that Our fundamental point is that the planning is much better than the landscape design. The landscape planning includes the opening up of the River Lea in the section of the park, the habitat-creation strategy. The landscape design is dominated by vast pedestrian concourses which will be busy during events, there is some good garden-type planting but it has not been used to make gardens, it is used more like strips of planting beside highways. The park has a number of uses after the 2012 Summer Olympic Games in London finished, such as, a university exploiting the sporting facilities and high-tech communications infrastructure remaining specialising in sport science, digital media and green technology. 3,600 apartments, the East Village, next to the Stratford City neighbourhood of Stratford, the Orbit, a steel tower which is the largest public work of art in the UK and a major tourist attraction
2.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
3.
E postcode area
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The E postcode area, also known as the London E postcode area, is the part of the London post town covering much of the eastern part of Greater London, England and also Sewardstone in Essex. Since the closure of the East London mail centre during the summer of 2012, inward mail for the E postcode area is now sorted at Romford Mail Centre, with the IG and RM postcode area mail. The current E postcode area was formed in 1866 as a merger of the E. In 1917, the districts were numbered alphabetically by their location. As of 2004, the names do not form part of the postal address. Where districts are used for other than the sorting of mail, such as use as a geographic reference and on street signs, E1. The E postcode area contains two non-geographic postcode districts for business users, E77 and E98. The Eastern District Office is located on Whitechapel Road and was the terminus for the former London Post Office Railway. The railway ran 10.5 kilometres to the Paddington Head District Sorting Office, the E20 postcode has been used fictionally as the postcode on the television soap-opera series EastEnders. However, it became a real postcode in 2011, being created for the new Olympic Park in Stratford, site of the 2012 Summer Olympics, Postcode districts E6, E14 and E16 also have river frontages in the south. The River Roding and the North Circular Road form part of the boundary in the east, the postcode area maps roughly to the combined area of the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, London Borough of Newham and London Borough of Waltham Forest. The 1990s pop band East 17, formed in Walthamstow, take their name from the postcode district E17, the postcode area does not cover all of East London. The postcode area is a sub-set of East London, with notable exclusions, hoxton in Shoreditch which is part of the N postcode area, despite usually being seen as being part of the East End. The eastern suburbs built after the introduction of the E postcode area, Postcode Address File List of postcode areas in the United Kingdom London postal district North East Royal Mails Postcode Address File A quick introduction to Royal Mails Postcode Address File
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
London Underground
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The London Underground is a public rapid transit system serving London and some parts of the adjacent counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom. The network has expanded to 11 lines, and in 2015–16 carried 1.34 billion passengers, the 11 lines collectively handle approximately 4.8 million passengers a day. The system has 270 stations and 250 miles of track, despite its name, only 45% of the system is actually underground in tunnels, with much of the network in the outer environs of London being on the surface. In addition, the Underground does not cover most southern parts of Greater London, the current operator, London Underground Limited, is a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London, the statutory corporation responsible for the transport network in Greater London. As of 2015, 92% of operational expenditure is covered by passenger fares, the Travelcard ticket was introduced in 1983 and Oyster, a contactless ticketing system, in 2003. Contactless card payments were introduced in 2014, the LPTB was a prominent patron of art and design, commissioning many new station buildings, posters and public artworks in a modernist style. Other famous London Underground branding includes the roundel and Johnston typeface, to prepare construction, a short test tunnel was built in 1855 in Kibblesworth, a small town with geological properties similar to London. This test tunnel was used for two years in the development of the first underground train, and was later, in 1861, the worlds first underground railway, it opened in January 1863 between Paddington and Farringdon using gas-lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives. It was hailed as a success, carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day, the Metropolitan District Railway opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an underground inner circle connecting Londons main-line termini. The Metropolitan and District railways completed the Circle line in 1884, built using the cut and this opened in 1890 with electric locomotives that hauled carriages with small opaque windows, nicknamed padded cells. The Waterloo and City Railway opened in 1898, followed by the Central London Railway in 1900, the Metropolitan Railway protested about the change of plan, but after arbitration by the Board of Trade, the DC system was adopted. When the Bakerloo was so named in July 1906, The Railway Magazine called it an undignified gutter title, by 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines. In January 1913, the UERL acquired the Central London Railway, the Bakerloo line was extended north to Queens Park to join a new electric line from Euston to Watford, but World War I delayed construction and trains reached Watford Junction in 1917. During air raids in 1915 people used the stations as shelters. An extension of the Central line west to Ealing was also delayed by the war, the Metropolitan promoted housing estates near the railway with the Metro-land brand and nine housing estates were built near stations on the line. Electrification was extended north from Harrow to Rickmansworth, and branches opened from Rickmansworth to Watford in 1925, the Piccadilly line was extended north to Cockfosters and took over District line branches to Harrow and Hounslow. In 1933, most of Londons underground railways, tramway and bus services were merged to form the London Passenger Transport Board, the Waterloo & City Railway, which was by then in the ownership of the main line Southern Railway, remained with its existing owners. In the same year that the London Passenger Transport Board was formed, in the following years, the outlying lines of the former Metropolitan Railway closed, the Brill Tramway in 1935, and the line from Quainton Road to Verney Junction in 1936
6.
London Overground
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The London Overground is a suburban rail network in the United Kingdom. Established in 2007, it serves a large part of Greater London and parts of Hertfordshire, the network forms part of the National Rail network, but under the franchise control and branding of Transport for London. Operation has been franchised to Arriva Rail London since 13 November 2016, the Overground has been assigned the colour orange as a mode specific colour by Transport for London. This colour is used in the Overground version of the TfL roundel, for the representation of Overground routes on the map, in train interiors. Rail services in Great Britain are mostly run under franchises operated by train operating companies. The concept of developing a network of services around London goes back to the independently produced Ringrail proposals in the early 1970s. The proposal from Barren was for several overlapping services mainly using the North London Line and this was given the marketing name Cross Town Link-Line, and operated with basic 2-car diesel units. The next initiative came from the GLC in 1984, when the government supported the Broadgate development that would entail the demolition of Broad Street Station. The closure process was convoluted because of problems in making arrangements for the North London Line. These would eventually run to and from Liverpool Street via a new section of track and this used a name once associated with a semicircular service that operated from Broad Street to Mansion House, but ceased during World War 1. The pamphlets and briefings, first issued in 1997, initially suggested a route from Clapham Junction to the Greenwich Peninsula, intended to improve access from south London to the Millennium Dome. However, this was thwarted by architect Richard Rogers who considered a railway route on an elevated viaduct could cause community severance, nothing further happened to develop this network until after the new GLA was set up in 2000. But the lobbying discreetly continued with a series of short briefings published by one RDS member based in North London, mayoral and GLA candidates were approached to discuss the viability of the Outer Circle concept. The principle was widely supported and was adopted into the first Mayors Transport Plan, meanwhile, a pilot scheme was launched in 2003 to bring several National Rail local services, mainly in South London and operated by multiple companies, under the ON – Overground Network brand. TfL introduced consistent information displays, station signage and maps on the routes in South London. The pilot scheme was later dropped, in January 2004 the Department for Transport announced a review of the rail industry in Great Britain. As part of review, proposals were put forward by TfL for a London Regional Rail Authority to give TfL regulatory powers over rail services in. A result of consultation was agreement by the then Secretary of State for Transport, Alistair Darling
7.
Crossrail
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Crossrail is a 118-kilometre railway line under development in London and the home counties of Berkshire, Buckinghamshire and Essex. The project was approved in 2007 and construction began in 2009 on the central section and it has been described as one of Europes largest infrastructure construction projects. Its main feature is 21 km of new twin tunnels through central London and these tunnels will run from Paddington to Stratford and Canary Wharf in the east. Crossrail will be operated by MTR Corporation Ltd as a London Rail concession of Transport for London, in a similar manner to London Overground. The need for extra capacity along this corridor is such that the head of TfL, Sir Peter Hendy. New nine-carriage Class 345 trains will run at frequencies in the section of up to 24 trains per hour in each direction. The project that became Crossrail has origins in the 1943 County of London Plan and 1944 Greater London Plan by Patrick Abercrombie and these led to a specialist investigation by the Railway Committee, appointed in 1944 and reporting in 1946 and 1948. The term Crossrail emerged in the 1974 London Rail Study Report, although the idea was seen as imaginative, only a brief estimate of cost was given, £300 million. A feasibility study was recommended as a priority so that the practicability. It was also suggested that the alignment of the tunnels should be safeguarded while a decision was taken. The Central London Rail Study of 1989 proposed tunnels linking the rail network as the East–West Crossrail, City Crossrail. The City route was shown as a new connection across the City of London linking the Great Northern Route with London Bridge, the report also recommended a number of other schemes including a Thameslink Metro route enhancement, and the Chelsea–Hackney line. The cost of the east–west scheme including rolling stock was estimated at £885 million, in 1991 a private bill was submitted to Parliament for a scheme including a new underground line from Paddington to Liverpool Street. In 2001 Cross London Rail Links, a joint-venture between TfL and the DfT, was formed to develop and promote the Crossrail scheme, the proposal was rejected by Crossrail, and failed to receive the backing of the Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, or the DfT. In February 2008 the Bill moved to the House of Lords, the Act gave CLRL the powers necessary to build the line. Construction began on 15 May 2009 when construction started, in September 2009 the project received £1 billion in funding. The money was lent to TfL by the European Investment Bank, the original planned schedule was that the first trains would run in 2017, but in 2010 the government delayed this to 2018 in order to save £1 billion. Crossrails central core section will utilise new east–west twin tunnels under central London, the tunnelled sections will be approximately 22 kilometres in length
8.
