1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Colorado
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Colorado is a state in the United States encompassing most of the Southern Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains. Colorado is part of the Western United States, the Southwestern United States, Colorado is the 8th most extensive and the 21st most populous of the 50 United States. The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Colorado was 5,540,545 on July 1,2016, the state was named for the Colorado River, which Spanish travelers named the Río Colorado for the ruddy silt the river carried from the mountains. The Territory of Colorado was organized on February 28,1861, Colorado is nicknamed the Centennial State because it became a state in the same year as the centennial of the United States Declaration of Independence. Colorado is noted for its landscape of mountains, forests, high plains, mesas, canyons, plateaus, rivers. Denver is the capital and the most populous city of Colorado, residents of the state are properly known as Coloradans, although the term Coloradoan has been used archaically and lives on in the title of Fort Collins newspaper, the Coloradoan. Colorado, Wyoming and Utah are the states which have boundaries defined solely by lines of latitude and longitude. The summit of Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet elevation in Lake County is the highest point in Colorado, Colorado is the only U. S. state that lies entirely above 1,000 meters elevation. The point where the Arikaree River flows out of Yuma County, Colorado and this point, which holds the distinction of being the highest low elevation point of any state, is higher than the high elevation points of 18 states and the District of Columbia. A little less than one half of the area of Colorado is flat, East of the Rocky Mountains are the Colorado Eastern Plains of the High Plains, the section of the Great Plains within Nebraska at elevations ranging from roughly 3,350 to 7,500 feet. The Colorado plains were mostly prairies, but they have many patches of forests, buttes. Eastern Colorado is presently covered in farmland and rangeland, along with small farming villages. Precipitation is fair, averaging from 15 to 25 inches annually, corn, wheat, hay, soybeans, and oats are all typical crops, and most of the villages and towns in this region boast both a water tower and a grain elevator. Irrigation water is available from the South Platte, the Arkansas River, and a few other streams, however, heavy use of ground water from wells for irrigation has caused underground water reserves to decline. As well as agriculture, eastern Colorado hosts considerable livestock, such as cattle ranches. Roughly 70% of Colorados population resides along the edge of the Rocky Mountains in the Front Range Urban Corridor between Cheyenne, Wyoming, and Pueblo, Colorado. This region is protected from prevailing storms that blow in from the Pacific Ocean region by the high Rockies in the middle of Colorado. The Front Range includes Denver, Boulder, Fort Collins, Loveland, Colorado Springs, Pueblo, Greeley and other townships, on the other side of the Rockies, the significant population centers in Western Colorado are the cities of Grand Junction, Durango, and Montrose
3.
Boulder County, Colorado
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Boulder County is one of the 64 counties of the U. S. state of Colorado of the United States. As of the 2010 census, the population was 294,567, the most populous municipality in the county and the county seat is Boulder. Boulder County comprises the Boulder, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is included in the Denver-Aurora, Boulder County was one of the original 17 counties created by the Territory of Colorado on November 1,1861. The county was named for Boulder City and Boulder Creek, so named because of the abundance of boulders in the area. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 740 square miles. Longs Peak, the parks highest summit at 4,345 meters elevation, is located in Boulder County, the population density was 392 people per square mile. There were 119,900 housing units at a density of 162 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 88. 54% White,0. 88% Black or African American,0. 61% Native American,3. 06% Asian,0. 06% Pacific Islander,4. 67% from other races, and 2. 18% from two or more races. 10. 46% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,26. 30% of all households were made up of individuals and 5. 50% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the family size was 3.03. In the county, the population was out with 22. 90% under the age of 18,13. 40% from 18 to 24,33. 60% from 25 to 44,22. 30% from 45 to 64. The median age was 33 years, for every 100 females there were 102.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.70 males, in 2014, the median income for a household in the county was $69,407, and the median income for a family was $94,938. Males had an income of $65,489 versus $48,140 for females. About 7. 0% of families and 14. 6% of the population were below the poverty line, Boulder County is divided into three districts each represented by a commissioner elected county-wide. The three commissioners comprise the county Board of Commissioners and represent the county as a whole, each commissioner must reside in their respective district and may be elected to a maximum of two four-year terms. The Board of County Commissioners are full-time public servants and approve the budget for the entire County government. The Board also oversees the management of 10 County departments and the operations of the county
4.
Weld County, Colorado
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Weld County is one of the 64 counties of the U. S. state of Colorado. As of the 2010 census, the population was 252,825, Weld County comprises the Greeley, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is also included in the Denver-Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area. On May 30,1854, the Kansas-Nebraska Act created the Nebraska Territory, present-day Weld County, Colorado, lay in the southwestern portion of the Nebraska Territory, bordering the Kansas Territory. In July 1858, gold was discovered along the South Platte River in Arapahoe County and this discovery precipitated the Pikes Peak Gold Rush. Many residents of the region felt disconnected from the remote territorial governments of Kansas and Nebraska. The following month, the Jefferson Territorial Legislature organized 12 counties for the new territory, St. Vrain County was named in honor of Ceran de Hault de Lassus de St. Vrain, the French trader who established the first trading post on the upper South Platte River. St. Vrain County encompassed much of what is today Weld County, the Jefferson Territory never received federal sanction, but on February 28,1861, U. S. President James Buchanan signed an act organizing the Territory of Colorado. On November 1,1861, the Colorado General Assembly organized 17 counties, including Weld County, Weld County was named for Lewis Ledyard Weld, a lawyer and territorial secretary. He died while serving in the Union Army during the Civil War, until February 9,1887, Weld Countys boundaries included the area now comprising Weld County, Washington County, Logan County, Morgan County, Yuma County, Phillips County, and Sedgwick County. Graham was tried and convicted of the crime, and executed in 1957, in northeastern Weld County, Minuteman III missile silo N-8, one of the many unmanned silos there, was the target of symbolic vandalism by Catholic peace activists in 2002. In 2013, conservative Weld County commissioners began a campaign to secede from the State of Colorado, the legality of this initiative has been questioned by local attorneys. On Nov 5th,2013,6 out of 11 Colorado counties voted no for secession, elbert, Lincoln, Logan, Moffat, Sedgwick, and Weld counties voted no, while Cheyenne, Kit Carson, Phillips, Washington, and Yuma counties voted yes. Weld County also holds the distinction of having the most confirmed tornado sightings in the U. S. from 1950-2011, with 252 confirmed reports. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 4,017 square miles. It is the third-largest county in Colorado by area, along the western border hilly areas betray the presence of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains further west. The county is served by two highways, I-25 runs through the southwestern corner and I-76 from the south central edge northeastward to the Morgan county border. Other major roads include US85 and US34, which intersect near Greeley, and State Highway 14, pawnee National Grassland Fort Vasquez State History Museum St. The population density was 45 people per square mile, there were 66,194 housing units at an average density of 17 per square mile
5.
