1.
London International Airport
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London International Airport is located 5 nautical miles northeast of the city of London, Ontario, Canada. In 2016, the airport handled 514,685 passengers, and, in 2011, was the 20th busiest in Canada in terms of aircraft movements, Air Canada Express, WestJet and WestJet Encore serve London International Airport. It also provides services for cargo airlines, the airport is classified as an airport of entry by Nav Canada and is staffed by the Canada Border Services Agency. CBSA officers at this airport can handle aircraft with no more than 180 passengers, however, in January 1927 the City of London selected a site for an airfield at Lambeth, Ontario near 42°55′00″N 081°17′00″W. A group of local businessmen acquired the site in 1928 and by 3 May 1929 an airport license was issued to London Airport Ltd, the London Flying Club was formed in 1928 and became a tenant of the new airport. The airfield was used for flying instruction, private aviation, by 1933 it had become too small for some commercial aircraft. The London Flying Club continued to use the Lambeth airfield until 7 August 1942, in 1935 the city decided to replace the original London Airport. Site surveys and consultations took place and on 9 September 1939, at the start of World War II, the city leased the new airport to the Government of Canada, Department of Transport on 24 January 1940 for the duration of the war. Runways 14-32 and 05-23 were paved and ready for use by July 1940 and this air station was host to No.3 Elementary Flying School and No.4 Air Observer School, both part of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan. The airport remained under civilian management and was used for civil, the licence for London City Airport was issued on 6 May 1941. Improvements made during this time include, main building opened in July 1942 Trans-Canada Airlines began serve to the airport in July 1942. Commonwealth Air Training Plan operations ended on 31 December 1944 with the closure of No.4 Air Observer School, after the war the airport remained under the control of the Department of Transport. After World War II RCAF reserve or auxiliary squadrons were given the task of defending Canadas major cities,420 Squadron reformed as City of London 420 Auxiliary Squadron at the airport in September 1948. Initially equipped with Harvard aircraft, the squadron upgraded to Mustangs in 1952, Air Defence Command reformed 2420 Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron at London on 1 July 1956. 2420 trained Fighter Control operators and disbanded on 31 May 1961, RCAF Station London opened in 1950 to support a NATO Induction and Training Centre, later moved to Centralia. The station closed on 30 September 1958, as a tribute to this period, a Canadair T-33 aircraft in former Royal Canadian Air Force livery is mounted in front of the main terminal building. The airport has been improved since World War II as navigation and air traffic control systems evolved. Shuttle service is available for passengers wishing to connect to flights at Toronto Pearson International Airport in Toronto, on December 15,2016, an Air Canada Jazz Bombardier Dash 8 from London to Toronto slid off the runway into snow-covered grass following takeoff
2.
League of Communists of Yugoslavia
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The League of Communists of Yugoslavia, before 1952 the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, was the countrys largest communist party, and the ruling party of SFR Yugoslavia. It was founded as a party in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats. After initial successes in the elections, it was proscribed by the government and remained an illegal underground group until World War II, at times. After internal purges of members, the party renamed itself the League of Communists and adopted the politics of workers self-management and independent communism. The ministerial branch of the Social democrat party of Slovenia was minorized in April 1920, Slovenes joined officially at the Second Congress, held in Vukovar in late April 1920. The congress was marked by opposing positions towards the concepts of the revolutionary, bolshevik influence was introduced by soldiers who during the war had been captured by Russian forces and had experienced the October Revolution. The Congress decided to form a political party named Socialist Labor Party of Yugoslavia which would be a member of Comintern. These early successes convinced other groups, including Social Democrats in Slovenia, success continued in local elections in Serbia in the summer of 1920, in which the Communists won majorities in many districts. Again, Communist administrations were suspended by the government, finally, in elections to the Constitutional Assembly, held on November 28,1920, the Communist Party received 198,736 votes and 58 of 419 seats in the assembly. The 2nd party congress, held in June 1920 in Vukovar, the party changed its name to Communist Party of Yugoslavia and elected Filipović and Sima Marković as political secretaries. The Congress also supported to the idea of a Balkan Communist Federation, the centrists for a time formed they own party before they united with Social Democrats in the Socialist Party of Yugoslavia. The partys property was seized and several leaders arrested, the Assembly approved of the Constitution on 28 June 1921, against the votes of the Communist deputies. The Communist Party reacted to the Obznana preparing a transition to illegal operation, in June 1921, it formed an Alternative Central Party Leadership, which would assume control of the Party if the Party leadership was arrested. This act was condemned and resulted in a lasting drop of the partys popularity. The Assembly passed the Law of protection of security and state order. The ban was not lifted until the demise of the Kingdom in 1941, as the party continued underground and abroad, the Alternative Central Party Leadership was headed by Kosta Novaković, Triša Kaclerović and Moša Pijade. However, soon conflict flared up on the whether the party should attempt to reconstruct legal forms of its work or devote itself entirely to illegal activity. A group of party leaders, led by party secretary Sima Marković, formed the Executive Committee of the Communist Party in Emigration in September 1921
3.
ICAO airport code
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The ICAO airport code or location indicator is a four-character alphanumeric code designating aerodromes around the world. ICAO codes are used to identify other aviation facilities such as weather stations, International Flight Service Stations or Area Control Centers. Flight information regions are identified by a unique ICAO-code. Code selections in North America were based on existing radio station identifiers, for example, radio stations in Canada were already starting with C, so it seemed logical to begin Canadian airport identifiers with Cxxx. The United States had many pre-existing airports with established mnemonic codes and their ICAO codes were formed simply by prepending a K to the existing codes, as half the radio station identifiers in the US began with K. Most ICAO codes outside the US and Canada have a geographical structure. Most of the rest of the world was classified in a more planned top-down manner, thus Uxxx referred to the Soviet Union with the second letter denoting the specific region within it, and so forth. Europe had too many locations for one starting letter, so it was split into Exxx for northern Europe. The second letter was more specific, EGxx was the United Kingdom, EDxx was West Germany, ETxx was East Germany, LExx was Spain, LAxx was Albania, France was designated LFxx, as the counterpart EFxx was the unambiguously northern Finland. ICAO codes are separate and different from IATA codes, which are used for airline timetables, reservations. For example, the IATA code for Londons Heathrow Airport is LHR, in general IATA codes are usually derived from the name of the airport or the city it serves, while ICAO codes are distributed by region and country. Far more aerodromes have ICAO codes than IATA codes, and to add to the confusion IATA codes are assigned to railway stations. Unlike the IATA codes, the ICAO codes generally have a structure and are comprehensive. In general, the first letter is allocated by continent and represents a country or group of countries within that continent, the second letter generally represents a country within that region, and the remaining two are used to identify each airport. The exception to rule is larger countries that have single-letter country codes. In either case, ICAO codes generally provide geographical context unlike IATA codes, for example, if one knows that the ICAO code for Heathrow is EGLL, then one can deduce that the airport EGGP is somewhere in the UK. On the other hand, knowing that the IATA code for Heathrow is LHR does not enable one to deduce the location of the airport LHV with any greater certainty, there are a few exceptions to the regional structure of the ICAO code made for political or administrative reasons. Similarly Saint Pierre and Miquelon is controlled by France, and airports there are assigned LFxx as though they were in Europe, further, in region L, all available 2-letter prefixes have been exhausted and thus no additional countries can be added
4.
Consortium
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Consortium is a Latin word, meaning partnership, association or society and derives from consors partner, itself from con- together and sors fate, meaning owner of means or comrade. The Big Ten Academic Alliance and Five Colleges, Inc. along with the Claremont Consortium are among the oldest and most successful higher education consortia in the United States. The Big Ten Academic Alliance, formerly known as the Committee on Institutional Cooperation, the participants in Five Colleges, Inc. are, Amherst College, Hampshire College, Mount Holyoke College, Smith College, and the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Another example of a successful consortium is the Five Colleges of Ohio of Ohio, Oberlin College, Ohio Wesleyan University, Kenyon College, College of Wooster and Denison University. These consortia have pooled the resources of their colleges and the universities to share human and material assets as well as to link academic. An example of a non-profit consortium is the Appalachian College Association located in Richmond, the association consists of 35 private liberal arts colleges and universities spread across the central Appalachian mountains in Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. Collectively these higher education institutions serve approximately 42,500 students, six research universities in the region are affiliated with the ACA. These institutions assist the ACA in reviewing grant and fellowship applications, conducting workshops, the ACA works to serve higher education in the rural regions of these five states. An example of a for-profit consortium is a group of banks that collaborate to make a loan—also known as a syndicate and this type of loan is more commonly known as a syndicated loan. In England it is common for a consortium to buy out financially struggling football clubs in order to them out of liquidation. Hulu, the American video streaming service, is owned by a consortium of media conglomerates including Time Warner, 21st Century Fox, Comcast. Airbus Industries was formed in 1970 as a consortium of aerospace manufacturers, the retention of production and engineering assets by the partner companies in effect made Airbus Industries a sales and marketing company. This arrangement led to inefficiencies due to the inherent conflicts of interest that the four partner companies faced, the companies collaborated on development of the Airbus range, but guarded the financial details of their own production activities and sought to maximize the transfer prices of their sub-assemblies. In 2001, EADS and BAE Systems transferred their Airbus production assets to a new company, in return, they got 80% and 20% shares respectively. BAE would later sell its share to EADS, coopetition is a word coined from cooperation and competition. It is used when companies otherwise competitors collaborate in a consortium to cooperate on areas non-strategic for their core businesses and they prefer to reduce their costs on these non-strategic areas and compete on other areas where they can differentiate better. For example, the GENIVI Alliance is a consortium between different car makers in order to ease building an in-vehicle infotainment system. Another example is the World Wide Web Consortium, which is a consortium that standardizes web technologies like HTML, XML, joint venture This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles, ed. passim
5.