Docklands Light Railway
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The Docklands Light Railway is an automated light metro system opened in 1987 to serve the redeveloped Docklands area of London. It reaches north to Stratford, south to Lewisham, west to Tower Gateway and Bank in the City of London financial district, and east to Beckton, London City Airport and Woolwich Arsenal. The system uses minimal staffing on trains and at interchange stations. Similar proposals have made for the Tube. The DLR is operated under a franchise awarded by Transport for London to KeolisAmey Docklands and it was previously run for over 17 years by Serco Docklands, part of the Serco Group. The system is owned by Docklands Light Railway Ltd, part of the London Rail division of Transport for London, in Fiscal Year 2014, the DLR carried 110.2 million passengers. It has been extended several times and further extensions are under consideration, the docks immediately east of Central London began to decline in the early 1960s as cargo became containerised. They had been connected to the railway network via the London and Blackwall Railway. The opening of the Tilbury container docks, further east in Essex, finally rendered them redundant, as early as 1972, consideration was given to how to redevelop the moribund Docklands. Travis Morgan & Partners were commissioned by the London Docklands Study Team to consider the issue, the Greater London Council formed a Docklands Joint Committee with the Boroughs of Greenwich, Lewisham, Newham, Southwark and Tower Hamlets in 1974 to undertake the redevelopment of the area. A light railway system was envisaged, terminating either at Tower Hill tube station or at Fenchurch Street, but both options were seen as too expensive. This was intended to be the stage of the Fleet line – which had been renamed the Jubilee line. The government created the London Docklands Development Corporation in July 1981 to coordinate the redevelopment of the Docklands, the need to provide a cheap public transport solution led to it commissioning London Transport to evaluate a number of exclusively light rail options. The core of the route ran alongside the Great Eastern line out of London, three terminus options were proposed at the west end, at Tower Hill, Minories and Aldgate East. The Tower Hill option would have required a low-level interchange to be constructed alongside the existing Underground station, the Minories option, a high-level station virtually on the site of the old Minories railway station, was selected and became the current Tower Gateway DLR terminus. However, it became apparent that there was no capacity on the existing network for integrating the DLR into the Underground. Two southern terminus options were put forward, at Cubitt Town and Tiller Road, on the west side of Millwall Dock, with two possible routes to reach them. The central option required the West India Docks to be infilled or bridged and would run down the middle of the peninsula, the contract for the initial system was awarded to GEC Mowlem in 1984 and the system was constructed from 1985 to 1987 at a cost of £77 million
9.
National Rail
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The name and the accompanying double arrow symbol are the intellectual property of the Secretary of State for Transport. The National Rail logo was introduced by ATOC in 1999, and was used on the Great Britain public timetable for the first time in the edition valid from 26 September in that year. Rules for its use are set out in the Corporate Identity Style Guidelines published by the Rail Delivery Group, the NR title is sometimes described as a brand. As it was used by British Rail, the operator before franchising, its use also maintains continuity and public familiarity. National Rail should not be confused with Network Rail, the two networks are generally coincident where passenger services are run. Most major Network Rail lines carry traffic and some lines are freight only. About twenty privately owned operating companies, each franchised for a defined term by government. The Rail Delivery Group is the association representing the TOCs and provides core services. It also runs Rail Settlement Plan, which allocates ticket revenue to the various TOCs, and Rail Staff Travel and it does not compile the national timetable, which is the joint responsibility of the Office of Rail Regulation and Network Rail. Since the privatisation of British Rail there is no longer a single approach to design on railways in Great Britain, the look and feel of signage, liveries and marketing material is largely the preserve of the individual TOCs. However, National Rail continues to use BRs famous double-arrow symbol and it has been incorporated in the National Rail logotype and is displayed on tickets, the National Rail website and other publicity. The trademark rights to the arrow symbol remain state-owned, being vested in the Secretary of State for Transport. The double arrow was already prescribed for indicating a railway station, the lettering used in the National Rail logotype is a modified form of the typeface Sassoon Bold. It is a misconception that Rail Alphabet was also used for printed material. The British Rail typefaces of choice from 1965 were Helvetica and Univers, TOCs may use what they like, examples include Futura, Helvetica, Frutiger, Bliss, and a modified version of Precious by London Midland. Several conurbations have their own metro or tram systems, most of which are not part of National Rail, LO now also possesses some infrastructure in its own right, following the reopening of the former East London line of London Underground as the East London Railway of LO. Heathrow Express and Eurostar are also not part of the National Rail network despite sharing of stations, northern Ireland Railways were never part of British Rail, which was always confined to Great Britain, and therefore are not part of the National Rail network. National Rail services have a common ticketing structure inherited from British Rail, through tickets are available between any pair of stations on the network, and can be bought from any station ticket office
10.
Stratford station
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Stratford is a major multilevel interchange station serving the district of Stratford and the mixed-use development of Stratford City in the London Borough of Newham, Greater London. On the Underground it is a through-station on the Central line between Mile End and Leyton, and it is the terminus of the Jubilee line following West Ham. On the DLR it is a terminus for trains and for others it is a through-station between Stratford High Street and Stratford International. There are also limited services operated by c2c between Liverpool Street and Shoeburyness via the London, Tilbury and Southend Railway. From 2019 the full Crossrail service will replace TfL Rail, linking Stratford to other stations in central London as well as Reading, the station was opened in 1839 by the Eastern Counties Railway. Today it is owned by Network Rail and is situated in Travelcard zone 2/3, Stratford served as a key travel hub for the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games held in London. By the most recent National Rail entry and exit figures, it is the 6th busiest station in Britain, the Northern and Eastern Railway opened a section of its authorised line from Broxbourne to join the ECR at Stratford on 15 September 1840. As well as a station, a railway works was built adjacent to the line to Broxbourne and this and the engine shed later expanded into the area to the west of the station which is now occupied by a shopping centre and Stratford International station. The ECR tracks were set to a gauge of 5 ft on the recommendation of engineer John Braithwaite. This choice meant that the Northern & Eastern Railway who were planning to share the ECR line between Stratford and Bishopsgate were forced to adopt the same gauge, at the same time the associated Northern & Eastern Railway was also converted. New station buildings were built in 1847 replacing the structure on Angel Road. These were located in the V between the Cambridge and Colchester lines and access was via Station Road, the line through the low level platforms first opened in 1846 as a goods only branch as far as Thames Wharf. The bridge under the line was too low for many locomotives. On opening there was also a line that linked what is now known as the Great Eastern Main Line directly to the docks enabling through running from Colchester to Thames Wharf, the docks and associated railway networks expanded with passenger services to North Woolwich starting in 1847. There was an accident at Stratford station on 18 July 1846 when an up train ran into the back of a passenger train from Ipswich. There were 10 passengers seriously injured one of whom later died, in 1854 the newly opened London Tilbury and Southend Railway served Stratford joining the main line at Forest Gate Junction a few miles north. Their services generally served Fenchurch Street and were routed via the Bow Road route although some carriages were detached at Stratford for onward working to Bishopsgate and this practice was discontinued in 1856 as passengers preferred the more conveniently sited Fenchurch Street. In connection with the introduction of the new LTSR services a third line was built from Stratford to Bow Junction which was used by down Fenchurch Street services and a new platform face opened
11.
Stratford International station
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Stratford International is a National Rail and connected Docklands Light Railway station located in Stratford in the London Borough of Newham, east London. On the DLR it is a terminus for services via Canning Town. Construction of the National Rail station was completed in 2006 but it opened in 2009. In 2011 an extension of the DLR was opened to connect Stratford International to the wider London public transport network, the DLR station is physically separate and across the road from the HS1 station. Oyster cards are valid for travel to and from the DLR station, which is in Travelcard zone 2/3, the four-platform HS1 station is built within Stratford Box, a 1. 1-kilometre concrete-sided cutting. It is located on the edge of the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park. The station is on the High Speed 1 railway between St. Pancras and Ebbsfleet International, as the station lies just inside the eastern boundary of the London Olympic Park, much of the surrounding land was little more than construction site until mid-2012. The tracks descend into tunnel at both ends of the station as its platforms are closer to the surface than the tunnels, Stratford International has four platforms in the station box, two at the outer edges and two shorter ones forming a central island. The main line tracks run down each side of the station between the adjacent platforms. There is a room on the island platforms but not on the outer platforms. Thirty-five metres beyond the portals, the tunnels pass just below the Central line tunnels turning north from Stratford. The bottom invert of each Central line tunnel is only 4.3 metres and 8.0 metres above the running tunnels. The station was not authorised by the Channel Tunnel Rail Link Act 1996, in the centre of the station is a single-track inclined viaduct, rising to the east end along and above the length of the island platforms. This is to allow trains to leave the station box. The full service started on 13 December 2009 using Class 395 multiple units, the peak hour service is 19 trains arriving at St Pancras between 07,00 and 09,59. During the 2012 Olympic Games, a service of eight trains an hour ran between St Pancras and Ebbsfleet, calling at Stratford, replacing the high speed service, two of these would be extended to Ashford and one to Faversham. Between 11pm and 1am the service between St Pancras and Ebbsfleet would be increased to twelve per hour, to enable the domestic services to stop at platforms previously designed for Eurostar trains the platforms had to be raised. Originally planned to open in July 2010, this was delayed to 31 August 2011, London Buses routes 97,108,308 and 339 and night route N205 serve the station
12.
Greenwich Leisure Limited
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Its headquarters is in Middlegate House, the 1810-built former storekeepers mansion at Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, South East London. GLL was established to run services in the London Borough of Greenwich in 1993 as a non profit distributing co-operative. In the following years it started to run services for local authorities. It also manages Crystal Palace National Sports Centre, on 9 January 2012 it was announced that GLL would be managing the Aquatics Centre and Multi-Use Arena of the London 2012 Olympic Games from 2013 for 10 years. In January 2011 Nexus Community and GLL merged, the new group operates more than 100 leisure centres across South East England, in June 2012 GLL rebranded all their centres under the Better brand. GLL is a staff-led Leisure Trust, structured as an Industrial, the members of the co-operative and therefore owners of the company are the workers of GLL. Alongside democratically elected members of staff, the board includes representation of other stakeholders
13.
Seating capacity
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Seating capacity is the number of people who can be seated in a specific space, in terms of both the physical space available, and limitations set by law. Seating capacity can be used in the description of anything ranging from an automobile that seats two to a stadium that seats hundreds of thousands of people. The International Fire Code, portions of which have adopted by many jurisdictions, is directed more towards the use of a facility than the construction. It specifies, For areas having fixed seating without dividing arms and it also requires that every public venue submit a detailed site plan to the local fire code official, including details of the means of egress, seating capacity, arrangement of the seating. Once safety considerations have been satisfied, determinations of seating capacity turn on the size of the venue. For sports venues, the decision on maximum seating capacity is determined by several factors, chief among these are the primary sports program and the size of the market area. Seating capacity of venues also plays a role in what media they are able to provide, in contracting to permit performers to use a theatre or other performing space, the seating capacity of the performance facility must be disclosed. Seating capacity may influence the kind of contract to be used, the seating capacity must also be disclosed to the copyright owner in seeking a license for the copyrighted work to be performed in that venue. Venues that may be leased for private functions such as ballrooms and auditoriums generally advertise their seating capacity, seating capacity is also an important consideration in the construction and use of sports venues such as stadiums and arenas. The seating capacity for restaurants is reported as covers, a restaurant that can seat 99 is said to have 99 covers, seating capacity differs from total capacity, which describes the total number of people who can fit in a venue or in a vehicle either sitting or standing. Use of the term public capacity indicates that a venue is allowed to more people than it can actually seat. Again, the total number of people can refer to either the physical space available or limitations set by law
14.