Municipal corporation
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A municipal corporation is the legal term for a local governing body, including cities, counties, towns, townships, charter townships, villages, and boroughs. Municipal incorporation occurs when such municipalities become self-governing entities under the laws of the state or province in which they are located, often, this event is marked by the award or declaration of a municipal charter. A city charter or town charter is a document establishing a municipality such as a city or town. The concept developed in Europe during the Middle Ages and is considered to be a version of a constitution. Traditionally the granting of a charter gave a settlement and its inhabitants the right to town privileges under the feudal system, townspeople who lived in chartered towns were burghers, as opposed to serfs who lived in villages. Towns were often free, in the sense that they were protected by the king or emperor. Today the process for granting charters is determined by the type of government of the state in question, in monarchies, charters are still often a royal charter given by the Crown or the state authorities acting on behalf of the Crown. In federations, the granting of charters may be within the jurisdiction of the level of government such as a state or province. In Brazil, municipal corporations are called municípios and are created by means of legislation at the state level. All municipal corporations must also abide by a municipal law which is passed and amended at the municipal level. In Canada charters are granted by provincial authorities, in Germany, municipal corporations existed since antiquity and through medieval times, until they became out of favour during the absolutism. In order to strengthen the spirit, the city law of Prussia dated 19 November 1808 picked up this concept. It is the basis of municipal law. In India, a Municipal Corporation is a local government body. This standard varies from state to state, according to laws passed by state legislatures, the Corporation of Chennai was the first Municipal Corporation in India. It was established on 29 September 1688 by the British East India Company, the second was Hyderabad Municipal Corporation established in 1869 by the Nizam rulers of Hyderabad State. The third was the Calcutta Municipal Corporation, established in 1876, the Bombay Municipal Corporation was established in 1888 by the Bombay Municipal Corporation Act. The Delhi Municipal Council was established in 1911 during the Delhi Durbar when New Delhi was proclaimed to be the new Capital of India and it was elevated to Municipal Corporation level on 7 April 1958 by an Act of Parliament which established the Municipal Corporation of Delhi
6.
Stephen Harriman Long
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Stephen Harriman Long was a U. S. army explorer, topographical engineer, and railway engineer. As an inventor, he is noted for his developments in the design of steam locomotives and he was also one of the most prolific explorers of the early 1800s, although his career as an explorer was relatively short-lived. He covered over 26,000 miles in five expeditions, including an expedition in the Great Plains area. Long was born in Hopkinton, New Hampshire, the son of Moses and he received an A. B. from Dartmouth College in 1809 and an A. M. from Dartmouth in 1812. In 1814, he was commissioned a lieutenant of engineers in the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. Upon the reorganization of the Army in 1816, he was appointed a Major on 16 April, in 1817, Major Long headed a military excursion up the Mississippi River to the Falls of St. Anthony near the confluence with the Minnesota River. As a result of his recommendations, the Army established Fort Snelling to guard against Indian incursions against settlers in the Upper Mississippi Valley, Long recorded his experiences of the expedition in Voyage in a Six-oared Skiff to the Falls of St. Anthony, in 1860. In March 1819 he married Martha Hodgkiss of Philadelphia, the sister of Isabella Hodgkiss Norvell, soon afterwards he led the scientific contingent of the 1819 Yellowstone Expedition to explore the Missouri River. In 1820 he was appointed to lead an expedition through the American West. The specific purpose of the voyage was to find the sources of the Platte, Arkansas, during this time he determined the northern boundary at the 49th parallel at Pembina. Following his official military expeditions, Major Long spent several years on detached duty as an engineer with various railroads. Initially he helped to survey and build the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, in 1826 he received his first patent for his work on railroad steam locomotives. Long received many patents for locomotive design and worked with other Army engineers in planning and building the railroad. In 1832, along with William Norris and several business partners. The business was dissolved in 1834 due to the difficulties in placing Longs locomotive designs into production, however a then provision in the Maine Constitution which prohibited public loans for purposes such as building railroads as well as the financial panic of 1837 intervened to kill the project. Colonel Long received a leave of absence to work on the newly incorporated Western & Atlantic Railroad in Georgia. His yearly salary was established at $5,000, the contract was signed May 12,1837 and he arrived in north Georgia in late May and his surveying began in July and by November he had submitted an initial report which the construction followed almost exactly. In 1838 he was appointed to a position in the newly separated U. S
7.
Longs Peak
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Longs Peak is a high and prominent mountain summit in the northern Front Range of the Rocky Mountains of North America. The 14, 259-foot fourteener is located in the Rocky Mountain National Park Wilderness,9.6 miles southwest by south of the Town of Estes Park, Colorado, United States. Longs Peak is the northernmost fourteener in the Rocky Mountains and the highest point in Boulder County, the mountain was named in honor of explorer Stephen Harriman Long and is featured on the Colorado state quarter. Longs Peak can be seen from Longmont, Colorado, as well as from most of the northern Front Range Urban Corridor. Longs Peak is one of the most prominent mountains in Colorado, the peak is named for Major Stephen Long, who is said to be the first to spot the great mountains on behalf of the U. S. Government on June 30,1820. Together with the nearby Mount Meeker, the two are referred to as the Twin Peaks. As the only fourteener in Rocky Mountain National Park, the peak has long been of interest to climbers, the easiest route is not technical during the summer season. It was probably first used by indigenous people collecting eagle feathers. The first recorded ascent was in August 23,1868 by the party of John Wesley Powell via the south side. The East Face of the mountain is 1,675 feet steep and is surmounted by a 1,000 feet steep sheer cliff known as The Diamond. Another famous profile belongs to Longs Peak, to the southeast of the summit is a series of rises which, the photo shows the beaver climbing the south of the mountain. In 1954 the first proposal made to the National Park Service to climb The Diamond was met with an official closure, the Diamond was first ascended by Dave Rearick and Bob Kamps that year, by a route that would come to be known simply as D1. This route would later be listed in Allen Steck and Steve Ropers influential book Fifty Classic Climbs of North America, the easiest route on the face is the Casual Route, first climbed in 1977. It has since become the most popular route up the wall, the oldest person to summit Longs Peak was Rev. William Col. Billy Butler, who climbed it on September 2,1926, his 85th birthday. In 1932, Clerin “Zumie” Zumwalt summited Longs Peak 53 times, on June 6,2016, a group of US Special Forces were rescued after members of the team suffered from altitude sickness. Longs Peak has one remaining glacier named Mills Glacier, the glacier is located around 12,800 feet at the base of the Eastern Face, just above Chasm Lake. A permanent snowfield, called The Dove, is located north of Longs Peak, Longs Peak is one of fewer than 50 mountains in Colorado that have a glacier. Trails that ascend Longs Peak include the East Longs Peak Trail, the Longs Peak Trail, the Keyhole Route, Clarks Arrow, only some technical climbing is required to reach the summit of Longs Peak during the summer season, which typically runs from mid July through early September
8.