Alberta Investment Management Corporation
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Alberta Investment Management Corporation is one of Canadas largest and most diversified institutional investment fund managers, with an investment portfolio of approximately $90 billion. Headquartered in Edmonton, Alberta, AIMCo manages the assets of 31 clients, legislation creating AIMCo was passed by the Alberta legislature on March 20,2007, and AIMCo became a crown corporation on January 1,2008. Prior to becoming a Crown corporation in 2008, the assets were managed by a division of Alberta Finance. At March 31,2009 assets under its administration totaled approximately $69.0 billion at market value, in its 2009 Annual Report AIMCo published its total fund return was -10. 1% for the year ending March 31,2009. In 2015 AIMCo earned a 9. 1% total fund net return on behalf of its clients, by 2015 AIMCo was managing 4 endowment funds,7 pension plans,9 government funds,8 specialty funds, and 2 other balanced funds. AIMCo is one of several pooled investment portfolios in Canada that allow for client-controlled asset allocation for multiple public-sector pension plans, through pooled asset management, these entities achieve sufficient scale to produce significant cost savings through internal investment management and access to alternative asset classes. Through funds like these Canada is emerging as a leader in successfully adapting the advantages of large funds to the public sector. These are arm’s-length investment management entities with sufficient scale, independent boards and internal investment management, AIMCo’s focuses its investments across three broad categories, Equities, Illiquid Investments, and Fixed Income all employing varying strategies. Equity holdings, which both public and private equity, total to 43% of AUM. The public equity portfolio maintains exposure to a set of common style factors, as well as stock selection. By investing with both private funds and co-venture deals, AIMCo private equity focuses on business that generate stable free cash flow and are operated by strong management teams, Illiquid Investments, which constitute 22% of AUM, include long-term holdings in Real Estate, Infrastructure and Timberland. The long term Real Estate assets are the core strategy direct investments in office, retail, industrial, AIMCo’s Infrastructure investments match long duration real return asset characteristics with inflation indexed-pension liabilities. The Timberland assets are held to provide inflation hedging and a long-term duration match with client obligations, the Fixed Income portfolios are managed with the objective of capital preservation, liquidity, and risk-controlled return relative to benchmark. These asset classes make up 35% of AIMCo’s AUM, AIMCo seeks to maximize risk-adjusted returns by integrating environmental, social and governance ) factors into investment analysis across all asset classes. Votes are guided through AIMCo’s Proxy Voting Guidelines, and take into account unique circumstances, engagements are identified through ESG focus areas approved by AIMCo’s Responsible Investment Committee. Being a signatory to the United Nations Principles for Responsible Investment, the Responsible Investment Association, disclosing its Responsible Investment policies, guiding documents, activities and proxy voting record on its website. Acquired in 2011, this Chilean toll road was sold for ~$1.5 CAD billion in 2015 to Abertis Infraestructuras SA and this investment was the first AIMCo-only led private investment in the organization’s history. The active management and eventual monetization of this asset captured significant value add as it saw a return on investment
6.
OMERS
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It has become one of the largest institutional investors in Canada. As of December 2013, OMERS had 65.1 billion Canadian dollars in net investment assets, OMERS is governed by the Ontario Municipal Employees Retirement Act,2006, an Ontario law which superseded the older Ontario Municipal Employees Retirement System Act. OMERS investment strategy since 2003 has been to increase its investment in infrastructure to 15% from the former 7. 9%. In addition to the corporate assets outlined below, Borealis owns 16 school buildings, leased to the Province of Nova Scotia, — operator of the 12. 9-kilometre Confederation Bridge between Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick until 2032 Ceda Holdings Ltd. Some parts of Thomson Learning had been sold off to other groups before this sale, among Cengages major brands are Gale and Nelson Education. TeraGo Networks Inc. — wireless broadband Internet service provider Trident Exploration Corp
7.
Ontario Teachers' Pension Plan
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The Ontario Teachers Pension Plan Board, is an independent organization responsible for administering defined-benefit pensions for school teachers of the Canadian province of Ontario. Ontario Teachers also invests the plans pension fund, and is one of the world’s largest institutional investors, the plan is a multi-employer pension plan, jointly sponsored by the Government of Ontario and the Ontario Teachers Federation. Ontario Teachers was established on Jan, until then, Ontario teachers pensions had been sponsored solely by the Ontario government. Assets of the plan had been invested in government bonds only, today, the plan administers the pensions for some 182,000 teachers, principals, and school administrators, and pays pensions to some 136,000 retirees. In 2016, $5.7 billion in benefits was paid to members, Ontario Teachers is headquartered in Toronto, with operations in London, Hong Kong and an office in New York. Founding President and Chief Executive Officer, Claude Lamoureux, retired on December 1,2007 and was succeeded by Jim Leech, effective January 1,2014, Ron Mock, succeeded Jim Leech as President and Chief Executive Officer. The Chair of the Board is Jean Turmel, Ontario Teachers is one of Canadas largest institutional investors having reported $175.6 billion in net assets on December 31,2016. It has an excellent track record for investment performance with an annual return of 10. 3% since inception. Ontario Teachers owns and manages a portfolio of Canadian and international assets. Through its fully owned real estate subsidiary Cadillac Fairview, Ontario Teachers owns properties include the Toronto-Dominion Centre, Toronto Eaton Centre. Through its private equity investment arm Private Capital, Ontario Teachers owns or has had interests in such as Helly Hansen, Munchkin, Plano. Ontario Teachers also owns Camelot Group PLC, which holds a licence to operate the U. K. It has acquired a share of the Irish National Lottery in 2014, Ontario Teachers posts a list of major investments annually on its website. See a list of recent transactions Ontario Teachers’ approach to responsible investing seeks to achieve the best risk-return balance for its members by being diligent in choosing and managing assets, the pension plan reported a preliminary $11.5 billion funding surplus as of Jan. Despite improved funding levels, the plan still faces challenges resulting from increasing longevity, longer retirements. At the 2013 National Summit on Pension Reform, then President and CEO Jim Leech called for action to assure retirement financing security for all Canadians, now and for generations to come. Leaders and experts from government, private companies and labour unions gathered in Fredericton, to encourage candid, “Pensions, like any species that wishes to survive through time, must adapt to the environment, ” Mr. Leech told the conference. “That means we must ensure that benefits and contributions are fair and correlated, that assets and liabilities can be balanced, the documentary takes a global look at how pension plans are changing to meet economic and demographic challenges ranging from volatile markets to increasing longevity
8.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
9.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
10.
Silvertown
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It was named after Samuel Winkworth Silvers former rubber factory which opened in 1852, and is now dominated by the Tate & Lyle sugar refinery and the John Knight ABP animal rendering plant. In 1852 S. W. Silver and Co moved to the area from Greenwich and established a rubber works and this subsequently developed into the works of the India Rubber, Gutta Percha and Telegraph Cable Company, which constructed and laid many submarine cables. By the 1860s a number of manure and chemical works and petroleum storage depots had been set up, in 1864 the area became an ecclesiastical parish of its own, centred on the church of St Marks. Sugar refiners in the area were joined by Henry Tate in 1877 and Abram Lyle in 1881, prior to the merger, which occurred after they had died, the two men were bitter business rivals, although they had never met in person. Tate & Lyle still has two refineries in the area. In 1889 Silvers factory was the scene of a week long strike by the majority of its 3,000 workers. The strikers were demanding pay and were inspired by the recent successes of New Unionism in the East End of London. Management refused to negotiate with the strikers who had popular support. Leading figures in the strike included Tom Mann and Eleanor Marx, the workers were eventually starved back to work, with many being victimised for their role. In the aftermath of the strike, Silvers declared a dividend of 5 percent. Silvers management were congratulated by the rest of the industry for holding a line against New Unionism, on 19 January 1917 parts of Silvertown were devastated by a massive TNT explosion at the Brunner-Mond munitions factory, in what is known as the Silvertown explosion. Seventy three people died and hundreds were injured in one of the largest explosions ever experienced in the British Isles. In the early 20th Century the area suffered greatly from road congestion due to being located between the Thames and the Royal Docks, then the largest and one of the busiest dock groups in the world. The area was cut off for much of the time by lifting bridges over dock entrances and this led in the early 1930s to the construction of the elevated Silvertown Way, one of the earliest urban flyovers. On the first night of The Blitz, Tate and Lyles sugar refinery, John Knights Primrose Soapworks, Silvers was eventually taken over by the British Tyre and Rubber Co, later known as BTR Industries. The site closed in the 1960s and is now the Thameside Industrial Estate, another major local employer was the Loders and Nucoline plant at Cairn Mills, a traditional port oleo industry and formerly part of Unilever. This originally milled seeds but later concentrated on production of fats from palm kernel oil, the district formed part of the County Borough of West Ham in Essex until 1965. On 21 April 2015, Newham Council gave planning permission to The Silvertown Partnership for a new £3. 5billion redevelopment of the area, the 7 million square foot development will provide offices, a tech hub,3,000 new homes and brand experience pavilions
11.