Zaha Hadid
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Dame Zaha Mohammad Hadid, DBE, RA was an Iraqi-born British architect. She was the first woman to receive the Pritzker Architecture Prize and she received the UKs most prestigious architectural award, the Stirling Prize, in 2010 and 2011. In 2012, she was made a Dame by Elizabeth II for services to architecture and she was described by the The Guardian of London as the Queen of the curve, who liberated architectural geometry, giving it a whole new expressive identity. Her major works include the centre for the London 2012 Olympics, Michigan State Universitys Broad Art Museum in the US. Hadid was born on 31 October 1950 in Baghdad, Iraq and her father, Muhammad al-Hajj Husayn Hadid, was a wealthy industrialist from Mosul. He co-founded the left-liberal al-Ahali group in 1932, a significant political organisation in the 1930s and 1940s and he was the co-founder of the National Democratic Party in Iraq. Her mother, Wajiha al-Sabunji, was an artist from Mosul, in the 1960s Hadid attended boarding schools in England and Switzerland. Hadid studied mathematics at the American University of Beirut before moving, in 1972, there she studied with Rem Koolhaas, Elia Zenghelis and Bernard Tschumi. Her former professor, Koolhaas, described her at graduation as a planet in her own orbit, Zenghelis described her as the most outstanding pupil he ever taught. ‘We called her the inventor of the 89 degrees, nothing was ever at 90 degrees. All the buildings were exploding into tiny little pieces and he recalled that she was less interested in details, such as staircases. The way she drew a staircase you would smash your head against the ceiling, and the space was reducing and reducing and she couldn’t care about tiny details. Her mind was on the broader pictures – when it came to the joinery she knew we could fix that later. She was right. ’ Her fourth-year student project was a painting of a hotel in the form of a bridge, Hadid became a naturalised citizen of the United Kingdom. She earned her reputation with her lecturing and colorful and radical early designs and projects. Her ambitious but unbuilt projects included a plan for Peak in Hong Kong, and her reputation in this period rested largely upon her teaching and the imaginative and colorful paintings she made of her proposed buildings. In 1989 Fehlbaum had invited Frank Gehry, then little-known, to build a museum at the Vitra factory in Weil-am-Rhein. In 1993, he invited Hadid to design a small station for the factory
15.
Arup Group Limited
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The firm has over 14,000 staff based in 92 offices across 42 countries, and is present in Africa, the Americas, Australasia, East Asia, Europe and the Middle East. Arup has participated in projects in over 160 countries, Arup is owned by trusts, the beneficiaries of which are Arups past and present employees, who receive a share of the firms operating profit each year. The firm was founded in London in 1946, as the Ove N. Arup Consulting Engineers by Ove Arup and he set out to build a firm where professionals of diverse disciplines could work together to produce projects of greater quality than was achievable by them working in isolation. In 1963, together with the architect Philip Dowson, Arup Associates was formed, in 1970, the firm reformed as Ove Arup & Partners. It is best known for its work for the built environment. Projects to which it has contributed include the Sydney Opera House,3, Nevada, USA Druk White Lotus School was built to survive the Ladakhi weather. Kingdom Centre, The third tallest skyscraper in Saudi Arabia, and the second tallest in Riyadh and this group continues to work under the banner of Arup Associates following a streamlining of the Arup brand. Many of Arups modern stadia are designed with a contemporary, distinctive edge, the most notable stadium projects led by Arup remain the City of Manchester Stadium, Allianz Arena, Beijing National Stadium, Donbass Arena and the Singapore Sports Hub. Arups multidisciplinary sports venue design and engineering scope on the Singapore Sports Hub won the 2013 World Architecture Festival Award in the Future Projects, the Casa da Música, Oporto, designed by Arup and Office for Metropolitan Architecture was nominated for the 2007 Stirling Prize. Arup was awarded the Worldaware Award for Innovation for its Vawtex air system in Harare International School, Arup Fire has won the Fire Safety Engineering Design award four times since its creation in 2001. The 2001 inaugural award was won for Arups contribution to the Eden Project in Cornwall, UK, in 2004, the design for Londons City Hall was appointed joint winner. In 2005, the Temple Mills Eurostar Depot won, the 2006 winning entry was for Amethyst House, a nine-storey building with an atrium from the ground to the top, in Manchester, UK. Arup was also awarded Royal Town Planning Institute Consultancy of the award in 2008. Mike Glover is the recipient of the 2008 Institution of Structural Engineers Gold Medal, the Evelyn Grace Academy, London designed by Zaha Hadid Architects and Arup won the prestigious RIBA Stirling Prize 2011. Arup was named Tunnel Design Firm of the Year at the 2012 ITA AITES International Tunnelling Awards, Arup Fellow is a lifelong honorary title awarded to selected honorary individuals in the firm. It acknowledges the highest design and technical achievements of people, not only within the firm and they are considered role models who possess world-class expertise who put theory into effective practice. Sir Ove Nyquist Arup, structural engineer and philosopher, founder of the company, recipient of the RIBA Royal Gold Medal for Architecture 1966, peter Dunican, structural engineer, first chairman of Ove Arup Partnership, and President of the Institution of Structural Engineers in 1977 and 1978. Sir Jack Zunz, civil engineer, and principal designer of the Sydney Opera House
16.
Balfour Beatty
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Balfour Beatty plc is a British multinational infrastructure group with capabilities in construction services, support services and infrastructure investments. A constituent of the FTSE250 Index, Balfour Beatty works for customers principally in the UK and the US, with developing businesses in Australia, Canada, Balfour Beatty is the largest construction contractor in the UK. Balfour Beatty was formed in 1909 with a capital of £50,000 – an exceptionally large sum for the time, George Balfour was elected to the House of Commons in 1918 and played a large part in the debates which established the National Grid. To service this new market, George Balfour, Andrew Beatty and others formed Power Securities to finance projects, Balfour Beatty was heavily involved in the development of Scotland’s hydro-electric power, building dams, transmission lines and power stations. Other work between the wars included the standardisation of the electricity supply in Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire, and the construction of tunnels, by World War II, control of the firm had passed on, Andrew Beatty had died in 1934 and George Balfour died in 1941. Construction work was now dominated by the war effort and notable projects included blocking the approaches to Scapa Flow, peace saw a resumption of Balfour Beatty’s traditional work, power stations and railway work dominating at home. Overseas, a company was bought in Canada in 1953 and other work included the Mto Mtwara harbour in Tanganyika. In 1969 Power Securities, which by then owned Balfour Beatty, was taken over by cable manufacturer BICC, then in 2000 BICC, having sold its cable operations, renamed itself Balfour Beatty. Balfour Beatty moved away from its area of expertise in 1986 when it formed Balfour Beatty Homes. It also opened offices in Paisley and Leatherhead and in 1987 bought the Derbyshire firm of David M Adams to give it a production rate of 700 houses. Little more than a year before the market collapsed, through its parent BICC, Clarke Homes was bought for £51m. By the mid-1990s, sales were down to only 500 a year and although no figures were ever published. Balfour Beatty Homes was renamed Clarke Homes and then sold to Westbury in 1995, in 2008 the Company bought GMH Military Housing, a US-based military accommodation business, for £180m and Dean & Dyball, a leading UK regional contractor, for £45 million. As of January 2010, individual workers had started suing the company for being on the blacklist, in September 2009 the Company agreed to buy Parsons Brinckerhoff, a US-based project management firm, for $626 million. In June 2011 it went on to buy Howard S, in mid-2014, the company rebuffed three offers by rival Carillion for the two companies to merge. The last bid, which valued Balfour Beatty at £2.1 billion, was rejected by the Balfour Beatty board on 20 August 2014. Balfour refused to allow an extension of time for negotiations which could have prompted a fourth bid, Carillion subsequently announced it would no longer pursue a merger with its rival. The company sold Parsons Brinckerhoff to WSP Global for $1. 24bn in October 2014, support Services Installation, upgrade and maintenance of water, gas and electricity networks, rail renewals, street and public space management, operation and maintenance
17.
2012 Summer Olympics
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It took place in London and to a lesser extent across the United Kingdom from 25 July to 12 August 2012. The first event, the stage in womens football began on 25 July at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff. 10,768 athletes from 204 National Olympic Committees participated, London is the first and only city thus far to host the modern Olympic Games three times, having previously done so in 1908 and in 1948. Construction for the Games involved considerable redevelopment, with an emphasis on sustainability, the main focus was a new 200-hectare Olympic Park, constructed on a former industrial site at Stratford, East London. The Games also made use of venues that already existed before the bid, the Games received widespread acclaim for their organisation, with the volunteers, the British military and public enthusiasm praised particularly highly. During the Games, Michael Phelps became the most decorated Olympic athlete of all time, saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Brunei entered female athletes for the first time, so that every currently eligible country has sent a female competitor to at least one Olympic Games. Womens boxing was included for the first time, thus the Games became the first at which every sport had female competitors and these were the final Olympic Games under the IOC presidency of Jacques Rogge. The final medal tally was led by the United States, followed by China, several world and Olympic records were set at the games. Furthermore, the focus on sporting legacy and post-games venue sustainability was seen as a blueprint for future Olympics. On 18 May 2004, as a result of a technical evaluation. All five submitted their candidate files by 19 November 2004 and were visited by the IOC inspection team during February, throughout the process, Paris was widely seen as the favourite, particularly as this was its third bid in recent years. London was initially seen as lagging behind Paris by a considerable margin and its position began to improve after the appointment of Lord Coe as the new head of London 2012 on 19 May 2004. In late August 2004, reports predicted a tie between London and Paris, on 6 June 2005, the IOC released its evaluation reports for the five candidate cities. They did not contain any scores or rankings, but the report for Paris was considered the most positive, London was close behind, having closed most of the gap observed by the initial evaluation in 2004. New York and Madrid also received positive evaluations. On 1 July 2005, when asked who would win, Jacques Rogge said, but my gut feeling tells me that it will be very close. Perhaps it will come down to a difference of say ten votes, on 6 July 2005, the final selection was announced at the 117th IOC Session in Singapore. Moscow was the first city to be eliminated, followed by New York, the final two contenders were London and Paris
18.