Colorado municipalities
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Colorado is a state located in the Western United States. Colorado currently has 271 incorporated municipalities, comprising 196 towns,73 cities, Colorado municipalities operate under one of five types of municipal governing authority. Denver has a mayor and a city council of 13 members with 11 members elected from council districts. The City and County of Broomfield operates under Article XX, Sections 10–13 of the Constitution of the State of Colorado. Broomfield has a city and county manager, an elected mayor. The home rule charter determines the form of government, a Colorado home rule municipality may declare itself to be either a city or a town. Colorado has 12 statutory cities, Colorado statutory cities operate under Title 31, Article 1, Section 203 and Article 4, statutory cities have an elected mayor and a city council composed of the mayor and two members elected from each ward. A statutory city may petition to reorganize as a Section 200 statutory city with a city manager. The mayor may be the city council elected at large or the city council may appoint a mayor. Colorado has 160 statutory towns, Colorado statutory towns operate under Title 31, Article 1, Section 203 and Article 4, statutory towns have an elected mayor and a board of trustees composed of the mayor and four or six additional members elected at large. The town mayor is called the Police Judge and the council is called the Board of Selectmen. Colorado law makes relatively few distinctions between a city and a town, a Home Rule Municipality may declare itself either a city or a town. In general, cities are more populous towns, although the towns of Castle Rock and Parker have more than 49,000 residents each. The City of Central is the only Colorado municipality that does not place its full name at the end of its municipal name. The towns of Garden City, Lake City, Orchard City, the municipality of Creede uses the official title City of Creede despite its status as a Colorado statutory town. Several resort communities use the village to describe their central business district. In Colorado, a municipality may extend into multiple counties, the City of Castle Pines is the youngest municipality in Colorado. The Town of Georgetown is governed by the oldest municipal charter in Colorado, the Town of Lakeside is the least populous municipality in Colorado
9.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
10.
Mountain Time Zone
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The clock time in this zone is based on the mean solar time at the 105th meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory. In the United States, the specification for the location of time zones. In the United States and Canada, this zone is generically called Mountain Time. Specifically, it is Mountain Standard Time when observing standard time, the term refers to the fact that the Rocky Mountains, which range from northwestern Canada to the US state of New Mexico, are located almost entirely in the time zone. In Mexico, this zone is known as the Pacific Zone. In the United States and Canada, the Mountain Time Zone is one ahead of the Pacific Time Zone and one hour behind the Central Time Zone. Sonora in Mexico and most of Arizona in the United States do not observe daylight saving time, and during the spring, summer, and autumn months they are on the same time as Pacific Daylight Time. The Navajo Nation, most of which lies within Arizona, does observe DST, although the Hopi Nation, as well as some Arizona state offices lying within the Navajo Nation, the largest city in the Mountain Time Zone is Phoenix, Arizona. TV broadcasting in the Mountain Time Zone is typically tape-delayed one hour, sonora – no daylight saving time, always on MST. Sinaloa Revillagigedo Islands, three of the four islands have the time as Mountain Time Zone, Isla Socorro, San Benedicto Island. The following states or areas are part of the Mountain Time Zone, Arizona – no daylight saving time, always on MST, except on the Navajo Nation. Colorado Idaho – southern half, south of the Salmon River Kansas – only the counties of Sherman, Wallace, Greeley and Hamilton, the remaining three counties that border Colorado, Cheyenne, Morton and Stanton, observe Central Time, as do all other Kansas counties. However, the state of Oklahoma is officially in the Central Time Zone. Additionally, northwestern Culberson County, Texas unofficially observes Mountain Time
11.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
12.
ZIP Code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
13.
Geographic Names Information System
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It is a type of gazetteer. GNIS was developed by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the United States Board on Geographic Names to promote the standardization of feature names, the database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited, variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier, the database never removes an entry, except in cases of obvious duplication. The GNIS accepts proposals for new or changed names for U. S. geographical features, the general public can make proposals at the GNIS web site and can review the justifications and supporters of the proposals. The Bureau of the Census defines Census Designated Places as a subset of locations in the National Geographic Names Database, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28 gives standards for addressing mail. In this publication, the postal service defines two-letter state abbreviations, street identifiers such as boulevard and street, department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, Digital Gazeteer, Users Manual. Least Heat Moon, William, Blue Highways, A Journey Into America, standard was withdrawn in September 2008, See Federal Register Notice, Vol.73, No. 170, page 51276 Report, Principles, Policies, and Procedures, Domestic Geographic Names, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28, November 2000. Board on Geographic Names website Geographic Names Information System Proposals from the general public Meeting minutes
14.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
15.
Boulder, Colorado
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Boulder is the home rule municipality that is the county seat and the most populous municipality of Boulder County, and the 11th most populous municipality in the U. S. state of Colorado. Boulder is located at the base of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains at an elevation of 5,430 feet above sea level, the city is 25 miles northwest of Denver. The population of the City of Boulder was 97,385 people at the 2010 United States Census, while the population of the Boulder, furthermore, the city of Boulder frequently receives high rankings in art, health, well-being, quality of life, and education. The university officially opened on September 5,1877, Boulder adopted an anti-saloon ordinance in 1907. Statewide prohibition started in Colorado in 1916 and ended with the repeal of prohibition in 1933. As of the census of 2010, there were 97,385 people,41,302 households, the population density is 3,942.7 inhabitants per square mile. There were 43,479 housing units at a density of 1,760.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 88. 0% White,0. 9% Black or African American,0. 4% Native American,4. 7% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,3. 2% some other race, and 2. 6% from two or more races. 8. 7% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race,35. 8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7. 1% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.16, and the family size was 2.84. Boulders population is younger than the average, largely due to the presence of university students. The median age at the 2010 census was 28.7 years compared to the U. S. median of 37.2 years. In Boulder,13. 9% of the residents were younger than the age of 18,29. 1% from 18 to 24,27. 6% from 25 to 44,20. 3% from 45 to 64, for every 100 females there were 105.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and older, there were 106.2 males, in 2011 the estimated median household income in Boulder was $57,112, and the median family income was $113,681. Male full-time workers had an income of $71,993 versus $47,574 for females. The per capita income for the city was $37,600,24. 8% of the population and 7. 6% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the population,17. 4% of those under the age of 18 and 6. 0% of those 65. Boulder housing tends to be priced higher than surrounding areas, for the 2nd quarter of 2006, the median single-family home in Boulder sold for $548,000 and the median attached dwelling sold for $262,000
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Colorado State Capitol