Airline hub
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Airline hubs or hub airports are used by one or more airliners to concentrate passenger traffic and flight operations at a given airport. They serve as points to get passengers to their final destination. It is part of the hub-and-spoke system, an airline operates flights from several non-hub cities to the hub airport, and passengers traveling between spoke cities need to connect through the hub. This paradigm creates economies of scale that allow an airline to serve city-pairs that could not be economically served on a non-stop basis. This system contrasts with the point-to-point model, in there are no hubs. Hub airports also serve origin and destination traffic, the hub-and-spoke system allows an airline to serve fewer routes, so fewer aircraft are needed. The system also increases passenger loads, a flight from a hub to a spoke carries not just passengers originating at the hub, additional employees and facilities are needed to cater to connecting passengers. To serve spoke cities of varying populations and demand, an airline requires several aircraft types, in addition, airlines may experience capacity constraints as they expand at their hub airports. For the passenger, the system offers one-stop air service to a wide array of destinations. However, having to make connections en route to their final destination increases travel time. Additionally, airlines can come to monopolise their hubs, allowing them to increase fares. Airlines may operate banks of flights at their hubs, in several flights arrive. The banks may be known as peaks of activity at the hubs, banking allows for short connection times for passengers. In addition, banking could result in inefficient aircraft utilisation, with aircraft waiting at spoke cities for the next bank, instead, some airlines have debanked their hubs, introducing a rolling hub in which flight arrivals and departures are spread throughout the day. This phenomenon is known as depeaking. While costs may decrease, connection times are longer at a rolling hub, American Airlines was the first to depeak its hubs, trying to improve profitability following the September 11 attacks. It rebanked its hubs in 2015, however, feeling the gain in connecting passengers would outweigh the rise in costs, the hub-and-spoke system is also used by some cargo airlines. FedEx Express established its main hub in Memphis in 1973, prior to the deregulation of the air industry in the United States
12.
BA CityFlyer
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BA CityFlyer is a wholly owned subsidiary airline of British Airways with its head office in Didsbury, Manchester, England. It operates a network of domestic and European services from its base at London City Airport. In 2016, BA Cityflyer also began operations from London Stansted Airport, in 2017 BA Cityflyer starts services from Manchester, Birmingham and Bristol. This marks the return of BA to the regions after an absence of nearly 10 years, all services operate with BAs full colours, titles and flight numbers. BA Cityflyer Limited holds a United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority Type A Operating Licence, meaning that it is permitted to passengers, cargo. British Airways sale of BA Connect to Flybe in 2007 did not include the London City Airport operations and this led to British Airways decision to resurrect erstwhile Gatwick-based CityFlyer Express as a new wholly owned subsidiary to take over this operation, as of March 2007. BA CityFlyer was awarded an Air Operators Certificate on 8 February 2007, in February 2016, BA Cityflyer announced that it would commence operating flights from London-Stansted in May 2016. Flights will also operate in the summer between London City and Manchester, operating with Embraer E190 aircraft. As of March 2017, the BA CityFlyer fleet consists of the aircraft, BA Cityflyer carried over 1.9 million passengers during 2015, a 13% increase since 2014. On 13 February 2009, BA CityFlyer Flight 8456 suffered a collapse whilst landing at London City Airport. None of the 67 passengers or five members was seriously injured in the incident. After a normal approach the nose landing-gear fractured as it was lowered onto the runway, the aircraft was damaged beyond economic repair, and was written-off by insurers in May 2009. Media related to British Airways at Wikimedia Commons British Airways Official Website
13.
Focus city
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In the airline industry, a focus city is a destination from which an airline operates several point-to-point routes. Thus, a city primarily caters to the local market rather than to connecting passengers. However, with the terms expanded usage, a city may also function as a small-scale hub. Allegiant Air, JetBlue and Frontier Airlines are examples of airlines that consider some of their destinations to be focus cities
14.
Flybe
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Flybe is the largest independent regional airline in Europe, based in Exeter, operating more UK domestic flights than any other airline. It flies 7 million passengers a year on 149 routes, from 62 destinations in 9 countries, connecting to hubs in Manchester, Birmingham, Paris, Dublin. It is a member of the European Regions Airline Association, Flybes parent company Flybe Group PLC is listed on the London Stock Exchange. The airline launched in 1979 as Jersey European Airways following the merger of Intra Airways, in 1983 the airline was sold to Walker Steel Group, which also owned Spacegrand Aviation, and the two airlines were merged under the Jersey European name in 1985. Jersey European was renamed British European in 2000, and received its current name in 2002, the two airlines were then run separately, with partially shared management, until 1985 when they amalgamated under the Jersey European name, with the airlines headquarters moving to Exeter. The airline became British European in June 2000, shortening this title to Flybe on 18 July 2002 and repositioning itself as a full-service, on 3 November 2006 it was announced that Flybe would buy BA Connect, except for that airlines services out of London City Airport. The takeover was complete in March 2007, the expanded airlines owners were Rosedale Aviation Holdings, Flybe staff and – as a result of the BA Connect takeover – International Airlines Group. The acquisition increased Flybes route network in both the UK and continental Europe, making Flybe Europes largest regional airline, the agreement would see Loganair aircraft flying in Flybe colours on 55 routes from Scotland. In 2008, in order to avoid losing a £280,000 rebate from Norwich Airport, as a result, the environmental group Friends of the Earth called on the government to launch an investigation into the aviation industry. Chief Executive Officer Jim French was recognised in the 2009 Queens Birthday Honours List with a CBE for his services to the airline industry, on 10 December 2010, Flybe floated an IPO on the London Stock Exchange, with trading in shares commencing on the same day. Full public release of shares followed on 15 December 2010, the share price was set at 295p, valuing the company at approximately £215 million, and raising £66 million for the company, half of which was to pay for fleet expansion. On 23 May 2013, it was reported that Flybe had sold its slots at Gatwick airport to Easyjet for £20m, and that the slots would be handed over to Easyjet on 29 March 2014. CEO and Chairman Jim French retired in August 2013, leaving the post of CEO to Saad Hammad, formerly of EasyJet airline, by November 2013, Hammad had shaken up the operation, requesting the resignations of three top managers within six weeks of his arrival. Out of 158 routes flown at the time, over 60 did not cover their operating expenses. On 23 April 2014, Flybe announced that it will launch domestic, the airline is expecting to carry around 500,000 passengers a year, with all 5 allocated aircraft being based around the Flybe network overnight. In March 2014, it was announced that Flybe would undergo a brand refresh. This new scheme included a new aircraft livery and new interior features. British Airways sold most of its stake in the airline in June 2014
15.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
16.
Runway
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According to the International Civil Aviation Organization, a runway is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways may be a surface or a natural surface. Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the heading in decadegrees. This heading differs from true north by the magnetic declination. A runway numbered 09 points east, runway 18 is south, runway 27 points west, when taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane would be heading 90°. A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each separately, e. g. runway 33 in one direction is runway 15 when used in the other. The two numbers usually differ by 18, Runway Zero Three Left becomes Runway Two One Right when used in the opposite direction. In some countries, if parallel runways are too close to each other, at large airports with four or more parallel runways some runway identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to avoid the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, for clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually, runway three six, runway one four, etc. A leading zero, for example in runway zero six or runway zero one left, is included for all ICAO, however, most U. S. civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield and this American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It is very common in a such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U. S. usage to airports around the world, for example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05. Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on the Earths surface, depending on the airport location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, for example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, if on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226, and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon
17.
NATS Holdings
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NATS Holdings, formerly National Air Traffic Services and commonly referred to as NATS, is the main Air Navigation Service Provider in the United Kingdom. It inherited the traditions of UK air traffic control, which was the worlds first air traffic control regime, the workforce of NATS is mainly made up of Air traffic controllers, Air Traffic Control Engineers, Air Traffic Services Assistants and Science Technical Analytical and Research Staff. Administrative and Support staff make up the remainder of the 4,500 or so staff employed by NATS, NATS is split into two main service provision companies, NATS En-Route PLC and NATS Services Ltd. NERL is the provider of civilian en-route air traffic control over the UK and is regulated by the CAA who, for example. NERL is funded by charging airlines for the provision of air traffic services, NATS en-route business is regulated and operated under licence from the Civil Aviation Authority. The terms of the licence require NATS to be capable of meeting on a continuous basis any reasonable level of overall demand and they are charged with permitting access to airspace on the part of all users, whilst making the most efficient overall use of airspace. The organisation was set up as the National Air Traffic Control Services in 1962, bringing together responsibility for the UKs existing military. The organisation became National Air Traffic Services when responsibility for sponsoring the civil air traffic service component was transferred to the newly formed Civil Aviation Authority in 1972, prior to this it had no legal existence – all contracts were with the CAA or MoD. Until its establishment as a company, leadership of NATS alternated between civil and military, the latter normally a serving Air Marshal. The first Controller was Sir Laurence Sinclair, exceptionally an Air Vice Marshal, NATS staff were drawn from, and paid by, the CAA and the MoD. The London Air Traffic Control Centre at RAF West Drayton opened in 1966 and provided ATC services until it closed in 2007, scottish air traffic control has been carried out from Atlantic House in Prestwick since 1978. This situation changed with the opening of the Prestwick Centre in 2010, the Prestwick Centre houses the Domestic and Oceanic Services and allows for state of the art technology to be introduced in future. In 1992 it was recognised that as a provider, NATS should be operated at some distance from its regulator. Although debated, it was decided that NATS should not be privatised at that time, NATS was re-organised into a limited company on 1 April 1996 and became a wholly owned subsidiary of the CAA. The direct involvement of military officers in the management of NATS ended at this time, in 1998, a public-private partnership was proposed. This was written into the Transport Act 2000 and in 2001 51% of NATS was transferred to the private sector. As a public private partnership the UK government holds 49% and a share, with 42% held by the Airline Group, 5% by NATS staff. Martin Rolfe has been CEO of NATS since May 2015, other Board members are listed here, http, //www. nats. aero/about-us/board-executive/ In 2015 NATS handled 2,256,152 flights, an increase of 2. 5% over 2014
18.
Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)
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The Civil Aviation Authority is the statutory corporation which oversees and regulates all aspects of civil aviation in the United Kingdom. The CAA head office is located in CAA House on Kingsway in Holborn, the CAA Safety Regulation Group is in Aviation House in Gatwick Airport in Crawley, England. The CAA is a corporation of the Department for Transport. From 1 April 2014, the CAA took over a number of security functions from the Department for Transport. The CAA also manages all national security vetting for the aviation industry, Air Safety Support International, a subsidiary of the CAA, is responsible for air safety in the British Overseas Territories. The CAA directly or indirectly regulates all aspects of aviation in the UK, representatives from the CAA sit on EASAs advisory bodies, taking part in the Europe-wide regulation process. The UK government requires that the CAAs costs are met entirely from its charges on those whom it regulates, unlike many other countries, there is no direct government funding of the CAAs work. It is classed as a corporation, established by statute. The connection it has with the government is via the Machinery of government, by law, every UK travel company which sells air holidays and flights is required to hold an ATOL, which stands for Air Travel Organisers Licence. If a travel company with an ATOL ceases trading, the ATOL scheme protects customers who had booked holidays with the firm and it ensures they do not get stranded abroad or lose money. The scheme is designed to reassure customers that their money is safe, the CAA was established in 1972, under the terms of the Civil Aviation Act 1971, following the recommendations of a government committee chaired by Sir Ronald Edwards. Previously, regulation of aviation was the responsibility of the Air Registration Board, the current main Act of Parliament regulating aviation in the UK is the Civil Aviation Act 1982. Responsibility for air traffic control in the UK passed to NATS in the run-up to the establishment of its partnership in 2001. In 2013 the CAA announced a new approach to regulating GA which will be more proportionate, the history of the Civil Aviation Flying Unit can be traced back to the Air Ministrys Civil Operations Fleet founded in 1944. g. A two-to-three-year locally domiciled apprenticeship trained technicians who were posted to airports or en-route centres for on-going employment. STE also provided training facilities for existing technicians to keep up to date with technological developments or to enhance their skills on a range of equipments. Apprentices had exclusive use of the AT Club and also to the Bletchley Park Radio Shack with a call-sign of G4BWD – Golf Four Building Works Department, able to access the 2-metre band. In 1974, STE developed a training course, reducing training to a one-to-two-year period for higher-qualified entrants, nicknamed Super-ATs, by some
19.
International airport
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An international airport is an airport that offers customs and immigration facilities for passengers travelling between countries. International airports often also host domestic flights, some, such as Frankfurt Airport in Germany are very large, others such as Faaā International Airport in Tahiti, are quite small. Buildings, operations and management have become increasingly sophisticated since the mid 20th century, detailed technical standards have been developed to ensure safety and common coding systems implemented to provide global consistency. The physical structures that serve millions of passengers and flights are among the most complex. In August 1919, Hounslow Heath Aerodrome, in London, England was the first airport to operate scheduled international commercial services and it was closed and supplanted by Croydon Airport in March 1920. In the United States, Douglas Municipal Airport in Arizona became the first international airport of the Americas in 1928, the precursors to international airports were airfields or aerodromes. In the early days of international flights, there was limited infrastructure, four-engined land planes being unavailable for over-water operations to international destinations, thus/therefore flying boats became part of the solution. At the far end of the longest international route, on-water landing areas were found in such as Surabaya. In Sydney, Rose Bay, New South Wales, was chosen as the landing area. International airports sometimes serve military as well as commercial purposes and their viability is also affected by technological developments, other international airports, such as Kai Tak Airport in Hong Kong, have been decommissioned and replaced when they reached capacity or technological advances rendered them inadequate. Airports may also be regarded as emblematic of national pride and so the design may be architecturally ambitious, an example is the planned New Mexico City international airport, intended to replace an airport that has reached capacity. Airports can be towered or non-towered, depending on air traffic density, because of high capacity and busy airspace, many international airports have air traffic control located on site. Construction of the expressway included the construction of two bridges and the Ma Wan viaduct on Ma Wan island to connect the bridges, each bridge carries rail and automobile traffic. International airports have commercial relationships with and provide services to airlines, many also serve as hubs, or places where non-direct flights may land and passengers may switch planes, while others serve primarily direct point-to-point flights. This affects airport design factors, including the number and placement of terminals as well as the flow of passengers, an airport specializing in point-to-point transit can have international and domestic terminals, each in their separate building equipped with separate baggage handling facilities. In a hub airport, however, spaces and services are shared, technical standards for safety and operating procedures at international airports are set by international agreements. The International Air Transport Association, formed in 1945, is the association of the airline companies, the International Civil Aviation Organization is a body of the United Nations succeeding earlier international committees going back to 1903. These two organizations served to create regulations over airports which the airports themselves had no authority to debate and this eventually sparked an entire subject of air travel politics
20.
Royal Docks
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Not to be confused with the Royal Dock, Grimsby Royal Docks is an area and a ward in the London Borough of Newham in the London Docklands in East London. The area is named after three docks – the Royal Albert Dock, the Royal Victoria Dock and the King George V Dock. They are more correctly called the Royal Group of Docks to distinguish them from the Royal Dockyards, the three docks collectively formed the largest enclosed docks in the world, with a water area of nearly 250 acres and an overall estate of 1,100 acres. This is equivalent to the whole of central London from Hyde Park to Tower Bridge, the area was designated a special enterprise zone in 2012. North Woolwich is part of Royal Docks ward, Royal Docks is also a ward of the London Borough of Newham. At the 2011 Census it had a population of 10,679, the three docks were completed between 1855 and 1921 on riverside marshes in East Ham and West Ham. The Victoria and Albert docks were constructed by the London & St Katharine Docks Company and they were a great commercial success, becoming Londons principal docks during the first half of the 20th century. They specialised particularly in the import and unloading of foodstuffs, with rows of giant granaries, the docks great size and provision of numerous finger quays gave them a collective span of over 12 miles of quaysides, serving hundreds of cargo and passenger ships at a time. The ruinous competition led eventually to all the docks being taken over by the Port of London Authority in 1909. The PLA completed the King George V Dock in 1921 and reserved land to the north for a fourth dock, the General Strike of 1926 hit the Royal Docks hard, with 750,000 frozen carcasses threatened by the docks electrical supply being cut off. Fortunately for the owners, the Royal Navy were able to save the day by connecting the generators of two submarines to power the warehouses freezers. Nonetheless, they survived longer than any of the upstream docks. The docks closure led to levels of unemployment and social deprivation in the surrounding communities of North Woolwich. Because of their remoteness from central London and poor transport links. The London Docklands Development Corporation undertook much work during the 1980s and 1990s to improve local transport and this was later extended round the south side of the docks with the link to London City Airport opening in December 2006. The line was extended to Woolwich. Crossrail will serve the area from 2018, several other major projects have been proposed or implemented since then. A series of developments have seen the construction of a new university campus
21.
London Borough of Newham
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It is 5 miles east of the City of London, north of the River Thames. Newham was one of the six host boroughs for the 2012 Summer Olympics, the local authority is Newham London Borough Council. The boroughs motto, from its Coat of Arms, is Progress with the People, the Coat of Arms was derived from that of the County Borough of West Ham, while the motto is a translation of the County Borough of East Hams Latin Progressio cum Populo. Green Street and Boundary Road mark the boundary between the two. North Woolwich also became part of the borough along with an area west of the River Roding which had previously been part of the Municipal Borough of Barking. Newham was devised for the borough as a new name. Unlike most English districts, its council is led by an elected mayor of Newham. From 2002 to 2009 one of the councillors had been appointed as the ambassador and performed the civic. The borough is considered part of Outer London for purposes such as funding and this is because the majority of Newham was not part of the 1889–1965 County of London. The council is actively campaigning to have Newham officially considered part of Inner London in order to increase its level of government grant by £60 million, at the borough elections held in 2014, the Labour Party won all 60 of the seats on the Council. Sir Robin Wales was re-elected as the boroughs Executive Mayor with 61% of the first preference votes cast, Newham has the youngest overall population and one of the lowest White British populations in the country according to the 2011 Census. The borough has the second highest percentage of Muslims in Britain, after the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, at 32%. When using Simpsons Diversity Index on 10 aggregated ethnic groups, the 2001 census identified Newham as the most ethnically diverse district in England and Wales, Newham has the lowest percentage of White British residents of all of Londons boroughs. The joint-lowest wards with White British population are Green Street East and Green Street West, East Ham North is closely followed, at 4. 9%. People of White British ancestry nevertheless remain the largest single group in the borough. The largest non-White British ethnic groups are Indian, African, Bangladeshi, Newham has had for many decades a large Indian community. The ethnic group to increase the most in number since 1991 is the Bangladeshi community, the Borough is the education authority for the district providing education in a mix of Foundation, community and voluntary aided schools. The Essex Primary School in Sheridan Road with over 900 pupils is one of the biggest primary schools in London and this is currently based on the UEL Stratford campus, but is planned to move to its own facilities
22.