2012 Summer Paralympics
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They were the first-ever organized sporting event for disabled athletes, and served as a precursor to the modern Paralympic Games. Stoke Mandeville also co-hosted the 1984 Summer Paralympics with Long Island, New York, after its original host, at the 117th IOC Session in Singapore, the rights to host the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics were awarded to London. As with the Olympics, the 2012 Summer Paralympics were overseen by LOCOG, LOCOG was responsible for overseeing the staging of the games, while the ODA dealt with infrastructure and venues. The Government Olympic Executive within the Department for Culture, Media, the GOE reported through the DCMS Permanent Secretary to the Minister for Sports and the Olympics Hugh Robertson. It focused on oversight of the Games, cross-programme management and the London 2012 Olympic Legacy, the 2012 Summer Paralympics used many of the same venues as the 2012 Summer Olympics, along with two new locations such as Eton Manor for wheelchair tennis and Brands Hatch for road cycling. Londons purpose-built Olympic venues and facilities, including the Olympic Village itself, were designed to be accessible as possible so they could accommodate the Paralympics. Some venues also contained additional accessible seating areas during the Paralympics, transport for London operated the Paralympic Route Network to facilitate road traffic between venues and facilities. The network provided 8.7 miles of lanes specifically reserved for Paralympic athletes, TfL continued to operate its Get Ahead of the Games website during the Paralympics, which provided updates and advice for commuters during the Games. Prior to the Games, concerns were raised by TfL commissioner Peter Hendy that Londons transportation system might not be able to handle the Paralympics adequately, Sevenoaks railway station was designated as the preferred station for spectators travelling to watch the cycling at Brands Hatch. Organisers chose Sevenoaks over the closer Swanley railway station because of its existing step-free access and excellent transport links, whilst organisers did not believe that Swanley would be able to have wheelchair lifts installed by the start of the Paralympics, the station finished their installation by early August 2012. The formal handover occurred during the ceremony of the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing. This was followed by a presentation by Britain, which was similar to its presentation during the Olympics closing ceremony. It featured urban dance group ZooNation, the Royal Ballet, and Candoco, a double-decker bus drove around the stadium, guided by Ade Adepitan, to music composed by Philip Sheppard. The top of the bus was open and folded down to show a privet hedge featuring London landmarks such as Tower Bridge, The Gherkin and the London Eye. Cherisse Osei, drummer for Mika, and Sam Hegedus then performed, before the top of the bus folded up into its original form, both the Paralympic and Olympic flags were formally raised outside of Londons City Hall on 26 September 2008. British Paralympians Helene Raynsford and Chris Holmes raised the Paralympic flag, on 8 September 2011 Trafalgar Square staged International Paralympic Day, hosted by Rick Edwards, Ade Adepitan and Iwan Thomas, to coincide with a visit to London by representatives of the IPC. The event celebrated the Paralympic Games, showcasing and demonstrating the 20 sports that would feature during the Games and it also featured appearances by Paralympic athletes Oscar Pistorius, Ellie Simmonds and Sascha Kindred, and the unveiling of a bronze statue of Pistorius by Ben Dearnley. British Prime Minister David Cameron and Londons mayor Boris Johnson also appeared, two days later on 10 September, supermarket chain Sainsburys and Channel 4 presented Sainsburys Super Saturday, a family event at Clapham Common
19.
Swimming pool
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A swimming pool, swimming bath, wading pool, or paddling pool is a structure designed to hold water to enable swimming or other leisure activities. Pools can be built into the ground or built above ground, many health clubs, fitness centers and private clubs, such as the YMCA, have pools used mostly for exercise or recreation. Many towns and cities provide public pools, many hotels have pools available for their guests to use at their leisure. Educational facilities such as universities typically have pools for physical education classes, recreational activities, hot tubs and spas are pools filled with hot water, used for relaxation or hydrotherapy, and are common in homes, hotels, and health clubs. Special swimming pools are used for diving, specialized water sports, physical therapy as well as for the training of lifeguards. Swimming pools may be heated or unheated, the Great Bath at the site of Mohenjo-Daro in modern-day Pakistan was most likely the first swimming pool, dug during the 3rd millennium BC. This pool is 12 by 7 metres, is lined with bricks, ancient Greeks and Romans built artificial pools for athletic training in the palaestras, for nautical games and for military exercises. Roman emperors had private swimming pools in which fish were also kept, the first heated swimming pool was built by Gaius Maecenas of Rome in the 1st century BC. Gaius Maecenas was a rich Roman lord and considered one of the first patrons of arts, ancient Sinhalese built pairs of pools called Kuttam Pokuna in the kingdom of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka in the 4th century BC. They were decorated with flights of steps, punkalas or pots of abundance, Swimming pools became popular in Britain in the mid-19th century. As early as 1837, six indoor pools with diving boards existed in London, the Maidstone Swimming Club in Maidstone, Kent is believed to be the oldest surviving swimming club in Britain. It was formed in 1844, in response to concerns over drownings in the River Medway, the club used to swim in the River Medway, and would hold races, diving competitions and water polo matches. The South East Gazette July 1844 reported an aquatic breakfast party, coffee, the coffee was kept hot over a fire, club members had to tread water and drink coffee at the same time. The last swimmers managed to overturn the raft, to the amusement of 150 spectators, the Amateur Swimming Association was founded in 1869 in England, and the Oxford Swimming Club in 1909. The presence of indoor baths in the area of Merton Street might have persuaded the less hardy of the aquatic brigade to join. So, bathers gradually became swimmers, and bathing pools became swimming pools, in 1939, Oxford created its first major public indoor pool at Temple Cowley. The modern Olympic Games started in 1896 and included swimming races, in the US, the Racquet Club of Philadelphia clubhouse boasts one of the worlds first modern above-ground swimming pools. The first swimming pool to go to sea on an ocean liner was installed on the White Star Lines Adriatic in 1907, the oldest known public swimming pool in America, Underwood Pool, is located in Belmont, Massachusetts
20.
Diving
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Diving is the sport of jumping or falling into water from a platform or springboard, usually while performing acrobatics. Diving is a recognized sport that is part of the Olympic Games. In addition, unstructured and non-competitive diving is a recreational pastime, Diving is one of the most popular Olympic sports with spectators. Competitors possess many of the characteristics as gymnasts and dancers, including strength, flexibility, kinaesthetic judgment. Some professional divers were originally gymnasts or dancers as both the sports have similar characteristics to diving, dmitri Sautin holds the record for most Olympic diving medals won, by winning eight medals in total between 1992 and 2008. Although diving has been a popular pastime across the world since ancient times, the exact origins of the sport are unclear, though it likely derives from the act of diving at the start of swimming races. The 1904 book Swimming by Ralph Thomas notes English reports of plunging records dating back to at least 1865. The 1877 edition to British Rural Sports by John Henry Walsh makes note of a Mr. Young plunging 56 feet in 1870, and also states that 25 years prior, the English Amateur Swimming Association first started a plunging championship in 1883. The Plunging Championship was discontinued in 1937, Diving into a body of water had also been a method used by gymnasts in Germany and Sweden since the early 19th century. The soft landing allowed for more elaborate gymnastic feats in midair as the jump could be made at a greater distance and this tradition evolved into fancy diving, while diving as a preliminary to swimming became known as Plain diving. The event consisted of standing and running dives from either 15 or 30 feet and it was at this event that the Swedish tradition of fancy diving was introduced to the sport by the athletes Otto Hagborg and C F Mauritzi. Fancy diving was introduced into the championship in 1903. Plain diving was first introduced into the Olympics at the 1904 event, the 1908 Olympics in London added fancy diving and introduced elastic boards rather than fixed platforms. Women were first allowed to participate in the events for the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm. In the 1928 Olympics, plain and fancy diving was amalgamated into one event – Highboard Diving, the diving event was first held indoors in the Empire Pool for the 1934 British Empire Games and 1948 Summer Olympics in London. Most diving competitions consist of three disciplines,1 m and 3 m springboards, and the platform, competitive athletes are divided by gender, and often by age group. In platform events, competitors are allowed to perform their dives on either the five, seven, in major diving meets, including the Olympic Games and the World Championships, platform diving is from the 10 meter height. Divers have to perform a set number of dives according to established requirements, a possible score out of ten is broken down into three points for the takeoff, three for the flight, and three for the entry, with one more available to give the judges flexibility
21.
Stratford, London
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Stratford is a district in the London Borough of Newham, in East London, England. Historically an agrarian settlement in the county of Essex, it was transformed into an industrial suburb following the introduction of the railway in 1839, Stratford is now East London’s primary retail, cultural and leisure centre. It has also become the second most significant business location in the east of the capital, stratford’s early significance was as the point where the originally Roman road from Aldgate in the City, to Romford, Chelmsford and Colchester, crossed the River Lea. At that time the branches of the river were tidal and unchannelised. The Lea valley formed a boundary between Essex on the eastern bank and Middlesex on the west, and was a formidable obstacle to overland trade. The name is first recorded in 1067 as Strætforda and means ford on a Roman road and it is formed from Old English stræt and ford. The former crossing lay at a location north of Stratford High Street. And Stretford Langthorne after a distinctive thorn tree which was mentioned in a charter of 958 AD, the western Stratford then become suffixed by “-atte-Bow”, eventually becoming known simply as Bow, while over time the eastern Stratford lost its “Langthorne” suffix. The Bridge was repaired and upgraded many times over the centuries until eventually demolished and replaced in the 19th Century, in 1135 the Cistercian Order founded Stratford Langthorne Abbey, also known as West Ham Abbey. This became one of the largest and most wealthy monasteries in England, the Abbey lay between the Channelsea River and Marsh Lane. Nothing visible remains on the site, as after it dissolution by Henry VIII in 1538, local landowners took away much of the stone for their own buildings and the land was subsequently urbanised. A stone window and a carving featuring skulls – thought to have been over the door to the charnel house – remain in All Saints Church, the Great Gate of the abbey survived in Bakers Row until 1825. The coat of arms of the Abbey can be seen over the doorway to the Old Court House, in Tramway Avenue. The chevrons from this device, originally from the arms of the Mountfitchet family, the same arms were adopted by the new London Borough of Newham in 1965. The industrialisation of Stratford started slowly and accelerated rapidly in the early Victorian era, Stratford was originally an agricultural community, whose proximity to London provided a ready market for its produce. By the 18th century, the area around Stratford was noted for potato growing, Stratford also became a desirable country retreat for wealthy merchants and financiers, within an easy ride of the City. When Daniel Defoe visited Stratford in 1722, he reported that it had. increased in buildings to a strange degree and he continues that. this increase is, generally speaking, of hansom large houses. An early industrial undertaking at Stratford was the Bow porcelain factory, the site of the factory was to the north of Stratford High Street near the modern Bow Flyover, it was the subject of archaeological excavations in 1921 and 1969
22.