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The building is intentionally reminiscent of the United States Capitol. Designed by Elijah E. Myers, it was constructed in the 1890s from Colorado white granite, the distinctive gold dome consists of real gold leaf, first added in 1908, commemorating the Colorado Gold Rush. The building is part of Denvers Civic Center area, serving as the beginning of the Capitol Hill district, the historic building sits slightly higher than the rest of downtown Denver. The main entrance hall is open 180 feet to the top of the dome, additionally, the official elevation of Denver is measured outside the west entrance to the building, where the fifteenth step is engraved with the words One Mile Above Sea Level. From this step, at 5,280 feet, the sun can be seen setting behind the Rocky Mountains, a second mile high marker was set in the 18th step in 1969 when Colorado State University students resurveyed the elevation. In 2003, an accurate measurement was made with modern means, and the 3rd step was identified as being one mile high. The interior of the building uses copious amounts of Colorado Rose Onyx, the amount used in the building consumed the entire known supply. White Yule Marble from the quarries near Marble, Colorado was also used throughout the capitol for the floors, many designs have been found in the marble including an image resembling George Washington and another of Molly Brown. A major safety upgrade project, funded by the Colorado State Historical Fund, was started in 2001, the design by Fentress Architects added modern safety features, like enclosed stair towers, that blend in with the original architecture. Many of the windows are stained glass, depicting people or events related to the history of Colorado, the halls are decorated with portraits of every president of the United States. Richardson had participated in major building contracts throughout the United States. State of Colorado Yule marble Wikimedia Commons, Colorado State Capitol Colorado General Assembly, Capitol Tours Colorado State website Biography of Elijah E. Myers, Colorado State website
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Denver
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Denver, officially the City and County of Denver, is the capital and most populous municipality of the U. S. state of Colorado. Denver is in the South Platte River Valley on the edge of the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. The Denver downtown district is immediately east of the confluence of Cherry Creek with the South Platte River, Denver is nicknamed the Mile-High City because its official elevation is exactly one mile above sea level, making it the highest major city in the United States. The 105th meridian west of Greenwich, the reference for the Mountain Time Zone. Denver is ranked as a Beta- world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. With a 2015 estimated population of 682,545, Denver ranks as the 19th-most populous U. S. city, and with a 2. 8% increase in 2015, the city is also the fastest-growing major city in the United States. The 10-county Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 2,814,330 and ranked as the 19th most populous U. S. metropolitan statistical area. The 12-city Denver-Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 3,418,876, which ranks as the 16th most populous U. S. metropolitan area. Denver is the most populous city of the 18-county Front Range Urban Corridor, Denver is the most populous city within a 500-mile radius and the second-most populous city in the Mountain West after Phoenix, Arizona. In 2016, Denver was named the best place to live in the USA by U. S. News & World Report and this was the first historical settlement in what was later to become the city of Denver. The site faded quickly, however, and by the summer of 1859 it was abandoned in favor of Auraria, Larimer named the townsite Denver City to curry favor with Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver. Larimer hoped the name would help make it the county seat of Arapaho County but, unbeknownst to him. The location was accessible to existing trails and was across the South Platte River from the site of seasonal encampments of the Cheyenne, the site of these first towns is now the site of Confluence Park near downtown Denver. Larimer, along with associates in the St. Charles City Land Company, sold parcels in the town to merchants and miners, Denver City was a frontier town, with an economy based on servicing local miners with gambling, saloons, livestock and goods trading. In the early years, land parcels were often traded for grubstakes or gambled away by miners in Auraria, in May 1859, Denver City residents donated 53 lots to the Leavenworth & Pikes Peak Express in order to secure the regions first overland wagon route. Offering daily service for passengers, mail, freight, and gold, in 1863, Western Union furthered Denvers dominance of the region by choosing the city for its regional terminus. The Colorado Territory was created on February 28,1861, Arapahoe County was formed on November 1,1861, Denver City served as the Arapahoe County Seat from 1861 until consolidation in 1902. In 1867, Denver City became the territorial capital, with its newfound importance, Denver City shortened its name to Denver
18.
Colorado municipalities by population
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Colorado is a state located in the Western United States. Colorado currently has 271 incorporated municipalities, comprising 196 towns,73 cities, Colorado municipalities operate under one of five types of municipal governing authority. Denver has a mayor and a city council of 13 members with 11 members elected from council districts. The City and County of Broomfield operates under Article XX, Sections 10–13 of the Constitution of the State of Colorado. Broomfield has a city and county manager, an elected mayor. The home rule charter determines the form of government, a Colorado home rule municipality may declare itself to be either a city or a town. Colorado has 12 statutory cities, Colorado statutory cities operate under Title 31, Article 1, Section 203 and Article 4, statutory cities have an elected mayor and a city council composed of the mayor and two members elected from each ward. A statutory city may petition to reorganize as a Section 200 statutory city with a city manager. The mayor may be the city council elected at large or the city council may appoint a mayor. Colorado has 160 statutory towns, Colorado statutory towns operate under Title 31, Article 1, Section 203 and Article 4, statutory towns have an elected mayor and a board of trustees composed of the mayor and four or six additional members elected at large. The town mayor is called the Police Judge and the council is called the Board of Selectmen. Colorado law makes relatively few distinctions between a city and a town, a Home Rule Municipality may declare itself either a city or a town. In general, cities are more populous towns, although the towns of Castle Rock and Parker have more than 49,000 residents each. The City of Central is the only Colorado municipality that does not place its full name at the end of its municipal name. The towns of Garden City, Lake City, Orchard City, the municipality of Creede uses the official title City of Creede despite its status as a Colorado statutory town. Several resort communities use the village to describe their central business district. In Colorado, a municipality may extend into multiple counties, the City of Castle Pines is the youngest municipality in Colorado. The Town of Georgetown is governed by the oldest municipal charter in Colorado, the Town of Lakeside is the least populous municipality in Colorado
19.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
20.
Seat of local government
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In local government, a city hall, town hall, civic centre, a guildhall, a Rathaus, or a municipal building, is the chief administrative building of a city, town, or other municipality. It usually houses the city or town council, its associated departments and it also usually functions as the base of the mayor of a city, town, borough, or county / shire. By convention, until the mid 19th-century, a large open chamber formed an integral part of the building housing the council. The hall may be used for meetings and other significant events. This large chamber, the hall, has become synonymous with the whole building. The terms council chambers, municipal building or variants may be used locally in preference to town hall if no such large hall is present within the building, the local government may endeavor to use the town hall building to promote and enhance the quality of life of the community. In many cases, town halls serve not only as buildings for government functions and these may include art shows, stage performances, exhibits and festivals. Modern town halls or civic centres are designed with a great variety and flexibility of purpose in mind. As symbols of government, city and town halls have distinctive architecture. City hall buildings may also serve as icons that symbolize their cities. The term town hall may be a one, often applied without regard to whether the building serves or served a town or a city. This is generally the case in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, english-speakers in some regions use the term city hall to designate the council offices of a municipality of city status. This is the case in North America, where a distinction is made between city halls and town halls, and is also the case with Brisbane City Hall in Australia. The great hall of the town-house or municipal building, now commonly applied to the whole building city hall. Conversely, cities that have subdivisions with their own councils may have borough halls, in Scotland, local government in larger cities operates from the City Chambers, otherwise the Town House. Elsewhere in English-speaking countries, other names are occasionally used, in London, the official headquarters of administration of the City of London retains its Anglo-Saxon name, the Guildhall, signifying a place where taxes were paid. In a small number of English cities the preferred term is Council House, this was also the case in Bristol until 2012, when the building was renamed City Hall. In Birmingham, there is a distinction between the Council House, the seat of government, and the Town Hall, a concert
21.