Nautical mile
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A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude
23.
City of London
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The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate
24.
Canary Wharf
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Canary Wharf is a major business district located in Tower Hamlets, East London. Canary Wharf contains around 16,000,000 square feet of office and retail space, Morgan, KPMG, MetLife, Moodys, Morgan Stanley, RBC, S&P Global, Skadden, State Street, and Thomson Reuters. Canary Wharf is located on the West India Docks on the Isle of Dogs, from 1802 to 1939, the area was one of the busiest docks in the world. After the 1960s, the industry began to decline, leading to all the docks being closed by 1980. Canary Wharf itself takes its name from No.32 berth of the West Wood Quay of the Import Dock and this was built in 1936 for Fruit Lines Ltd, a subsidiary of Fred Olsen Lines for the Mediterranean and Canary Islands fruit trade. The Canary islands were so named after the dogs found there by the Spanish and as it is located on the Isle of Dogs. The Canary Wharf of today began when Michael von Clemm, former chairman of Credit Suisse First Boston, further discussions with G Ware Travelstead led to proposals for a new business district. The first buildings were completed in 1991, including One Canada Square, which became the UKs tallest building at the time, by the time it opened, the London commercial property market had collapsed, and Olympia and York Canary Wharf Limited filed for bankruptcy in May 1992. Initially, the City of London saw Canary Wharf as an existential threat and it modified its planning laws to expand the provision of new offices in the City of London, for example, creating offices above railway stations and roads. The resulting oversupply of office space contributed to the failure of the No 1 Canada Square project, in 1997, some residents living on the Isle of Dogs launched a lawsuit against Canary Wharf Ltd for private nuisance because the tower interfered with television signals. In December 1995 an international consortium, backed by the owners of Olympia & York and other investors. The new company was called Canary Wharf Limited, and later became Canary Wharf Group, recovery in the property market generally, coupled with continuing demand for large floorplate Grade A office space, slowly improved the level of interest. A critical event in the recovery was the start of work on the Jubilee Line Extension. At the peak of property prices in 2007, the HSBC building sold for a record £1.1 billion, in March 2014 planning permission was granted for the second residential building on the Canary Wharf estate, a 58-storey tower including 566 apartments plus shops and a health club. In July 2014 Canary Wharf Group was granted planning permission for a major expansion of the Canary Wharf estate. The plans include the construction of 30 buildings comprising a total of 4.9 million square feet, construction is planned to commence in autumn 2014 with the first buildings to be occupied at the end of 2018. In 2014, Singapore listed Oxley Holdings, together with developer Ballymore UK, have a joint venture to set up a new waterfront township of Royal Wharf with 3385 new homes housing over 10,000 people. This table lists completed buildings in Canary Wharf that are over 60 metres tall, the Canary Wharf developers played a pro-active role in improving transport links, which they recognised as essential to the success of the project
25.
Mowlem
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Mowlem was one of the largest construction and civil engineering companies in the United Kingdom. Carillion bought the firm in 2006, the firm was founded by John Mowlem in 1822, and was continued as a partnership by successive generations of the Mowlem and Burt families, including George Burt, and Sir John Mowlem Burt. The company was awarded a Royal Warrant in 1902 and went public on the London Stock Exchange in 1924, during the Second World War the company was one of the contractors engaged in building the Mulberry harbour units. Mowlem acquired SGB Group, a supplier of scaffolding, in 1986, Mowlem also bought Unit Construction in 1986, giving the firm a substantial presence in private housebuilding - within two years, sales were up to an annual rate of 1,200. The ensuing recession led to losses of over £180m between 1991 and 1993 and banking covenants came under pressure, the housing division was sold to Beazer in 1994. Mowlem was bought by Carillion in February 2006, Mowlem was also the owner and developer of London City Airport completed in 1986. Code Name Mulberry, The Planning Building and Operation of the Normandy Harbours, Mowlem 1822 -1972 - company brochure
26.
Heathrow Airport
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Heathrow Airport is a major international airport in London, United Kingdom. In 2016, it handled a record 75.7 million passengers, Heathrow lies 14 miles west of Central London, and has two parallel east–west runways along with four operational terminals on a site that covers 12.27 square kilometres. London Heathrow is the hub for British Airways and the primary operating base for Virgin Atlantic. In September 2012, the UK government established the Airports Commission, in July 2015, the commission backed a third runway at Heathrow and the government approved a third runway in October 2016. Heathrow is 14 mi west of central London, near the end of the London Borough of Hillingdon on a parcel of land that is designated part of the Metropolitan Green Belt. The airport is surrounded by the areas of Harlington, Harmondsworth, Longford and Cranford to the north and by Hounslow. To the south lie Bedfont and Stanwell while to the west Heathrow is separated from Slough in Berkshire by the M25 motorway, Heathrow falls entirely under the TW postcode area. As the airport is west of London and as its runways run east–west, for a chronicled history of Heathrow Airport, see History of Heathrow Airport. Heathrow Airport originated in 1929 as an airfield on land south-east of the hamlet of Heathrow from which the airport takes its name. At that time there were farms, market gardens and orchards there, there was a Heathrow Farm about where Terminal 1 is now, a Heathrow Hall and a Heathrow House. This hamlet was largely along a lane which ran roughly along the east. Development of the whole Heathrow area as a much larger airport began in 1944. But by the time the airfield was nearing completion, World War II had ended, the government continued to develop the airport as a civil airport, it opened as London Airport in 1946 and was renamed Heathrow Airport in 1966. Heathrow Airport is used by over 80 airlines flying to 185 destinations in 84 countries, the airport is the primary hub of British Airways and is a base for Virgin Atlantic. It has four terminals and a cargo terminal. Of Heathrows 73.4 million passengers in 2014, 93% were international travellers, the busiest single destination in passenger numbers is New York, with over 3 million passengers flying between Heathrow and JFK Airport in 2013. As the required length for runways has grown, Heathrow now has two parallel runways running east–west. These are extended versions of the two east–west runways from the original hexagram, from the air, almost all of the original runways can still be seen, incorporated into the present system of taxiways
27.
Gatwick Airport
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Gatwick Airport is a major international airport in south-east England,29.5 miles south of Central London and 2.7 nautical miles north of Crawley. It is the second-busiest airport by passenger traffic in the United Kingdom. Gatwick is the eighth-busiest airport in Europe, Gatwick opened as an aerodrome in the late 1920s, and has been in use for commercial flights since 1933. The airport has two terminals, the North Terminal and the South Terminal, which areas of 98,000 m2 and 160,000 m2 respectively. It operates as a airport, using a main runway with a length of 3,316 m. A secondary runway is available but, due to its proximity to the main runway, in 2016,43.1 million passengers passed through the airport, a 7. 1% increase compared with 2015. The land on which Gatwick Airport stands was first developed as an aerodrome in the late 1920s, the Air Ministry approved commercial flights from the site in 1933, and the first terminal, The Beehive, was built in 1935. Scheduled air services from the new terminal began the following year, major development work at the airport took place during the 1950s. The airport buildings were designed by Yorke Rosenberg Mardall between 1955 and 1988, further rapid growth of charter flights at Gatwick was encouraged by the Ministry of Aviation, which instructed airlines to move regular charter flights from Heathrow. Following the takeover of BUA by Caledonian Airways at the beginning of the following decade, while continuing to dominate scheduled operations at Gatwick for most of the 1980s, BCal was also one of the airports major charter airlines until the end of the 1970s. Following the demise of Air Europe and Dan-Air in the early 1990s and these moves resulted in BA becoming Gatwicks dominant airline by the turn of the millennium. BAs subsequent decision to de-hub Gatwick provided the space for EasyJet to establish its biggest base at the airport, BAA Limited and its predecessors, BAA plc and the British Airports Authority, owned and operated Gatwick from 1 April 1966 to 2 December 2009. From 1978 to 2008, many flights to and from the United States used Gatwick because of restrictions on the use of Heathrow implemented in the Bermuda II agreement between the UK and the US. US Airways, Gatwicks last remaining US carrier, ended service from Gatwick on 30 March 2013 and this leaves Gatwick without a scheduled US airline for the first time in nearly 40 years. On 17 September 2008, BAA announced it would sell Gatwick after the Competition Commission published a report about BAAs market dominance in London, the sale was completed on 3 December. The sales were part of GIPs strategy to syndicate the equity portion of the acquisition by issuing bonds to refinance bank debt. Although this entails bringing additional investors into the airport, GIP aims to retain management control, the Californian state pension fund CalPERS acquired a 12. 7% stake in Gatwick Airport for about $155 million in June 2010. This transaction completed GIPs syndication process for the airport, reducing its stake to 42%, the airport is owned and operated by Gatwick Airport Limited, a wholly owned subsidiary of Ivy Holdco Limited
28.