Swimming at the 2012 Summer Olympics
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The swimming competitions at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London took place from 28 July to 4 August at the Aquatics Centre. The open-water competition took place from 9 to 10 August in Hyde Park, Swimming featured 34 events, including two 10 km open-water marathons in Hyde Parks Serpentine lake. The remaining 32 were contested in a 50 m long course pool within the Olympic Park, united States claimed a total of 31 medals in the leaderboard to maintain its supremacy as the most successful nation in swimming. For the first time since 1992, Australia delivered a performance with only a single triumph in the freestyle relay. After not winning a gold in swimming since 2004, Japan produced the most medals in the era to build a tally of eleven. In the post-techsuit era, a total of nine world records, similar to the programs format in 2008, swimming featured a total of 34 events including two 10 km open-water marathons. For the pool events, prelims were held in the morning, with semifinals and final in the following evening session. M = Morning session, E = Evening session FINA By-Law BL9.3.6.4 and BL9.3.7.5.3 lays out the qualification procedures for the Swimming competition at the Olympics. Each country is allowed to enter up to two swimmers per event, and one entry per relay, and a country may not have more than 26 males and 26 females on its team. On 11 November 2010, FINA posted the qualifying times for events for the 2012 Olympics. The time standards consist of two standards, an Olympic Qualifying Time and an Olympic invitation time. Each country was able to enter up to two swimmers per event, provided both swimmers met the qualifying time, a country was able to enter one swimmer per event that met the invitation standard. Any swimmer who met the qualifying time was entered in the event for the Games, a meeting the invitation standard was eligible for entry. If a country has no swimmers meeting either qualifying standard, it may enter one male, a country that does not receive an allocation spot but has at least one swimmer who meets a qualifying standard may enter the swimmer with the highest ranking. Each relay event featured 16 teams, composed of,12,4, the 4 fastest non-qualified teams, based on times in the 15-months preceding the Olympics. 5, one representative from each FINA continent,1, from the host nation if not qualified by other means. If Great Britain already had a qualifier in the race, this spot was allocated back into the pool from the 2012 qualifying race. FINA announced in early July 2012 that 631 athletes from 166 nations would compete in swimming events at the 2012 Olympics,59 nations qualified via the A cut,12 via the B cut and 95 via Universality
23.
Diving at the 2012 Summer Olympics
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The diving competitions at the 2012 Olympic Games in London took place from 29 July to 11 August at the Aquatics Centre within the Olympic Park. It was one of four sports at the Games, along with swimming, water polo. The 2012 Games featured competitions in eight events, 3m springboard, synchronised 3m springboard, 10m platform, the diving featured 136 athletes representing 25 countries. All divers must be at least 14 years old on or by 31 December 2012, china was the most successful nation, topping the medal table with six golds and ten in total. A nation could have no more than 16 divers qualify and could enter up to two divers in individual events and one pair in synchronised events. For the synchronised events, qualifiers were, the top three finishers in each event from the 2011 World Championships, the top four from in each event the 2012 World Cup, and the host nation. Note, Qualifying spots go to the nation – they are not tied to the diver who achieved the place/finish at the qualifying event. However, a diver may only qualify one spot for their nation. Twenty-five nations competed in diving at the 2012 Olympics, M = Morning session, A = Afternoon session, E = Evening session
24.
Pritzker Prize
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Founded in 1979 by Jay A. Pritzker and his wife Cindy, the award is funded by the Pritzker family and sponsored by the Hyatt Foundation. It is considered to be one of the premier architecture prizes. The prize is said to be awarded irrespective of nationality, race, creed, the recipients receive US$100,000, a citation certificate, and since 1987, a bronze medallion. Before 1987, a limited edition Henry Moore sculpture accompanied the monetary prize, any licensed architect can also make a personal application for the prize before 1 November every year. In 1988 Gordon Bunshaft nominated himself for the award and eventually won it, the jury, each year consisting of five to nine experts. Recognized professionals in their own fields of architecture, business, education, publishing, the prize Chair is 2002 winner, Glenn Murcutt, earlier chairs were J. Carter Brown, the Lord Rothschild, and the Lord Palumbo. Inaugural winner Philip Johnson was cited for 50 years of imagination and vitality embodied in a myriad of museums, theaters, libraries, houses, gardens, the 2004 laureate Zaha Hadid was the first female prize winner. Ryue Nishizawa became the youngest winner in 2010 at age 44, partners in architecture have shared the award. In 1988, Gordon Bunshaft and Oscar Niemeyer were both honored with the award. The most recent winners, in 2017, are the Spanish architects Rafael Aranda, Carme Pigem and this was the first time three architects shared the prize. A. a Roche was born in Ireland, C Gehry was born in Canada. D Hadid was born in Iraq, E Rogers was born in Italy. Driehaus Architecture Prize List of architecture prizes General Past laureates
25.
London bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics
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London 2012 was the successful bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympics, held in London with most events taking place in Stratford in the borough of Newham. The British Olympic Association had been working on the bid since 1997, on 6 July 2005 at its 117th Session in Singapore, the IOC awarded London the right to host the Games of the XXX Olympiad. The city beat the favorite Paris 54 to 50 on the fourth, London is the first city to host the Games three times. At the time of the bid, the projection was around £2 billion. The project involved a major regeneration of the Stratford area of London, as well as improvements to surrounding services, public transport, an aspect of the proposal which scored poorly for the bid, saw numerous improvements, including to the London Underground and the new Olympic Javelin service. The celebrations of the success were partly silenced the day after the announcement when the 7 July 2005 London bombings killed 52 people. There was no confirmed link between the IOC decision and the attack, which coincided with the G8 Summit in Scotland. Following the success of the bid, the London Organising Committee for the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games was established to oversee the ongoing development of the games. The 2012 Olympics were planned to use a mixture of newly built venues, existing facilities, in the wake of the problems that plagued the Millennium Dome, the intention was that there would be no white elephants after the games. Some of the new facilities would be reused in their Olympic form, while others would be reduced in size, the plans would contribute to the regeneration of Stratford in east London, which would be the site of the Olympic Park, and of the neighbouring Lower Lea Valley. However, this required the purchase of some businesses and this caused controversy. The purchased buildings were demolished to make way for Olympic venues, the majority of venues were divided into three zones within Greater London, the Olympic Zone, the River Zone and the Central Zone. Also some venues were outside the boundaries of Greater London, the IOC noted that future negotiations were necessary to ensure the use of the Old Trafford and Villa Park football stadiums. The need for compulsory purchase orders was also highlighted as a problem for the Olympic Park. At the time of the bid, 60% of the venues and facilities were in place, the remaining venues were proposed to be completed between 2007 and the start of the games. The Olympic Zone encompasses all of the facilities within the 500-acre Olympic Park in Stratford and this park was developed on existing waste and industrial land, at grid reference TQ379849, just seven minutes by Olympic Javelin train from central London. The park contains, The Olympic Stadium, hosting the track, the Aquatics Centre, hosting diving, swimming and synchronised swimming. The Water Polo Arena, hosting water polo – the first Olympic venue dedicated to hosting the sport, the London Velopark, including a 6, 000-seat indoor velodrome for track cycling and a 6, 000-seat outdoor BMX racing track
26.
Water Polo Arena
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The Water Polo Arena was a venue of the 2012 Summer Olympics held in London from 27 July to 12 August 2012. It is situated in the south-east corner of the Olympic Park, alongside the Aquatics Centre, construction on the temporary structure began in spring 2011. During the Olympics, the 5, 000-seat arena hosted both the mens and womens competitions, and contained both a warm-up pool and a 37-metre competition pool. The Aquatics Centre and Water Polo Arena are adjacent to other in one of the most compact areas of the park. To make the best use of the available, some back-of-house facilities, such as space for broadcasters, catering. The first dedicated water-polo venue to be built for an Olympics, elements of the venue are expected to be reused or relocated elsewhere. Parts of the covers and membranes of different temporary venues of the building will be recycled via Vinyloop. This allows to meet the standards of the Olympic Delivery Authority, through this recycling process, the Olympic Games PVC Policy is fulfilled. London 2012 are the first Olympic Games whose guidelines include the recycling of PVC, media related to Water Polo Arena at Wikimedia Commons London 2012 Olympics profile
27.
Olympic Stadium (London)
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London Stadium, is a stadium in Stratford, Greater London, England, at Marshgate Lane in the Lower Lea Valley. It was constructed to serve as the stadium for the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics, hosting the track and field events. It was subsequently renovated as a stadium, with its primary tenants being West Ham United Football Club. The stadium is 6 1⁄2 miles from Central London, land preparation for the stadium began in mid-2007, with the official construction start date on 22 May 2008, although piling works for the foundation began four weeks before. The stadium held its first public event in March 2012, serving as the line for a celebrity running event organised by the National Lottery. Following the Paralympics the stadium was used intermittently whilst under renovation, the decision to make West Ham United the main tenants was controversial, with the initial tenancy process having to be rerun. As well as its tenants, the stadium will continue to be used for a series of special events. It annually hosts the finish of the Great Newham London Run at the start of July. The stadium can also hold concerts with up to 80,000 spectators, during Londons bid for the games, promotional materials featured a main stadium with a roof designed to wrap itself around the venue like muscles supporting the body. However at that time there had no formal design brief agreed. While the bidding process was ongoing West Ham had talks with the ODA about contributing to the development of a multi-purpose stadium, with the original Olympic design finalised and being built, the government had a change of heart and a bidding process for a multi-sport post-Olympic legacy was launched. The stadium design was launched on 7 November 2007, the construction of the stadium commenced three months early in May 2008 after the bowl of the stadium had been dug out and the area cleared. The building of the stadium was completed in March 2011 reportedly on time and under budget, the stadiums track and field arena is excavated out of the soft clay found on the site, around which is permanent seating for 25,000, built using concrete rakers. The natural slope of the land is incorporated into the design, with warm-up, spectators enter the stadium via a podium level, which is level with the top of the permanent seating bowl. A demountable lightweight steel and pre-cast concrete upper tier is built up from this bowl to accommodate a further 55,000 spectators, the stadium is made up of different tiers, during the Games the stadium was able to hold 80,000 spectators. The base tier, which allows for 25,000 seats, is an elliptical bowl that is made up of low-carbon-dioxide concrete. The foundation of the level is 5,000 piles reaching up to 20 metres deep. From there, there is a mixture of driven cast in situ piles, continuous flight auger piles, the second tier, which holds 55,000 seats, is 315 m long,256 m wide, and 60 m high
28.