Grid plan
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The grid plan, grid street plan or gridiron plan is a type of city plan in which streets run at right angles to each other, forming a grid. In the context of the culture of ancient Rome, the grid method of land measurement was called centuriation. The grid plan dates from antiquity and originated in multiple cultures, by 2600 BC, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, were built with blocks divided by a grid of straight streets, running north-south and east-west. Each block was subdivided by small lanes, the cities and monasteries of Gandhara, dating from the 1st millennium BC to the 11th century AD, also had grid-based designs. Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan since 1959, was founded on the grid-plan of the nearby ruined city of Sirkap. A workers village at Giza, Egypt, housed a rotating labor force and was out in blocks of long galleries separated by streets in a formal grid. Many pyramid-cult cities used a common orientation, an axis from the royal palace. Hammurabi was a king of the Babylonian Empire who made Babylon one of the greatest cities in antiquity and he rebuilt Babylon, building and restoring temples, city walls and public buildings, and building canals for irrigation. The streets of Babylon were wide and straight, intersected approximately at right angles, the tradition of grid plans is continuous in China from the 15th century BC onward in the traditional urban planning of various ancient Chinese states. Guidelines put into form in the Kaogongji during the Spring and Autumn period stated. Three gates on each side of the lead into the nine main streets that crisscross the city. Teotihuacan, near modern-day Mexico City, is the largest ancient grid-plan site in the Americas, the citys grid covered eight square miles. Perhaps the most well-known grid system is spread through the colonies of the Roman Empire. The archetypal Roman Grid was introduced to Italy first by the Greeks, with such information transferred by way of trade, although the idea of the grid was present in Hellenic societal and city planning, it was not pervasive prior to the 5th century BC. However, it slowly gained primacy through the work of Hippodamus of Miletus, the concept of a grid as the ideal method of town planning had become widely accepted by the time of Alexander the Great. His conquests were a step in the propagation of the grid plan throughout colonies, some as far-flung as Taxila in Pakistan, that would later be mirrored by the expansion of the Roman Empire. The Greek grid had its streets aligned roughly in relation to the points and generally looked to take advantage of visual cues based on the hilly landscape typical of Greece. The Etruscan people, whose territories in Italy encompassed what would eventually become Rome and it was based on Greek Ionic ideas, and it was here that the main east-west and north-south axes of a town could first be seen in Italy
22.
Agriculture
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Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time
23.
Colorado Central Railroad
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The Colorado Central Railroad was a U. S. railroad company that operated in Colorado and southeastern Wyoming in the late 19th century. It was founded in the Colorado Territory in the wake of the Colorado Gold Rush to ship gold from the mountains and it expanded from its Golden–Denver line to form a crucial link connecting Colorado with the transcontinental railroad and the national rail network. The history of the railroad throughout the 1870s was driven at times by a struggle between local interests, led by W. A. H. Loveland, and outside investors of the Union Pacific Railroad led at times by Jay Gould, the early struggle of the company to build its lines was a major part of the early competition between Denver and Golden for supremacy as the principal metropolis of Colorado. The company built the first rail lines up connecting historic Colorado mining communities such as Black Hawk, Central City, through a series of reorganizations and acquisitions, it eventually became part of the Colorado and Southern Railway. Although its historic 3 ft narrow gauge lines were dismantled by the mid 20th century. Loveland and his partners desired to build a 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in standard gauge railroad up Clear Creek Canyon to Central City and other mining centers, during the three years before construction on the line began the company underwent several reorganizations. On January 20,1866, the name of the railroad was changed to the Colorado Central & Pacific Railroad, the following year, in June 1867, the company was reorganized, Union Pacific investors were in control, but provided no funds for construction. That year, the seat of government for Colorado was relocated from Golden to Denver. On January 1,1868, construction at last began on the first line connecting Denver, on January 14, the company changed its name to Colorado Central Railroad. Construction of the first line was slow, by the end of the year, only the small portion between Denver and Golden had been graded. The formation of the Denver Pacific Railway and Telegraph Company set off a struggle over the next two years between the two companies to complete their lines connecting to Union Pacific. The Denver Pacific line was complete in June 1870 and the first train arrived in Denver from Cheyenne, two months later, the Kansas Pacific completed its line to Denver, linking up with the Denver Pacific, and cementing the central role of Denver in Colorado. As a consequence, the Colorado Central turned its attention towards linking up with the Denver Pacific, in May 1871 local interests regained control of the railroad from Union Pacific investors. By the following September,150 men were at work in the mountains west of Golden to extend the line to the mining communities, in the spring of 1872 the company acquired critical right-of-way along Clear Creek to extend its line. West of Golden, the line built as 3 ft narrow gauge, in late August, the company took delivery of its first two locomotives, the General Sherman, No. 2, followed a week later by General Sheridan, No.1, on September 1, the track was completed 13.3 miles to Forks Creek. By mid-December, the line had been extended 7.7 miles further to Black Hawk, by February 24,1873, a second line from Forks Creek had been extended 3.3 miles to Floyd Hill
24.
IBM
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International Business Machines Corporation is an American multinational technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York, United States, with operations in over 170 countries. The company originated in 1911 as the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company and was renamed International Business Machines in 1924, IBM manufactures and markets computer hardware, middleware and software, and offers hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology. IBM is also a research organization, holding the record for most patents generated by a business for 24 consecutive years. IBM has continually shifted its business mix by exiting commoditizing markets and focusing on higher-value, also in 2014, IBM announced that it would go fabless, continuing to design semiconductors, but offloading manufacturing to GlobalFoundries. Nicknamed Big Blue, IBM is one of 30 companies included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average and one of the worlds largest employers, with nearly 380,000 employees. Known as IBMers, IBM employees have been awarded five Nobel Prizes, six Turing Awards, ten National Medals of Technology, in the 1880s, technologies emerged that would ultimately form the core of what would become International Business Machines. On June 16,1911, their four companies were amalgamated in New York State by Charles Ranlett Flint forming a fifth company, the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company based in Endicott, New York. The five companies had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York, Dayton, Ohio, Detroit, Michigan, Washington, D. C. and Toronto. They manufactured machinery for sale and lease, ranging from commercial scales and industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, to tabulators and punched cards. Thomas J. Watson, Sr. fired from the National Cash Register Company by John Henry Patterson, called on Flint and, Watson joined CTR as General Manager then,11 months later, was made President when court cases relating to his time at NCR were resolved. Having learned Pattersons pioneering business practices, Watson proceeded to put the stamp of NCR onto CTRs companies and his favorite slogan, THINK, became a mantra for each companys employees. During Watsons first four years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million, Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR and in 1924 chose to replace it with the more expansive title International Business Machines. By 1933 most of the subsidiaries had been merged into one company, in 1937, IBMs tabulating equipment enabled organizations to process unprecedented amounts of data, its clients including the U. S. During the Second World War the company produced small arms for the American war effort, in 1949, Thomas Watson, Sr. created IBM World Trade Corporation, a subsidiary of IBM focused on foreign operations. In 1952, he stepped down after almost 40 years at the company helm, in 1957, the FORTRAN scientific programming language was developed. In 1961, IBM developed the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines, in 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts. A year later it moved its headquarters from New York City to Armonk. The latter half of the 1960s saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, on April 7,1964, IBM announced the first computer system family, the IBM System/360
25.