London Stansted Airport
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London Stansted currently serves over 170 destinations across Europe, North Africa, Central and North America and more scheduled European destinations than any other airport in the UK. Stansted is a base for a number of major European low-cost carriers, being the largest base for low-cost airline Ryanair, in 2015 it was the fourth busiest airport in the United Kingdom after Heathrow, Gatwick and Manchester. The airport is owned and operated by the Manchester Airports Group, MAG agreed to buy the airport from Heathrow Airport Holdings, formerly BAA, on 18 January 2013, and the sale was completed for £1.5 billion on 28 February 2013. BAA had been required to sell the following a ruling originally made by the Competition Commission in March 2009. In 2016 Stansted handled a record 24.3 million passengers, London Stansted Airport has one main passenger terminal, near the village of Stansted Mountfitchet. The base of each structure is a utility pillar, which provides indirect uplighting illumination and is the location for air-conditioning, water, telecommunications. Passenger totals have since risen, and in 2016 recorded an increase of 8. 0% to 24.3 million. Although the official name was Stansted Mountfitchet, the base was known as simply Stansted in both written and spoken form, the station was first allocated to the USAAF Eighth Air Force in August 1942 as a heavy bomber airfield. As well as a bomber base, Stansted was also a Air Technical Services Command maintenance and supply depot concerned with major overhauls. After D-Day, these activities were transferred to France, but the base was used as a supply storage area for the support of aircraft on the continent. After the withdrawal of the Americans on 12 August 1945, Stansted was taken over by the Air Ministry and used by No.263 Maintenance Unit, in addition, between March 1946 and August 1947, Stansted was used for housing German prisoners of war. The Ministry of Civil Aviation finally took control of Stansted in 1949, the US military returned in 1954 to extend the runway for a possible transfer to NATO. The transfer to NATO was never realised, however, and the airport continued in civil use, the school was responsible for the training of all aviation fire crews for British airfields as well as those of many overseas countries. From the outset, however, BAA and the British government planned to develop Stansted into Londons third airport, to relieve Heathrow, the airports first terminal building opened in 1969 and was expanded the next year to handle the growing number of passengers. The current terminal building was designed by architect Norman Foster, construction was undertaken by John Laing and took place between 1988 and March 1991, costing £100 million. In 1990 it was awarded the European Union Prize for Contemporary Architecture / Mies van der Rohe Award, continental Airlines also operated services in the late 1990s from Newark, but this service was stopped shortly after the 11 September 2001 attacks. Long-haul services to the USA returned in late 2005, when Eos Airlines, in 2006, MAXjet expanded their service with flights to Washington, D. C. American Airlines began daily flights to Stansted in October 2007 from New York–JFK and was expected to operate a second daily flight from April 2008
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Luton Airport
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In 2016, over 14.6 million passengers passed through the airport, a record total for Luton making it the fifth busiest airport in the UK. It is the fourth-largest airport serving the London area after Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted, the airport serves as a base for EasyJet, Monarch, Thomson Airways, Ryanair and Wizz Air. The vast majority of the routes served are within Europe, although there are some charter and scheduled routes to destinations in Northern Africa, the airport is 2 mi from Junction 10 of the M1 motorway. In 2016 Luton Airport handled a record 14,551,837 million passengers, an airport was opened on the site on 16 July 1938 by the Secretary of State for Air, Kingsley Wood. During World War II, it was a base for Royal Air Force fighters, percival Aircraft had its factory at the airport until the early 1960s. From the mid-1960s, executive aircraft have been based at the airport and these activities have grown and several executive jet operators and maintenance companies are now based at the airport, handling aircraft from all over the world. It became the base for charter airlines such as Autair, Euravia, Dan-Air. In 1972, Luton Airport was the most profitable airport in the country and it suffered a severe setback in August 1974 when major package holiday operator Clarksons and its in-house airline Court Line were liquidated. In the 1980s the airport was seeing a decline in customer numbers, the council responded to lobbying and focused again on developing the airport, first by operating the airport at arms length via an independent management team. As a result, necessary infrastructure work was undertaken, the original runways had been grass tracks 18/36 and 06/24, and then a concrete runway 08/26. By the end of the 80s, there was only one runway, the 18/36 grass runway had disappeared under a landfill, while 06/24 had effectively become a taxiway. To remain a viable airport it was necessary to update airfield services and this meant updating ILS, glidepath and localiser and removing the hump in the runway, even a six-foot person could not see one end of the runway from the other. During the course of work, the airport would re-open for flights during the day. While developing the infrastructure, various business partners were courted. The process envisaged a centre, an airport railway station. In 1990, the airport was renamed London Luton Airport to re-emphasise the airports proximity to the UK capital, in 1991, another setback occurred when Ryanair, which had flown from the airport to Ireland for a number of years, transferred its London operating base to Stansted. Later in the 90s, MyTravel Group began charter flights from the airport, using the Airtours brand and new low-cost scheduled flights from Debonair and EasyJet, the latter making Luton its base. AGI was a specialist airport management and development company owned by Lockheed Martin Corp. of USA
30.
London Docklands Development Corporation
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The London Docklands Development Corporation was a quango agency set up by the UK Government in 1981 to regenerate the depressed Docklands area of east London. During its eighteen-year existence it was responsible for regenerating an area of 8.5 square miles in the London Boroughs of Newham, Tower Hamlets, londons Docklands were at one time the largest and most successful in the world. Over time, manufacturing industry also moved into the Docklands, including coal and gas plants and storage, the Pura Lard factory, flour mills. During World War II, the area was heavily bombed during the Blitz. This crippled or damaged much of the infrastructure and many buildings were lost or no longer used. There was a resurgence during the 1950s but the docks were empty by 1980. This was also the time when air cargo was becoming the dominant mode of transport in the UK with Heathrow being the most important port by value. Manufacturing industry no longer had to be close to the river as raw materials were being moved by road to cheaper locations within the UK and this was particularly evident with processed foods. Between 1961 and 1971, almost 83,000 jobs were lost in the five boroughs in the Docklands area, a large percentage of these jobs were from large transnational corporations. The decline was heightened by government policies favoured the growth of industry outside London. High unemployment was accompanied by population decline, whilst inner London lost 10% of its population between 1961 and 1971, the figures for Tower Hamlets and Southwark were 18% and 16% respectively. The housing in the Docklands area was nearly all council-owned terraced housing, there was no commercial infrastructure such as banks or building societies or any new office accommodation. This presented a challenge for Government - how to completely replace an industry on a vast scale and make the contaminated, depressed docklands an attractive place to live. It was financed by a grant from government and from the proceeds from the disposal of land for development. LDDC had very little money, but it did have three crucial levers to deliver regeneration, first of all it had land ownership, this enabled it to enter into commercial deals with developers. Finally LDDC had the power to broker and enter into contracts, additionally, the Government set up an Enterprise Zone covering the Docklands with certain tax breaks. LDDCs first Chief Executive was Reg Ward, a former Chief Executive of Hereford and Worcester County Council and Hammersmith and it was assumed that LDDCs success would rest on trying to identify and encourage suitable alternative industrial uses for the vast sites it administered. The unemployed former dock workers and their families wanted equivalent skilled trades in warehousing or manufacturing to replace their lost jobs, billingsgate Market had already relocated from the City to Docklands, and this was thought to be typical of the type of industry which might be accommodated
31.