Dollan Aqua Centre
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Dollan Aqua Centre is a 20th-century category A listed building in East Kilbride, Scotland. Designed by Alexander Buchanan Campbell, it was opened in 1968 as Scotlands first 50-metre swimming pool, Buchanan Campbell admitted that he had been influenced by the architecture of the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan and the designs by Kenzo Tange for the gymnasium there. In 1993, the conservation organisation DOCOMOMO listed Dollan Baths as one of sixty key monuments in Scottish post-war architecture. It was listed in 2002 as a Category A building by Historic Scotland, structural engineering surveys showed that parts of the pool surround and pool tank were in a state of near collapse and emergency work had to be carried out to install temporary structural supports. About one year later, the centre was closed in October 2008 to allow a substantial programme, consisting of repairs and replacements. This required a significant amount of engineering design input. Fortunately, the structure of the roof was not affected. At the same time, substantial redesign and replacement of heating and ventilation, electrical engineering and lighting systems were almost entirely replaced throughout the building. The external roof covering was replaced and a layer of thermal insulation was added to reduce heat loss from the roof. New lockers were provided for the rooms and the health suite. New tiles were placed for the pool and health suite, the repair work began in July 2009 and the Aqua Centre re-opened on 28 May 2011. The completion of the repair and refurbishment contract costed over £9 million. Facilities include swimming pool with moveable floor, health suite and two gyms, creche and cafe. The Centre hosted the events for the 2011 International Childrens Games
29.
Beijing National Aquatics Center
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Despite its nickname, the building is not an actual cube, but a cuboid. Ground was broken on December 24,2003, and the Center was completed and handed over for use on January 28,2008, swimmers at the Water Cube broke 25 world records during the 2008 Olympics. After the 2008 Olympics, the building underwent a 200 million Yuan revamp to turn half of its interior into a water park, the building officially reopened on August 8,2010. It will host the curling at the 2022 Winter Olympics, in July 2003, the Water Cube design was chosen from 10 proposals in an international architectural competition for the aquatic center project. The Water Cube was specially designed and built by a made up of PTW Architects, Arup international engineering group, CSCEC. Contextually the cube symbolises earth whilst the circle represents heaven, hence symbolically the water cube references Chinese symbolic architecture. Comprising a steel frame, it is the largest ETFE clad structure in the world with over 100,000 m² of ETFE pillows that are only 0.2 mm in total thickness. The ETFE cladding, supplied and installed by the firm Vector Foiltec, allows more light and heat penetration than traditional glass, the outer wall is based on the Weaire–Phelan structure, a structure devised from the natural pattern of bubbles in soap lather. Using the Weaire–Phelan geometry, the Water Cubes exterior cladding is made of 4,000 ETFE bubbles, some as large as 9.14 metres across, the structure had a capacity of 17,000 during the games that is being reduced to 7,000. It also has a land surface of 65,000 square meters. Although called the Water Cube, the center is really a rectangular box 178 metres square and 31 metres high. The buildings popularity has spawned many copycat structures throughout China, for example, there is one-to-one copy of the facade near the ferry terminal in Macau – the Casino Oceanus by Paul Steelman. The Aquatics Center hosted the swimming, diving and synchronized swimming events during the Olympics, Water polo was originally planned to be hosted in the venue but was moved to the Ying Tung Natatorium. Many people believed the Water Cube to be the fastest Olympic pool in the world and it is 1.314 meters deeper than most Olympic pools. The London 2012 Aquatics Centre is the depth, which leads many to believe the London pool is as fast as, if not faster than. Up to a limit, beyond which swimmers will lose their sense of vision, deeper pools allow the waves to dissipate to the bottom. The pool also has perforated gutters on both sides to absorb the waves. After the Olympics, the Water Cube was opened to the public on days of the week beginning in June 2009
30.
Jacques Rogge
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Jacques Jean Marie Rogge, Count Rogge is a Belgian sports administrator and physician who served as the eighth president of the International Olympic Committee from 2001 to 2013. In 2013, the IOC announced that Rogge would become their Honorary President, born in Ghent, Belgium, under the Nazi-occupation, Rogge is by profession an orthopedic surgeon and was educated at the Jesuit private school Sint-Barbaracollege and the University of Ghent. Rogge is an athlete in his home country. He was a 16-time Belgian national champion in rugby and a one-time yachting world champion and he also competed in the Finn class of sailing at the Summer Olympic Games in 1968,1972, and 1976. In October 2016, The British School of Brussels named their new Sports Centre in his honour, Rogge served as President of the Belgian Olympic Committee from 1989 to 1992, and as President of the European Olympic Committees from 1989 to 2001. He became a member of the IOC in 1991 and joined its Executive Board in 1998 and he was knighted in 1992, and in 2002 made a Count in the Belgian nobility by King Albert II. In his free time, Rogge is known to modern art and is an avid reader of historical. He is married to Anne, they have two adult children, on 14 October 2016, The British School of Brussels opened their new sports center in Tervuren, Belgium. The building was opened and named after Rogge, titled The Jacques Rogge Sports Centre, Rogge was elected as President of the IOC on 16 July 2001 at the 112th IOC Session in Moscow as the successor to Juan Antonio Samaranch, who had previously led the IOC since 1980. At the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Rogge became the first ever IOC President to stay in the Olympic village, in October 2009 he was re-elected for a new term as President of the IOC. In September 2013 at the 125th IOC Session in Buenos Aires a new IOC President was elected, in 2011, a Forbes magazine list of the 68 most powerful people in the world listed Rogge at no.67. On 27 July 2011, one prior to London 2012. Former Olympians HRH The Princess Royal and Sebastien Coe unveiled the medals up for grabs, in December 2011, Jacques Rogge was invested as an Officer of the Légion dhonneur by French President Nicolas Sarkozy. Jacques Rogges IOC Presidency came to an end at the 125th IOC Session in Buenos Aires, german Thomas Bach was elected as the new IOC President at the session on 10 September 2013. He then went on to become the Honorary President of the IOC, however, by 30 July 2008, IOC spokesman Kevan Gosper had to retract this optimistic statement, announcing that the Internet would indeed be censored for journalists. Rogge later denied any such meeting had taken place. In response to his comments, Yahoo, in an interview with Irish Times reporter Ian ORiordan, Rogge clarified, Maybe there was a little bit of a misunderstanding. What he does before or after the race I have no problem with, I just thought that his gesticulation during the race was maybe a little disrespectful
31.
Value added tax
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VATs raise about a fifth of total tax revenues both worldwide and among the members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. As of 2014,160 of the worlds approximately 193 countries employ a VAT, there are two main methods of calculating VAT, the credit-invoice or invoice-based method and the subtraction or accounts-based method. The credit-invoice method is the most widely employed method, used by all national VATs except for Japan. The subtraction method VAT is currently used by Japan, although subtraction method VATs. With both methods, there are exceptions in the method for certain goods and transactions, created for either pragmatic collection reasons or to counter tax fraud. Initially directed at businesses, it was extended over time to include all business sectors. In France, it is the most important source of state finance, in this way, the total tax levied at each stage in the economic chain of supply is a constant fraction of the value added by a business. The standard way to implement a value-added tax involves assuming a business owes some fraction on the price of the product minus all taxes paid on the good. By the method of collection, VAT can be accounts-based or invoice-based, under the invoice method of collection, each seller charges VAT rate on his output and passes the buyer a special invoice that indicates the amount of tax charged. Buyers who are subject to VAT on their own sales, consider the tax on the purchase invoices as input tax, the difference between output tax and input tax is paid to the government. Under the accounts based method, no such specific invoices are used, instead, the tax is calculated on the value added, measured as a difference between revenues and allowable purchases. Most countries today use the method, the only exception being Japan. By the timing of collection, VAT can be either accrual or cash based, cash basis accounting is a very simple form of accounting. When a payment is received for the sale of goods or services, a deposit is made, cheques are written when funds are available to pay bills, and the expense is recorded as of the cheque date—regardless of when the expense had been incurred. The primary focus is on the amount of cash in the bank, little effort is made to match revenues to the time period in which they are earned, or to match expenses to the time period in which they are incurred. Accrual basis accounting matches revenues to the period in which they are earned. While it is more complex than cash basis accounting, it provides more information about your business. The accrual basis allows you to track receivables and payables, the accrual basis allows you to match revenues to the expenses incurred in earning them, giving you more meaningful financial reports
32.
Precast concrete
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In contrast, standard concrete is poured into site-specific forms and cured on site. Precast stone is distinguished from precast concrete using an aggregate in the mixture. Precast are only used within ranges of exterior and interior walls, compressed in concrete and stone, creating a solid but manuverable wall or face. By producing precast concrete in an environment, the precast concrete is afforded the opportunity to properly cure. Using a precast concrete system offers many advantages over onsite casting. Precast concrete production is performed on ground level, which helps with safety throughout a project, there is greater control over material quality and workmanship in a precast plant compared to a construction site. There are many different types of precast concrete forming systems for applications, differing in size, function. Stormwater drainage, water and sewage pipes, and tunnels make use of precast concrete units, the New South Wales Government Railways made extensive use of precast concrete construction for its stations and similar buildings. Between 1917 and 1932, they erected 145 such buildings, beyond cladding panels and structural elements, entire buildings can be assembled from precast concrete. Precast assembly enables fast completion of commercial shops and offices with minimal labor, for example, the Jim Bridger Building in Williston, North Dakota, was precast in Minnesota with air, electrical, water, and fiber utilities preinstalled into the building panels. The panels were transported over 800 miles to the Bakken oilfields, the building houses over 40,000 square feet of shops and offices. Virtually the entire building was fabricated in Minnesota, to complete the look of the four precast wall panel types — sandwich, plastered sandwich, inner layer and cladding panels — many surface finishes are available. Standard cement is white or grey, though different colors can be added with pigments or paints, the color and size of aggregate can also affect the appearance and texture of concrete surfaces. The shape and surface of the precast concrete molds have an effect on the look, The mold can be made of timber, steel, plastic, rubber or fiberglass, each material giving a unique finish. Ancient Roman builders made use of concrete and soon poured the material into moulds to build their network of aqueducts, is culverts. Modern uses for pre-cast technology include a variety of architectural and structural applications — including individual parts, in the modern world, precast panelled buildings were pioneered in Liverpool, England, in 1905. The process was invented by city engineer John Alexander Brodie, a genius who also invented the idea of the football goal net. The tram stables at Walton in Liverpool followed in 1906, the idea was not taken up extensively in Britain
33.