Seagate Technology
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Seagate Technology PLC is an American data storage company. It was incorporated in 1978, as Shugart Technology, since 2010, the company is incorporated in Dublin, Ireland, with operational headquarters in Cupertino, California, United States. Seagate developed the first 5. 25-inch hard disk drive, the 5-megabyte ST-506 and they were a major supplier in the microcomputer market during the 1980s, especially after the introduction of the IBM XT in 1983. Today Seagate along with Western Digital dominates the HDD market, much of their growth has come through acquisition of competitors. In 1989, Seagate acquired Control Data Corporations Imprimis division, makers of CDCs HDD products, Seagate acquired Conner Peripherals in 1996, Maxtor in 2006, and Samsungs HDD business in 2011. Seagate Technology was incorporated on November 1,1978, and commenced operations with co-founders Al Shugart, Tom Mitchell, Doug Mahon, Finis Conner, the name was changed to Seagate Technology to avoid a lawsuit from Xeroxs subsidiary Shugart Associates. The companys first product, the 5-megabyte ST-506, was released in 1980 and it was the first hard disk to fit the 5. 25-inch form factor of the Shugart mini-floppy drive. The hard disk, which used a Modified Frequency Modulation encoding, was a hit, and was released in a 10-megabyte version. With this Seagate secured a contract as a major OEM supplier for the IBM XT, the large volumes of units sold to IBM, the then-dominant supplier of PCs, fueled Seagates early growth. In their first year, Seagate shipped $10 million of units to consumers, by 1983, the company shipped over 200,000 units for revenues of $110 million. The 20-megabyte version, the ST-225, and the 30-megabyte version and these were also made in SCSI versions. In 1983, Al Shugart was replaced as president by then chief operating officer, Tom Mitchell, Shugart continued to oversee corporate planning. By this point the company had a 45% market share of the hard drive market. In 1989, Seagate acquired Control Datas Imprimis Technology, CDCs disk storage division, in September 1991, Tom Mitchell resigned as president under pressure from the board of directors, with Al Shugart reassuming presidency of the company. Shugart refocused the company on its more lucrative markets, and on mainframe drives instead of external drives and this included a domestic partnership with Corning Inc. which began using a new glass ceramic compound to manufacture disk substrates. In 1991, Seagate also introduced the Barracuda HDDs, the industrys first hard disk with a 7200-RPM spindle speed, in May 1993, Seagate became the first company to cumulatively ship 50 million HDDs over its firms history. The following year Seagate Technology Inc moved from the Nasdaq exchange to the New York Stock Exchange, upon leaving, the company was the 17th-largest company in terms of trading volume on the Nasdaq exchange. In 1996, Seagate merged with Conner Peripherals to form worlds largest independent hard-drive manufacturer, in 1996, Seagate introduced the industrys first hard disk with a 10, 000-RPM spindle speed, the Cheetah 4LP
26.
Amgen
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Amgen Inc. is an American multinational biopharmaceutical company headquartered in Thousand Oaks, California. Located in the Conejo Valley, Amgen is the worlds largest independent biotechnology firm, other products include Epogen, Aranesp, Sensipar/Mimpara, Nplate, Vectibix, Prolia and XGEVA. The word AMGen is a portmanteau of the original name, Applied Molecular Genetics. The companys first chief officer, from 1980, was co-founder George B. Rathmann, followed by Gordon M. Binder in 1988, followed by Kevin W. Sharer in 2000, robert A. Bradway became Amgen’s president and chief executive officer in May 2012 following Sharers retirement. The company has made at least five major corporate acquisitions, Amgen received approval for the first recombinant human erythropoetin product, Epogen, for the treatment of anemia associated with chronic kidney failure. Epogen would later be approved for anemia due to chemotherapy, anemia due to treatment with certain HIV drugs. In February 1991, Amgen received FDA approval for Neupogen for the prevention of infections in patients whose immune systems are suppressed due to cancer chemotherapy. In November 1998, Immunex, an acquisition of Amgen, received approval for Enbrel. On June 6,2010 Amgen received FDA approval for Prolia, in clinical trials, Prolia reduced the rate of vertebral fractures by 61% and the risk of hip fractures by 40%. 2010 In November 2010 the FDA approved Xgeva for the prevention of complications of bone metastases in patients with solid tumors, the clinical trials primarily enrolled patients with breast or prostate cancer. The Los Angeles Times reported on December 18,2012, that AMGEN pleaded guilty and agreed to pay $150 million in criminal penalty, federal prosecutors accused the company of pursuing profits while putting patients at risk. Larry Husten, a contributor at Forbes, one of the drugs mentioned in the lawsuit had sales of $492 million in the third quarter of 2012, down 17% from the same quarter the previous year due to reimbursement problems and label changes. Amgen paid $762 million after pleading guilty to charges of improper promotion. Lawmakers inserted text into the fiscal cliff bill that will allow the drugmaker to sell a class of drugs that includes Sensipar without government controls for a two years. In September the company announced it would acquire Dezima Pharma for more than $1.55 billion, the same day the company announced a collaboration with Xencor on 6 early stage immuno-oncology and inflammation programmes. As part of the deal Amgen will pay $45 million upfront, in September, the company announced it would purchase the rights to Boehringer Ingelheims Phase I bispecific T-cell engager compound for use in the treatment of multiple myeloma. Later in the week, the company reported positive results for brodalumab in a phase III trial comparing the compound with ustekinumab
27.
GE Power
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GE Power is an American energy techniques company, owned by General Electric. GE Power is the largest energy techniques and selling energy company in the world. GE Energy was a division of General Electric and was headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, in 2008, a company-wide reorganization prompted by financial losses led to the units formation from companies within GE Infrastructure. On March 29,2011, GE Energy announced plans to acquire a 90% stake in Converteam for $3.2 billion and this move was seen as an effort to drive simplification and visibility in GE, and the reorganization was completed in October 2013. The companys new name is GE Power and it all the divisions. Now the company is one of the largest companies in the world and is the leader in different energy techniques and selling energy
28.
Downtown
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Downtown is a term primarily used in North America by English speakers to refer to a citys core or central business district, often in a geographical or commercial sense. The term is not generally used in British English, whose speakers use the term city centre. The term downtown is thought to have been coined in New York City, uptown also spread, but to a much lesser extent. In both cases, though, the directionality of both words was lost, so that a Bostonian might refer to going downtown, even though it was north of where they were. Downtown lay to the south in Detroit, but to the north in Cleveland, to the east in St. Louis, in Boston, a resident pointed out in 1880, downtown was in the center of the city. Uptown was north of downtown in Cincinnati, but south of downtown in New Orleans, notably, downtown was not included in dictionaries as late as the 1880s. It was the location of the department stores and hotels, as well as the theatres, clubs, cabarets, and dance halls. It was also frequently, at first, the part of a city that was electrified. It was also the place where street congestion was the worst, but most of all, downtown was the place where the city did its business. Inside its small precincts, sometimes as small as several hundred acres, the majority of the trading, selling, there were hubs of business in other places around the city and its environs, but the downtown area was the chief one, truly the central business district. And as more and more business was done downtown, those who had their homes there were gradually pushed out, selling their property, the skyscraper would become the hallmark of the downtown area. What limited them then was the thickness of the masonry needed at the base to hold the weight of the building above it. As the buildings got taller, the thickness of the masonry, although first used in Chicago, the steel-framed skyscraper caught on most quickly in New York City in the 1880s, and from there spread to most other American cities in the 1890s and 1900s. In the short run, the proponents of height limits were successful in their efforts, what was worse, at least to real estate interests, the building dumped 1.2 million square feet of office space on what was a sluggish real estate market. To many in the real estate industry, the law was an example of a reasonable restriction. This was the time when the central business district began to appear as more-or-less synonymous with the downtown area. The phrase acknowledged the existence of business districts in the city. Real estate interests were concerned about the tendency of downtown to move because the downtown area had by far the highest land values in each city
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New Urbanism
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New Urbanism is an urban design movement which promotes environmentally friendly habits by creating walkable neighborhoods containing a wide range of housing and job types. It arose in the United States in the early 1980s, and has influenced many aspects of real estate development, urban planning. These ideas can all be circled back to two concepts, building a sense of community and the development of ecological practices, the organizing body for New Urbanism is the Congress for the New Urbanism, founded in 1993. They believe their strategies can reduce congestion by encouraging the population to ride bikes, walk. They also hope that this set up will increase the supply of affordable housing, the Charter of the New Urbanism also covers issues such as historic preservation, safe streets, green building, and the re-development of brownfield land. The ten Principles of Intelligent Urbanism also phrase guidelines for new urbanist approaches, architecturally, new urbanist developments are often accompanied by New Classical, postmodern, or vernacular styles, although that is not always the case. Until the mid 20th century, cities were generally organized into, but with the advent of cheap automobiles and favorable government policies, attention began to shift away from cities and towards ways of growth more focused on the needs of the car. This new system of development, with its rigorous separation of uses, arose after World War II, the majority of U. S. citizens now live in suburban communities built in the last fifty years, and automobile use per capita has soared. Although New Urbanism as a movement would only arise later. Social philosopher and historian Lewis Mumford criticized the development of post-war America. The French architect François Spoerry has developed in the 60s the concept of architecture that he applied to Port Grimaud. The success of project had a considerable influence and led to many new projects of soft architecture like Port Liberté in New Jersey or Le Plessis Robisson in France. The term new urbanism itself started being used in context in the mid-1980s. Named the Ahwahnee Principles, the presented the principles to about one hundred government officials in the fall of 1991. Calthorpe, Duany, Moule, Plater-Zyberk, Polyzoides, and Solomon founded the Chicago-based Congress for the New Urbanism in 1993, the CNU has grown to more than three thousand members, and is the leading international organization promoting New Urbanist design principles. It holds annual Congresses in various U. S. cities, the Canons are a set of operating principles for human settlement that reestablish the relationship between the art of building, the making of community, and the conservation of our natural world. They promote the use of heating and cooling solutions, the use of locally obtained materials, and in general. New Urbanism is a movement that spans a number of different disciplines
30.