Brymon Airways
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Brymon Airways is a former British airline with its head office in the Brymon House on the property of Plymouth City Airport in Plymouth, Devon. It was co-founded in 1972 by journalist Bill Bryce and racing driver Chris Amon, the company was incorporated on 26 January 1970 as Brymon Aviation Limited operating as Brymon Airways. Its name derived from its creators surnames, Bryce and Amon and it quickly built up a network of routes from its bases at Plymouth and Newquay, to various UK airports and some foreign destinations such as France. In 1981, Brymon was the first UK airline to start using the de Havilland Canada Dash 7, four aircraft were acquired, two used in Aberdeen on contract for a consortium led by Chevron Oil and two flown from Plymouth, including the first ever scheduled service to Heathrow. In June 1983, a Brymon Dash 7 flew into Heron Quays in the London Docklands, a further test flight to place the following year as part of a public enquiry. Brymon was the airline in the quest for the airport. Together with its partner Air France, Brymon introduced the airports first services in November 1987, Chris Amon was never involved in the day-to-day running of the airline and Bill Bryce resigned towards the end of 1984. British Airways acquired a minority shareholding in the company and appointed Charles Stuart as chief executive. In October 1992, Brymon Airways merged with Birmingham European Airways to form Brymon European Airways and this was bought jointly by British Airways and Maersk Air, in 1993. British Airways acquired Brymon Airways, whilst Maersk Air bought the Birmingham European Airways section, Maersk Air renamed Birmingham European Airways to Maersk Air UK, but British Airways allowed Brymon to keep its name. Having said this, Brymons Aircraft were repainted in British Airways Express colours, around this time they initiated a service from Newcastle to Paris. On 30 July 1993 the company was renamed Brymon Airways Limited to reflect the operating name. In 1991 Brymon expanded even further, establishing a hub at Bristol, with services to Paris, Cork, The Channel Islands, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Plymouth, further expansion occurred in 1998, when it took over British Airways Regional services from Aberdeen to Birmingham and Manchester. They also introduced routes from Manchester to Edinburgh and Glasgow, in 1999 routes were introduced from Newcastle to Belfast and Copenhagen, and from Aberdeen to Oslo. On 28 March 2002 the airline was merged with British Regional Airlines and was renamed British Airways Citiexpress Limited operating as British Airways Citiexpress, British Airways Citiexpress pioneered and attained CAA Approval for the self-service boarding pass enabling passengers to print their own boarding passes at home. On 1 February 2006 the airline was renamed BA Connect Limited operating as BA Connect, Brymon Airways fleet consisted of the following aircraft throughout operations
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De Havilland Canada Dash 7
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The de Havilland Canada DHC-7, popularly known as the Dash 7, is a turboprop-powered regional airliner with short take-off and landing performance. It first flew in 1975 and remained in production until 1988 when the parent company, Bombardier sold the type certificate for the aircraft design to Victoria-based manufacturer Viking Air in 2006. In the 1960s, de Havilland Canada was already well known worldwide for their series of high-performance STOL aircraft, the de Havilland Canada company personnel felt they could compete with these designs in a roundabout way. The original specification called for a 40-passenger aircraft with a short range of 200 statute miles. With new noise restrictions coming into effect throughout the 1970s, an aircraft tailored for this role would also have to be very quiet, propeller thrust is a factor of blade length and chord and the speed at which it rotates. To meet these new regulations, the new design used much larger propellers geared to rotate at a slower speed than is normally designed, much of the problem sound from a typical propeller is generated at the tips of the blades which are rotating just beneath the speed of sound. By using overlarge propeller blades, no need exists to have the blade tip reach near the speed of sound, in reducing the speed, this noise is reduced substantially. The Dash 7 often landed at only 900 rpm speed, the propellers on the Dash-7 are constant-speed propellers which change the blade angle to push more or less air as needed. This can be used to power while maintaining a constant speed. The Twin Otter incorporated flaperons that drooped the ailerons as part of the flaps, instead, the ailerons were reduced in size to allow more flap area, and were augmented with two sets of roll spoilers, or spoilerons. The inboard roll spoilers operate at all speeds, while the outboard roll spoilers only operate at speeds less than 130 KIAS to allow for more roll control at slower speeds. Upon touchdown, both the inboard and outboard roll spoilers extend in unison to aid in destroying lift created by the wing, each wing also includes two ground spoilers which only extend on touchdown. Most of the edge is spanned by a complex, double Fowler flap arrangement for high lift at low speed. During a typical STOL landing, flaps are selected to the 45° position, generating more lift and drag, thus allowing for steeper descents, depending on weight, the VREF speed with flaps at 45° is between 70 and 85 knots. On touchdown, through squat switches in the gear, the flaps automatically retract to the 25° position, thus reducing lift once on the runway. The flaps also retract to 25° when engine power is increased during a go-around procedure, the four-engine layout aids lift at low speeds due to the wide span of the propellers blowing air over the wing. When reverse thrust is selected on landing, the props reverse pitch, push air forward, development started in 1972 and the prototype first flew on March 27,1975. Testing went smoothly, and the first delivery took place to Rocky Mountain Airways on February 3,1978, the Dash 7 enabled Rocky Mountain Airways to operate scheduled passenger air service from Denver into the Avon STOLport in Colorado which was controlled by the airline
33.
Heron Quays
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Heron Quays forms part of the Canary Wharf area the Docklands, east London. It has a Docklands Light Railway station, which was moved south after the development was expanded, three skyscrapers dominate the area,25 Bank Street,40 Bank Street and 10 Upper Bank Street. However, by the 1970s the area was derelict, the nearest London Underground station is Canary Wharf on the Jubilee line and Docklands Light Railway. The station is within Travelcard Zone 2, the Heron Quays area of The Isle of Dogs was one of the first areas of the London Docklands to be redeveloped following the formation of the LDDC by an act of parliament in 1980. The western half of the site was redeveloped into 2/3 storey commercial/office units, a plaque celebrating this achievement lies above the entrance to the DLR station. The original DLR station built in isolation was largely demolished and rebuilt to accommodate rapidly increasing passenger numbers. Much of the dock to the North of Heron Quays has been filled in to allow for development including the construction of new Canary Wharf tube station Also see Heron Quays West
34.
West India Docks
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The West India Docks are a series of three docks on the Isle of Dogs in London, England the first of which opened in 1802. The docks closed to traffic in 1980 and the Canary Wharf development was built on the site. Robert Milligan was largely responsible for the construction of the West India Docks, Milligan was a wealthy West Indies merchant and shipowner, who returned to London having previously managed his familys Jamaica sugar plantations. The group planned and built West India Docks, lobbying Parliament to allow the creation of a West India Dock Company, Milligan served as both Deputy Chairman and Chairman of the West India Dock Company. The Docks were authorised by the West India Dock Act 1799 - the first parliamentary Act for dock building, the Docks were constructed in two phases. The two northern docks were constructed between 1800 and 1802 for the West India Dock Company to a design by leading civil engineer William Jessop, and were the first commercial wet docks in London. British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger and Lord Chancellor Lord Loughborough were assisted in the foundation ceremony on 12 July 1800 by Milligan. The docks were opened on 27 August 1802 when the newly built. It was followed by Echo, a ship laden with her cargo from the West Indies, in 1909 the West India Docks were taken over by the Port of London Authority, along with the other enclosed docks from St Katharines to Tilbury. The original docks consisted of an Import Dock of 30 acres of water, later named North Dock, between them, the docks had a combined capability to berth over 600 vessels. Locks and basins at either end of the Docks connected them to the river Thames and these were known as Blackwall Basin and Limehouse Basin, not to be confused with the Regents Canal Dock also known as Limehouse Basin. To avoid congestion, ships entered from the Blackwall end, lighters entered from the Limehouse end to the west, a dry dock for ship repairs was constructed connecting to Blackwall Basin. Subsequently the North London Railways Poplar Dock was also connected to Blackwall Basin, around the Import Dock a continuous line of five-storey warehouses was constructed, designed by architect George Gwilt and his son, also named George. The Export Dock needed fewer buildings as cargo was loaded upon arrival, to protect against theft, the whole complex was surrounded by a brick wall 20 ft high. The three docks were initially separate, with the two northern docks interconnected only via the basin at each end, and South Dock connected via a series of three basins at the eastern end and this allowed improved road and rail access from the north and west. South Dock was also connected to the end of Millwall Dock, its enlarged eastern lock becoming the only entrance from the Thames to the whole West India. From 1960 to 1980, trade in the docks declined to almost nothing, first, the development of the shipping container made this type of relatively small dock inefficient, and the dock-owners were slow to embrace change. Second, the exports which had maintained the trade through the docks dwindled and moved away from the local area
35.
Planning permission
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Planning permission or developmental approval refers to the approval needed for construction or expansion in some jurisdictions. It is usually given in the form of a building permit, generally, the new construction must be inspected during construction and after completion to ensure compliance with national, regional, and local building codes. Planning is also dependent on the sites zone – for example, one cannot obtain permission to build a nightclub in an area where it is inappropriate, such as a high-density suburb. Failure to obtain a permit can result in fines, penalties, house building permits, for example, are subject to local housing statutes. The criteria for planning permission is a part of planning and construction law. Since building permits usually precede outlays for construction, employment, financing and furnishings and this type of permit is issued by a national broadcasting authority, but does not imply zoning any other permission that must be given by local government. The permit itself also does not necessarily imply permission to operate the station once constructed, in the U. S. a construction permit is valid for three years. Afterwards, the station must receive a license to operate. This is provided by a separate broadcast license, also called a license to cover by the Federal Communications Commission in the United States, further permission or registration for towers may be needed from aviation authorities. In the U. S. construction permits for commercial stations are now assigned by auction, rather than the former process of determining who would serve the community of license best
36.
Nicholas Ridley, Baron Ridley of Liddesdale
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Nicholas Ridley, Baron Ridley of Liddesdale, PC was a British Conservative Party politician and government minister. Responsible for the Falkland Islands, he tried to resolve the long-running sovereignty issue with Argentina, which detected Britain’s reluctance to defend the territory, and later invaded it. As Secretary of State for Transport, Ridley performed a key function in building-up coal stocks in advance of the UK miners strike, as Secretary of State for the Environment, Ridley opposed a low-cost housing development near his own property, earning him the title of NIMBY. He was also responsible for introducing the Community Charge, which was one of the factors leading to Thatchers resignation in 1990. He was created a peer in 1992. Ridley was the son of Matthew White Ridley, 3rd Viscount Ridley. His elder brother was Matthew Ridley, 4th Viscount Ridley, a contemporary at Eton was Tam Dalyell, later Labour MP for West Lothian. Ridley held a national service commission as a Lieutenant in the 1st Battalion of The Loyal Regiment in 1947 and was later a Territorial Army Captain in the Northumberland Hussars Yeomanry and he later became a civil engineer and company director. At the 1955 general election, Ridley unsuccessfully contested the safe Labour seat of Blyth and he was elected Member of Parliament for Cirencester and Tewkesbury at the 1959 election. He was appointed as Parliamentary Private Secretary in 1962, and from 1964 he was a Select Committee member before joining the front bench, in 1973, he formed the Selsdon Group, which was opposed to the abandonment of the radical 1970 manifesto by Edward Heath. He closed his speech at the groups launch by citing the Ten Cannots of William J. H. Boetcker. The members of the group were seen as disloyal at the time, in the face of this opposition the Conservative government once again reiterated that the Islanders wishes were paramount. British intelligence reports continued to suggest that Argentina would invade the Islands only if it was convinced there was no prospect of eventual transfer of sovereignty, Ridley advised that leaseback remained the only feasible solution and recommended that Britain initiate an education campaign to persuade the Islanders. The proposal was rejected by Lord Carrington who felt that any attempt to put pressure on Islanders would be counter-productive. Argentina would go on to invade the islands in April 1982, beginning the Falklands War, from 1981 to 1983 Ridley was the Financial Secretary to the Treasury. After the 1983 election, Ridley – always regarded by Margaret Thatcher as one of us – was a beneficiary of her move to cull the Tory wets and joined her cabinet as Secretary of State for Transport. In that role he played a part in making preparations for a possible coal strike. The Thatcher government attached considerable importance to being prepared for a major miners strike
37.