Lincolnshire
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Lincolnshire is a county in the east of England. It also borders Northamptonshire in the south for just 20 yards, Englands shortest county boundary, the county town is Lincoln, where the county council has its headquarters. The ceremonial county of Lincolnshire is composed of the county of Lincolnshire. Therefore, part of the county is in the Yorkshire and the Humber region of England. The county is the second-largest of the English ceremonial counties and one that is predominantly agricultural in land use, the county is fifth largest of the two-tier counties, as the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire are not included. The county can be broken down into a number of geographical sub-regions including, Lincolnshire derived from the merging of the territory of the ancient Kingdom of Lindsey with that controlled by the Danelaw borough of Stamford. For some time the county was called Lindsey, and it is recorded as such in the 11th-century Domesday Book. In 1888 when county councils were set up, Lindsey, Holland and these survived until 1974, when Holland, Kesteven, and most of Lindsey were unified into Lincolnshire. A local government reform in 1996 abolished Humberside, and the south of the Humber was allocated to the unitary authorities of North Lincolnshire. These two areas became part of Lincolnshire for ceremonial such as the Lord-Lieutenancy, but are not covered by the Lincolnshire police and are in the Yorkshire. The remaining districts of Lincolnshire are Boston, East Lindsey, Lincoln, North Kesteven, South Holland, South Kesteven and they are part of the East Midlands region. Lincolnshire is home to Woolsthorpe Manor, birthplace and home of Sir Isaac Newton and he attended The Kings School, Grantham and its library has preserved his signature, applied to a window sill when he was a teenager. Lincolnshire is an area, growing large amounts of wheat, barley, sugar beet. In South Lincolnshire, where the soil is rich in nutrients, some of the most common crops include potatoes, cabbages, cauliflowers. Most such companies are long gone, and Lincolnshire is no longer an engineering centre, however, as a result of the current economic climate some food production facilities have closed down, this has caused some reduction in the levels of migrant workers. The large number of people from Portugal is still obvious in the town of Boston. A coalition of Conservatives, Liberal Democrats and Independents currently controls Lincolnshire County Council, the Conservative Party comfortably controlled the County Council following the 2009 local elections, in which they increased their majority to 43 seats. The Labour Party lost a total of 15 seats including 7 in Lincoln, the Lincolnshire Independents gained a total of four seats, although one of their number moved to the Conservative group during 2010, increasing the number of Conservative seats to 61
34.
Diving platform
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A diving platform or diving tower is a type of structure used for competitive diving. It consists of a vertical rigid tower with one or more horizontal platforms extending out over a pool of water. In platform diving, the jumps from a high stationary surface. The height of the platforms -10 metres,7.5 metres and 5 metres - gives the diver enough time to perform the movements of a particular dive. There are additional platforms set at 3 metres and 1 metre, diving platforms for FINA sanctioned meets must be at least 6 metres long and 2 metres wide. Most platforms are covered by some sort of matting or non-slip surface to prevent athletes from slipping, all three levels of the platform are used in JO and NCAA competition. Each level offers a degree of difficulty and therefore could yield different scores for divers. Diving began in the Olympics in 1904 for men, in what was called fancy diving, the 10-meter dive began in the 1908 Olympics. Diving for women started in the 1912 Olympics for women, with the 10-meter dive, springboard List of 10 meter diving platforms in the United States
35.
Aluminium
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Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
36.
Newport, Wales
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Newport is a cathedral and university city and unitary authority area in south east Wales. It is located on the River Usk close to its confluence with the Severn Estuary, at the 2011 census it is the third largest city in Wales, with a city population of 145,700 and an urban population of 306,844. The city forms part of the Cardiff-Newport metropolitan area with a population of 1,097,000, Newport has been a port since medieval times, when the first Newport Castle was built by the Normans. The town outgrew the earlier Roman town of Caerleon, immediately upstream and it grew significantly in the 19th century, when its port became the focus of coal exports from the eastern valleys of South Wales. Until the rise of Cardiff from the 1850s, Newport was Wales largest coal-exporting port and it was the site of the last large-scale armed insurrection in Britain, the Newport Rising of 1839 led by the Chartists. During the 20th century, when the docks declined in importance and it was granted city status in 2002. Newport hosted the Ryder Cup in 2010, the city was the venue for the 2014 NATO summit. It is the largest urban area within the county boundaries of Monmouthshire. The City of Newport, which includes surrounding rural areas as well as the built up area, is governed by Newport City Council. Bronze Age fishermen settled around the estuary of the River Usk. In AD75, on the edge of their empire. According to legend, in the late 5th century Saint Woolos church was founded by Saint Gwynllyw, the church was certainly in existence by the 9th century and today has become Newport Cathedral, the seat of the Bishop of Monmouth. The Normans arrived from around 1088–1093 to build the first Newport Castle and river crossing downstream from Caerleon, the settlement of Newport is first mentioned as novo burgus established by Robert, Earl of Gloucester in 1126. The name was derived from the original Latin name Novus Burgus, the city can sometimes be found labelled as Newport-on-Usk on old maps. The original Welsh language name for the city, Casnewydd-ar-Wysg means New castle-on-Usk, the original Newport Castle was a small motte-and-bailey castle in the park opposite Newport Cathedral. It was buried in rubble excavated from the Hillfield railway tunnels that were dug under Stow Hill in the 1840s and no part of it is currently visible. Around the settlement, the new town grew to become Newport, obtaining its first charter in 1314 and was granted a second one, by Hugh Stafford, in the 14th century friars came to Newport where they built an isolation hospital for infectious diseases. After its closure the hospital lived on in the place name Spitty Fields, austin Friars also remains a street name in the city
37.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
38.
Olympic Delivery Authority
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Together with the London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games, the ODA was one of the two main agencies that organised the London Olympic Games. The authority was established by the London Olympic Games and Paralympic Games Act 2006, the ODA was based alongside LOCOG at One Churchill Place in Canary Wharf. The ODA appointed a company, CLM, to manage the delivery of the Olympic Park. CLM was a consortium of CH2M Hill, Laing ORourke and Mace, cLMs organisation included teams responsible for the design and construction of the venues, structures bridges and highways as well as logistics and security. The authority was established by the London Olympic Games and Paralympic Games Act 2006, prior to the act receiving Royal Assent, Jack Lemley was appointed as chairman in 2005, but resigned on 18 October 2006. Lemley had run the Anglo-French group that designed and built the £8 billion Channel Tunnel, lemleys tenure as Chairman of the ODA and subsequent resignation in October 2006 became surrounded by controversy and recrimination. In February 2011, the Director of Finance, Dennis Hone succeeded David Higgins as Chief Executive and he left the position in April 2013 to become Chief Executive of the London Legacy Development Corporation, being replaced by Gerry Murphy. In 2012, the Authority won New Civil Engineer 40th Anniversary Award - Impact on Society at the British Construction Industry Awards, the ODA was dissolved by Parliament on 2 December 2014. The ODA was responsible for the delivery of the infrastructure required for the Olympic and Paralympic Games, the ODAs original budget was £2.375 billion, provided by a public sector funding package agreed between Government and the Mayor of London in 2003. However, in October 2006, Culture Secretary Tessa Jowell announced that this could rise to over £4 billion, in March 2007 she announced a new funding package for the ODA, increasing its budget to £5.3 billion. However, as a result of the recession and fall in property prices since 2008, additional funding was requested from a contingency fund set up by the government
39.
Panorama
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A panorama is any wide-angle view or representation of a physical space, whether in painting, drawing, photography, film, seismic images or a three-dimensional model. The word was coined in the 18th century by the English painter Robert Barker to describe his panoramic paintings of Edinburgh. The motion-picture term panning is derived from panorama, a panoramic view is also purposed for multi-media, cross-scale applications to an outline overview along and across repositories. This so-called cognitive panorama is a view over, and a combination of. The device of the panorama existed in painting, particularly in murals, as early as 20 A. D. in those found in Pompeii, cartographic experiments during the Enlightenment era preceded European panorama painting and contributed to a formative impulse toward panoramic vision and depiction. In the mid-19th century, panoramic paintings and models became a popular way to represent landscapes, topographic views. Audiences of Europe in this period were thrilled by the aspect of illusion, immersed in a winding 360 degree panorama, the panorama was a 360-degree visual medium patented under the title Apparatus for Exhibiting Pictures by the artist Robert Barker in 1787. The earliest that the word appeared in print was on June 11,1791 in the British newspaper The Morning Chronicle. The inaugural exhibition, a View of Edinburgh, was first shown in that city in 1788, by 1793, Barker had built The Panorama rotunda at the center of Londons entertainment district in Leicester Square, where it remained until closed in 1863. Large scale installations enhance the illusion for an audience of being surrounded with a real landscape, the Bourbaki Panorama in Lucerne, Switzerland was created by Edouard Castres in 1881. The painting measures about 10 metres in height with a circumference of 112 meters, in the United States of America is the Atlanta Cyclorama, depicting the Civil War Battle of Atlanta. It was first displayed in 1887, and is 42 feet high by 358 feet circumference, also on a gigantic scale, and still extant, is the Racławice Panorama located in Wrocław, Poland, which measures 15 x 120 metres. In addition to historical examples, there have been panoramas painted and installed in modern times, prominent among these is the Velaslavasay Panorama in Los Angeles. Panoramic photography soon came to painting as the most common method for creating wide views. Not long after the introduction of the Daguerreotype in 1839, photographers began assembling multiple images of a view into a wide image. Pinhole cameras of a variety of constructions can be used to make panoramic images and this generates an egg-shaped image with more than 180° view. They could run autonomously with silent synchronization pulses to control projector advance and fades, precisely overlapping slides placed in slide mounts with soft-edge density masks would merge seamlessly on the screen to create the panorama. Cutting and dissolving between sequential images generated animation effects in the panorama format, digital photography of the late twentieth century greatly simplified this assembly process, which is now known as image stitching
40.