Prospect New Town
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Prospect New Town is a New Urbanist housing development located on the southern edge of the city of Longmont in Boulder County, Colorado in the United States. As of 2009, the project is in its phase of development. It is intended to have a population of approximately 2,000 people in 585 units on 340 lots, the development is being built on the site of an 80-acre tree farm formerly owned by Wallaces family. It sits along the west side of U. S. Highway 287 just south of Pike Road, the development incorporates a broad mix of traditional and modern designs, mixed to create an eclectic feel. Although planned by DPZ, the units are designed by a variety of architects. It includes a mix of businesses, detached homes, row houses, live/work lofts. The original farmhouse and other structures have been integrated into the development, some of the new structures resembles traditional housing styles from early in the 20th century, while others are very eclectic and ultramodern. Instead, the development is designed with small yards and higher density, to create a traditional neighborhood look and it is also designed to be pedestrian friendly, not only in the amenities such as sidewalks, but in promoting the desirability of walking short distances within the complex. Houses and lots in the project are typically smaller than in U. S. suburban developments, the typical house in the project has an area 5,100 square feet of living space on a 7,000 square foot lot. Prices for houses in the project ranged from 150, 000–500,000 USD, but have trended quickly upward because of the high demand. The development includes a town center interwoven into the center of the residential area, the streets are oriented to maximize the view of the mountains, and a traditional town center that would be no more than five minutes on foot from any place in the neighborhood. It would include not only houses but also stores and offices that themselves would have living spaces upstairs, due to the bright colors and eclectic architecture of the buildings, many area residents refer to Prospect as Toon Town. Wallace, together with Duany and Longmont developer Dale Bruns, began planning the development in the middle 1990s. The development was to serve as a test case for neighborhoods in the planning stages along the Colorado Front Range. The parcel of land offered a view of the nearby mountains. The development, at first called the Wallace Addition and the Burlington Village, was to be financed at 37 million dollars, the partners also hired the Rocky Mountain Institute, based in Snowmass, Colorado, as consultants for the use of ecologically-friendly building materials and planning. The design calls for the construction of nine small parks integrated throughout the houses and businesses. Some of the units will have apartments above garages, a feature that will allow renters to live in the neighborhood
31.
Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
32.
Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk
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Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk is an American architect and urban planner of Polish-Livonian aristocratic roots based in Miami, Florida. She received her degree in architecture and urban planning from Princeton. She is a representative of New Urbanism and New Classical Architecture, in 1977, Plater-Zyberk was co-founder of the Miami firm Arquitectonica with her husband Andrés Duany, Bernardo Fort-Brescia, Laurinda Hope Spear, and Hervin Romney. Arquitectonica became famous for its style, a dramatic, expressive high-tech modernism. The firms Atlantis Condominium was featured prominently in the credits of Miami Vice. Duany and Plater-Zyberk founded Duany Plater Zyberk & Company in 1980, DPZ became a leader in the national movement called the New Urbanism and distinguished itself by designing traditional towns and retrofitting into existing suburbs into livable downtowns. Plater-Zyberk began teaching at the University of Miami School of Architecture in 1979, starting what became a long, having created a graduate program in Suburb and Town Design in 1988, she continued to explore contemporary issues in city growth and reconstruction with students and faculty. She has also served as director of the universitys Center for Urban Community and Design, in the Fall of 2008, Plater-Zyberk was tapped into Iron Arrow Honor Society, the highest Honor attained at the University of Miami. In 2014, she was awarded the Arts & Culture Award by the Coral Gables Community Foundation, for ten years, Plater-Zyberk was a Trustee of Princeton University, where she chaired the universitys Building Committee during an active period of building and expansion. Architects hired during her tenure on the Building Committee included Princeton graduate Robert Venturi, internationally famous Frank Gehry, Porphyrios designed the Collegiate Gothic Whitman College, the first in a series of new Gothic buildings to be built in the historic center of the university. Plater-Zyberk is a founder and emeritus board member of the Congress for the New Urbanism and she has been a visiting professor at many major North American schools of architecture, has been awarded several honorary doctorates and awards, and lectures frequently. In 2001, she and Duany were awarded the Vincent Scully Prize by the National Building Museum in recognition of their contributions to the American built environment, in 2008, she was appointed to the U. S. Her recent books include The New Civic Art and Suburban Nation, The Rise of Sprawl, Duany, Andrés, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, and Jeff Speck. Suburban Nation, The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline of the American Dream, ISBN 0-86547-606-3 Duany, Andrés, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, and Robert Alminana. The New Civic Art, Elements of Town Planning, the Architecture of Duany Plater-Zyberk and Company
33.