Secretary of State for Transport
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Her Majestys Principal Secretary of State for Transport is the member of the cabinet responsible for the British Department for Transport. The office used to be called the Minister of Transport and has merged with the Department for the Environment at various times. The current Secretary of State for Transport is Chris Grayling, the Secretary of State is supported by a small team of junior Ministers. Each Minister is a Member of Parliament from either the House of Commons or the House of Lords, the number of Ministers supporting the Secretary of State for Transport vary from time to time, but is usually about 3. The titles given to these Ministers also vary, currently the positions are held by one Minister of State for Transport and two Parliamentary Under-Secretaries of State for Transport. From 2003 until June 2007 the role of Secretary of State for Transport was combined with the role of Secretary of State for Scotland, the names provided in the sections below are those who have served in a position equivalent to the Secretary of State for Transport. The Ministry of Civil Aviation was created by Winston Churchill in 1944 to look at ways of using aircraft. The new Conservative Government in 1951 appointed the same Minister to Transport and Civil Aviation, Colour key, Conservative Labour National Liberal Colour key, Conservative The Ministry was renamed back to the Ministry of Transport on 14 October 1959. Colour key, Labour Not an official member of the cabinet, Colour key, Conservative Colour key, Conservative The Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions was created in 1997 for Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott. Critics argued from the outset that this was a mistake and that a post of Secretary of State for Transport was needed in its own right. Colour key, Labour After Byers resignation, such a division was made, with the portfolios of Local Government, during the lifetime of DTLGR, John Spellar served as Minister of State for Transport with a right to attend Cabinet. John Spellar Colour key, Conservative Labour Ministry of Civil Aviation Aerodrome Fire Service Track record, Transport secretaries
38.
Greater London Council
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The Greater London Council was the top-tier local government administrative body for Greater London from 1965 to 1986. It replaced the earlier London County Council which had covered a smaller area. The GLC was dissolved in 1986 by the Local Government Act 1985 and its powers were devolved to the London boroughs, a new administrative body, known as the Greater London Authority, was established in 2000. It further recommended that the LCC be replaced by a strategic authority, with responsibility for public transport, road schemes, housing development. Most of the Commission’s recommendations were accepted, but the number of new boroughs was reduced to 32, other areas recommended for inclusion that were never part of Greater London included Epsom and Ewell, Caterham and Warlingham, Esher, and Weybridge. GLC councillors elected for areas within the former County of London became ex officio members of the new Inner London Education Authority, the GLC was responsible for running strategic services such as the fire service, emergency planning, waste disposal and flood prevention. The GLC shared responsibility with the London boroughs for providing roads, housing, city planning and it had a very limited role in direct service provision with most functions the responsibility of the London boroughs. The GLC did not take control of transport from the London Transport Board until 1970. Under the 1963 Act, the GLC was required to produce a Greater London Development Plan, the plan included the comprehensive redevelopment of Covent Garden and creating a central London motorway loop. The plan was subject to an Inquiry which lasted from July 1970 until May 1972, the campaign to save Covent Garden along with various opposition on other matters largely derailed the plan. Each of the six GLC elections was won by the national opposition party. The first GLC election was on 9 April 1964, each of the new boroughs elected a number of representatives under the bloc vote system. Despite Conservative hopes, the first GLC consisted of 64 Labour and 36 Conservative councillors, at the next election in 1967 the unpopularity of the national Labour government produced a massive Conservative victory with 82 seats, to Labours 18. Desmond Plummer became the first Conservative leader of London-wide government in 33 years, the Conservatives retained control in 1970 with a reduced majority. In 1972 the electoral system was reformed to introduce single-member constituencies for the election after the 1973 contest, Labour fought the 1973 election on a strongly socialist platform and won with 57 seats to 33 for the Conservatives. The GLCs hopes under the Labour administration of Reg Goodwin were badly affected by the oil crisis of 1974, massive inflation which when combined with the GLCs £1.6 billion debt led to heavy rate increases and unpopular budget cuts. Some months before the 1977 elections the Labour Group began to split, a left group, including Ken Livingstone, denounced the election manifesto of the party. The Conservatives regained control in May 1977, winning 64 seats under their new Thatcherite leader Horace Cutler against a Labour total of just 28, Cutler headed a resolutely right-wing administration, cutting spending, selling council housing and deprioritising London Transport
39.
High Court of Justice
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Her Majestys High Court of Justice in England is, together with the Court of Appeal and the Crown Court, one of the Senior Courts of England and Wales. Its name is abbreviated as EWHC for legal citation purposes and it has three main divisions, the Queens Bench Division, the Chancery Division, and the Family Division. The jurisdictions overlap in some cases, and cases started in one division may be transferred by order to another where appropriate. Most High Court proceedings are heard by a judge, but certain kinds of proceedings, especially in the Queens Bench Division, are assigned to a Divisional Court. Exceptionally the court may sit with a jury, but in practice only in defamation cases or cases against the police. Litigants are normally represented by counsel, but may be represented by solicitors qualified to hold a right of audience, in principle the High Court is bound by its own previous decisions, but there are conflicting authorities as to what extent. In criminal matters appeals from the Queens Bench Divisional Court are made directly to the Supreme Court, the High Court is based at the Royal Courts of Justice on the Strand in the City of Westminster, London. It has district registries across England and Wales and almost all High Court proceedings may be issued, the High Court is headed by the Lord Chief Justice. The High Court is organised into three divisions, the Queens Bench Division, the Chancery Division, and the Family Division, a list of hearings in the High Courts divisions is published daily. The Queens Bench Division – or Kings Bench Division when the monarch is male – has two roles and it hears a wide range of common law cases and also has special responsibility as a supervisory court. Until 2005, the head of the QBD was the Lord Chief Justice, Sir Igor Judge was the first person to hold this office, appointed in October 2005. A single judge first decides whether the matter is fit to bring to the court, in addition, the Queens Bench Divisional Court hears appeals on points of law from the Magistrates Court and from the Crown Court. These are known as appeals by way of case stated, since the questions of law are considered solely on the basis of the facts found, other specialised courts of the Queens Bench Division include the Technology and Construction Court, Commercial Court, and the Admiralty Court. The specialised judges and procedures of these courts are tailored to their type of business, appeals from the High Court in civil matters are made to the Court of Appeal, in criminal matters appeal from the Divisional Court is made only to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The Chancery Division deals with law, trusts law, probate law, insolvency. It has specialist courts which deal with patents and registered designs, all tax appeals are assigned to the Chancery Division. The head of the Chancery Division was known as the Vice-Chancellor until October 2005, the first Chancellor was Sir Andrew Morritt, who retired in 2013 to be succeeded by Sir Terence Etherton. In 2016, Sir Geoffrey Vos succeeded Sir Terence as Chancellor on the appointment as Master of the Rolls
40.
Charles, Prince of Wales
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Charles, Prince of Wales is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Known alternatively in South West England as Duke of Cornwall and in Scotland as Duke of Rothesay, he is the heir apparent in British history. He is also the oldest person to be next in line to the throne since Sophia of Hanover, Charles was born at Buckingham Palace as the first grandchild of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. After earning a bachelor of degree from Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1981, he married Lady Diana Spencer and they had two sons, Prince William later to become Duke of Cambridge, and Prince Harry, in 1996, the couple divorced, following well-publicised extramarital affairs. Diana died in a car crash in Paris the following year, in 2005, Charles married Camilla Parker Bowles. Charles has sought to raise awareness of the dangers facing the natural environment. As an environmentalist, he has received awards and recognition from environmental groups around the world. His support for alternative medicine, including homeopathy, has been criticised by some in the medical community and he has been outspoken on the role of architecture in society and the conservation of historic buildings. Subsequently, Charles created Poundbury, a new town based on his theories. He has authored a number of books, including A Vision of Britain, A Personal View of Architecture in 1989 and he was baptised in the palaces Music Room by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey Fisher, on 15 December 1948. When Prince Charles was aged three his mothers accession as Queen Elizabeth II made him her heir apparent. As the monarchs eldest son, he took the titles Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince. Charles attended his mothers coronation at Westminster Abbey on 2 June 1953, seated alongside his grandmother, as was customary for upper-class children at the time, a governess, Catherine Peebles, was appointed and undertook his education between the ages of five and eight. Buckingham Palace announced in 1955 that Charles would attend school rather than have a private tutor, Charles then attended two of his fathers former schools, Cheam Preparatory School in Berkshire, England, followed by Gordonstoun in the north-east of Scotland. He reportedly despised the school, which he described as Colditz in kilts. Upon his return to Gordonstoun, Charles emulated his father in becoming Head Boy and he left in 1967, with six GCE O-levels and two A-levels in history and French, at grades B and C, respectively. Tradition was broken again when Charles proceeded straight from school into university
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