London Prepares series
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London Prepares series is the banner under which the test events for the 2012 Summer Olympic and Paralympic Games were held. The events which make up the series place in 2011 and 2012. The test events focussed primarily on the testing of the field of play, results, scoring and timing systems, as well as key operational procedures, as part of their Olympic sponsorship, only Visa cards were accepted. Additionally, some tickets were offered for free to local residents and it has an Olympic feel already, and this is just the test event. However there was criticism of the London–Surrey Cycle Classic on 14 August 2011, the transition of apparatus on the field of play between disciplines was also successful
41.
Crystal Palace National Sports Centre
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The National Sports Centre at Crystal Palace in south London, England is a large sports centre and athletics stadium. The sports centre building was designed by the LCC Architects Department under Sir Leslie Martin between 1953–54 and is a Grade II* listed building, the athletics stadium has a capacity of 15,500, which can be increased to 24,000 with temporary seating. The current 15,500 seater athletics stadium was built on the site of the ground by M J Gleeson. From 1999 to 2012 it hosted the London Grand Prix, the stadium can be expanded to 24,000 with temporary seating if required. With the opening of the London Olympic Stadium in 2012, its future as a stadium hosting athletics events is in doubt. Crystal Palace F. C. has submitted plans to rebuild the stadium as a 40,000 seater football stadium without a running track, but with a new indoor aquatic and sports centre as part of the complex. The current athletics stadium is on the land as a previous football ground. In 1905, the owners wanted their own club to play at the venue. They were forced to leave by the military, in 1915, the largest domestic attendance ever at the stadium was in the 1913 Cup final between Aston Villa and Sunderland, when 121,919 spectators squeezed into the stands. The previous world record had been the 1901 Cup Final, when 114,815 amassed to watch Tottenham Hotspur, Tottenham Hotspur F. C. However, Spurs plans were cancelled due to their failure to obtain the Olympic Stadium. AC London used the stadium during the 2015–16 season, four more teams won the FA Cup during this time, after replays at other grounds. All but two of the finalists from that era a century ago are still playing in either the Premier League or the Football League Championship, the exceptions being Bradford City, and Bury. Newcastle United appeared in the most finals at the ground, five, results of finals at Crystal Palace FA Cup Wins at Crystal Palace Crystal Palace FA Cup Final appearances Goals Scored in FA Cup Finals at Crystal Palace Goals Conceded in F. A. Cup Finals at Crystal Palace On 2 December 1905, the ground held the first England Rugby Union international match against New Zealand in England. On Wednesday 18 August 1965, the ground was the venue of the Rugby league match in which the Commonwealth XIII rugby league team were defeated 7–15 by New Zealand. It also played host to Fulham Rugby League in the mid-1980s for a couple of seasons, London County Cricket Club was a short-lived cricket club founded by the Crystal Palace Company. In 1898 they invited W. G. Grace to help form a first-class cricket club. Grace accepted the offer and became the secretary, manager
42.
South London
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South London is the southern part of London, England. The River Thames divides Greater London into two parts, the southern part includes the historic central areas of Southwark, Lambeth and Bankside and also maritime Greenwich. The area has only a section of the London Underground network. This area is made up of the London boroughs of Bexley, Bromley, Croydon, Greenwich, Kingston, Lambeth, Lewisham, Merton, Richmond, Southwark, Sutton and this definition is used by the Boundary Commission for England. For the purposes of the London Plan, there was a South London sub-region in operation from 2004 to 2008 consisting of Bromley, Croydon, Kingston, Merton, Richmond, in 2001 this area had a population of 1,329,000. This definition is used by such as Connexions. In 2011 a new South London region was created consisting of Bromley, Croydon, Kingston, Merton, Sutton, Richmond now lies within the West London region, and Lambeth and Southwark are part of the Central London region. Three Met Office weather stations collect climate data south of the river, Kew, Hampton and Kenley Airfield. Long term climate observations dating back to 1763 are available for Greenwich, often snow can be seen to lie on the North Downs near Croydon when central London is snow free. The record high temperature at Greenwich is 37.5 °C recorded during August 2003, the highest temperature recorded across South London was 38.1 °C on the same occasion at Kew Gardens. Although the Met Office accepts a higher reading from Brogdale in Kent, many have questioned the accuracy of this, North London v South London - The debate. North London v South London - The debate
43.
FINA
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FINA or Fédération internationale de natation is the international federation recognized by the International Olympic Committee for administering international competition in water sports. It is one of several international federations which administer a given sport/discipline for the IOC and/or international community and it is based in Lausanne, Switzerland. FINA currently oversees competition in five sports, swimming, diving, synchronized swimming, water polo. Beginning in 2013, high diving emerged as a discipline within FINA, FINA also oversees Masters competition in its disciplines. On 24 July 2009, Julio Maglione of Uruguay was elected FINA President and it is not necessarily the number of members in the continental association. The FINA membership meets every four years, usually coinciding with the World Championships, there are two types of normal or ordinary congress, General and Technical. FINA’s highest authority is the General Congress, any technical issues concerning FINA’s five aquatic disciplines are decided by the Technical Congress. Each Congress has two voting members from each Member federation, plus the following non-voting members, the 22 members of the Bureau, the Honorary Life President, the Technical Congress has the following additional non-voting members, all members from the respective Technical Committees. Extraordinary Congress are also called time to time, to deal with a specific topic or area of concern. All Congress meetings are chaired by FINAs president and it is the Bureau that elects the FINA Executive Officers. Various committees and commission also help with the oversight of individual disciplines, each presidential term is four years, beginning and concluding with the year following the Summer Olympics. FINA organizes one championship involving each of the five disciplines it oversees, as well championships, the biggest FINA event is the biennial World Aquatics Championships, currently held every odd year. It features competitions in all five aquatic disciplines, prior to 2000, the event was held every 4 years, in the even year between Olympic Games. Bi-annual event, swum in 25-meter length pool, Water Polo, Water Polo World Leagues. Diving, Diving World Series Open Water, World Open Water Swimming Championships, High Diving, High Diving World Cup Masters, World Masters Championships. This championships features all 5 disciplines, grand Prix, Annual race/competition series of multiple events in open water. Junior Worlds, A world-level championships restricted to a younger age population, held in swimming, water polo, diving, and synchronized swimming
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Ponds Forge
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Ponds Forge was designed by the architects FaulknerBrowns and opened in 1991 as a venue for the 1991 Summer Universiade, which the city hosted that year. In the 1994 UK Sports Design Awards Ponds Forge was highly commended in the overall category, the River Sheaf runs under the site and flooded the car park on 21 December 1991, shutting the complex for 6 days. Proof of this can be found on platform Five of Sheffield railway station, because the Sheaf also runs under that, a piece of debris from The Flood is displayed there and the plaque mounted on it has the same date. In the 2000s Ponds Forge was a venue for Channel Fours The Games, the 50 metre pool at Ponds Forge is one of nine in the United Kingdom built to current World and Olympic standards, and home to many sporting events. The main pool hall is 90 m long by 60 m wide, when these were removed it settled 150 mm. It has two movable bulkheads and the floors at the end quarters can be raised or lowered from surface level down to 2 m depth, in its long course mode with the bulkheads at the extreme ends it has 10 lanes. If used width ways up to twenty 25 m lanes are available, a sophisticated ozone water treatment system is employed that results in lower levels of irritants and reduced toxicity compared with traditional methods of treatment. The quality of the means that a great many events are held there which creates valuable exposure for the city of Sheffield. The down side is the consequent unavailability for its regular users whilst those events are being held, a number of world records have been set in the pool although only one was long course. The latter was in the heats of the European Championships on the 3 August 1993 when Károly Güttler of Hungary went 1.00.95 to set a new mark in the 100 m breaststroke. As well as swimming, the pool is also used for lessons, diving, kayaking. It is also open to the public for lane swimming. Ponds Forge plays host to Europes deepest diving pool at 5.85 metres and this pool hosted the FINA World Diving Series Championships in April 2011 and was home to USA Diving Squad for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. It is also home to the City of Sheffield Water Polo Club a first division water polo team, the Surf City leisure pool complex comprises many water-based attractions open for public use, A modern leisure pool, which is used for lane swimming or leisure swimming. At regular intervals a wave machine is activated in this pool, a lazy river goes around the outside of the square pool with a reasonably strong current, children can float on rings in this river. A smaller childrens pool with a waterfall and fountains Two large water slides that loop outside, in 2009 the gym at Ponds Forge had a £3 million refurbishment. It now houses a 130-piece gym, a studio, numerous group fitness class studios. Within the complex is the International Sports Hall, which can be used as a basketball venue, the maximum seating capacity of the arena is 1,600, until 2006 it was the home venue for the Sheffield Sharks, before they relocated to the EIS Sheffield
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John Charles Centre for Sport
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The John Charles Centre for Sport is a sports facility in South Leeds, West Yorkshire, England. It was previously named the South Leeds Stadium and was renamed to honour John Charles and it is located to the south of Leeds city centre roughly on the border of Beeston, Belle Isle and Hunslet. The sports centre opened in 1996, the stadium has been used by Leeds United for reserve matches, and since November 1995 by rugby league club Hunslet. It is the athletics stadium in the Leeds area and is the home of Leeds City Athletics Club. The sports complex includes a tennis centre and indoor bowls. The stadium is one of the best available to clubs at Hunslets level, the complex is comparable with the Gateshead International Stadium. The stadium was the first part of the centre to be built. It has a two tier stand at the west end of the ground which has a capacity of 4,000 and it also houses the changing rooms, corporate boxes and the Pheonix Bar. The stadium has a track as well as a pitch and is mainly used for rugby league. The Aquatics Centre opened on 29 October 2007, the Olympic size swimming pool replaced previous facilities at the 40-year-old Leeds International Pool. Two submersible booms built into the main pool enable it to be divided into three pools of different sizes and depths, allowing a flexible daily swimming programme. A floating floor allows the depth of the pool and ⅓ of the main pool to be varied from two metres to shallow water for teaching and 0–5 metres for the diving pool. The centre is also suitable for national and international swimming and diving, with seating for 950 people overlooking the main pool, the £16. 5m centre also includes an aerobics studio and multi-use rooms. The movement of the main public swimming facilities to South Leeds attracted criticism. It left the city deprived of facilities and the new centre is difficult to reach for people without the use of a car. The South Leeds Stadium is also remote for people in north Leeds and outlying villages and towns, the tennis centre at John Charles Centre for Sport consists of 6 indoor pitches and 6 outdoor pitches. There is also a balcony, changing facilities, meeting room. The courts are available to hire on a pay and play basis, there are a wide range of tennis sessions available to adults and youths including coaching, individual lessons, social tennis, and competitive league opportunities
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