Optical fiber
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An optical fiber or optical fibre is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined spaces, as in the case of a fiberscope. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, some of them being fiber optic sensors. Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding material with an index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by the phenomenon of internal reflection which causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers, multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters, being able to join optical fibers with low loss is important in fiber optic communication. This is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable and involves careful cleaving of the fibers, precise alignment of the cores. For applications that demand a permanent connection a fusion splice is common, in this technique, an electric arc is used to melt the ends of the fibers together. Another common technique is a splice, where the ends of the fibers are held in contact by mechanical force. Temporary or semi-permanent connections are made by means of specialized optical fiber connectors, the field of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as fiber optics. The term was coined by Indian physicist Narinder Singh Kapany who is acknowledged as the father of fiber optics. Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon, John Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London,12 years later. When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular. If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 48°27′, for flint glass it is 38°41′, unpigmented human hairs have also been shown to act as an optical fiber. Practical applications, such as close internal illumination during dentistry, appeared early in the twentieth century, image transmission through tubes was demonstrated independently by the radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie Baird in the 1920s. The principle was first used for medical examinations by Heinrich Lamm in the following decade
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U.S. Route 287
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U. S. Route 287 is a north–south United States highway. It serves as the truck route between Fort Worth, Texas and Amarillo, Texas, and between Fort Collins, Colorado and Laramie, Wyoming. The highway is broken into two segments by Yellowstone National Park, where a park road serves as a connector. The highways northern terminus is in Choteau, Montana,100 miles south of the Canadian border and its southern terminus is in Port Arthur, Texas at an intersection with State Highway 87, five miles up the Sabine River from the Gulf of Mexico. It intersects its parent route U. S. Route 87 twice, overlapping it from Amarillo, Texas to Dumas, Texas, US287 is the shortest route between Denver and Dallas-Fort Worth. U. S.287 originates at its terminus in Port Arthur. From Fort Worth, U. S.287 continues north to Wichita Falls, the highway continues through Amarillo, where it intersects I-40, and then runs north to Kerrick and crosses into neighboring Oklahoma. In Oklahoma, U. S.287 remains within Cimarron County, after crossing the state line north of Kerrick, Texas, the highway intersects State Highway 171 at its southern terminus. U. S.287 continues northwest, crossing the Beaver River, toward Boise City, the county seat. On the east side of town, the highway becomes concurrent with U. S.56, U. S.64, U. S.412 and these five highways then enter the traffic circle in downtown Boise City. U. S.287 emerges from the side of the circle, as well as U. S.385. These three highways head north to the Colorado state line, OK3 ends there, while U. S.287 and U. S.385 continue onward into Colorado. From Oklahoma, U. S.287 and U. S.385 enter into a rural part of Colorado. They continue in a north/northwest direction through the state, the two highways pass through the town of Campo, and make an interchange with U. S.160 on the outskirts of Springfield. In Lamar and Carlton, the make a interchange with U. S.50. Here U. S.385 heads east on U. S.50, just outside the town the highways make a sharp turn toward the west, and the road heading north is CO196. South of Wiley, U. S.50 heads west, east of Eads, Colorado U. S.287 turns toward the west again, briefly merging with C-96. In Eads C-96 continues toward the West, while U. S.287 turns toward the North, near Kit Carson, U. S.287 again turns toward the west and merges with U. S.40
35.
Loveland, Colorado
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The City of Loveland is the Home Rule Municipality that is the second most populous municipality in Larimer County, Colorado, United States. Loveland is situated 46 miles north of the Colorado State Capitol in Denver, Loveland is the 14th most populous city in Colorado. The United States Census Bureau estimated that in 2014 the population of the city was 72,651, the city forms part of the Fort Collins-Loveland Metropolitan Statistical Area and the Front Range Urban Corridor. The citys public schools are part of the Thompson R2-J School District, Loveland is located at 40°24′17″N 105°5′9″W. It is south of Fort Collins, its neighbor and the county seat of Larimer County. Both cities have expanded steadily toward each other over the last several decades and are considered a single area by the U. S. government. The establishment of county-owned open space between the two communities in the 1990s was intended to create a permanent buffer between them, the northern city limits are now contiguous with those of Windsor, which has expanded westward from Weld County across Interstate 25. Loveland has aggressively expanded its incorporated limits eastward to embrace the interchange of Interstate 25 and U. S. Highway 34, in the last decade, the intersection has become a primary commercial hub of northern Colorado, with the construction of shopping centers and the Budweiser Events Center. A new medical center and mall have also built on the Interstate 25. This area is known as Centerra, the interchange is shared with its smaller neighbor Johnstown, of Weld County. The city was founded in 1866 along the newly constructed line of the Colorado Central Railroad and it was named in honor of William A. H. Loveland, the president of the Colorado Central Railroad. The city was founded one mile upstream from the small settlement of St. Louis. For the first half of the 20th century the town was dependent on agriculture, the primary crops in the area were sugar beets and sour cherries. In 1901, the Great Western Sugar Company built a factory in Loveland, during the late 1920s the Spring Glade orchard was the largest cherry orchard west of the Mississippi River. At that time the cherry orchards produced more than $1 million worth of cherries per year, a series of droughts, attacks of blight and finally a killer freeze destroyed the industry. By 1960 cherries were no longer farmed, in the late 20th century, the economy diversified with the arrival of manufacturing facilities by Hewlett-Packard, Teledyne, and Hach, a water quality analysis equipment manufacturer. A new medical center has added a substantial amount of employment in that sector as well, on September 12,2013 a historic flood affected numerous areas in Colorado. It rained heavily for 4 consecutive days, causing most rivers, Estes Park received 8-12 inches of rain, causing Lake Estes to overfill its banks
36.
Colorado State Highway 119
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State Highway 119 is a 63.7 mi long state highway in north central Colorado. It extends in a southwest to northeast direction, from a junction with U. S. Highway 6 in Clear Creek Canyon between Golden and Idaho Springs to a junction with I-25 east of Longmont. The southwest portion of the road is a scenic mountain drive providing dramatic vistas of the Front Range, the city of Boulder separates these two vastly different sections of SH119. Highway 119 begins at a signalized T intersection with U. S. Highway 6 in Clear Creek Canyon between Golden and Idaho Springs. It continues north from Blackhawk as the Peak to Peak Scenic and Historic Byway, east Portal Road in Rollinsville provides access to the east portal of the railroad tunnel, and to the Moffat Road historic railroad grade across Rollins Pass. SH119 continues northward, intersecting State Highway 72 with which it will be concurrent to Nederland and it provides access to the Eldora Mountain Resort ski area, about 3 miles west of Nederland. In Nederland, SH119 and SH72 diverge at an intersection where SH72 takes the Peak to Peak Highway designation with it to the north. Leaving Nederland, SH119 passes along the shore of Barker Meadow Reservoir and enters the scenic Boulder Canyon. In the canyon, the road experiences grades of up to 10%, the walls of the canyon are popular for rock climbing, and the scenic Boulder Falls is an easy walk from the highway. This busy section of State 119 and US36 on 28th Street serves Boulders main shopping area, the overlap with US36 ends at the northern edge of Boulder where US36 continues north to Rocky Mountain National Park, and SH119 turns east becoming Diagonal Highway. At Niwot it passes a large facility for the IBM Corporation at an intersection with State Highway 52. The Diagonal Highway expressway ends in Longmont, as SH119 becomes Ken Pratt Blvd. east of US287 in Longmont, a new expressway carries SH119 directly to its northeastern terminus at a diamond interchange at Interstate 25 exit 240. SH119 was established in the 1920s, extending from Idaho Springs to Boulder and it went up Virginia Canyon on the aptly named Oh My God Road, and then through Central City to Blackhawk. In 1939 SH119 was extended from Boulder to Longmont, zig-zagging along existing county roads, by 1960 it had been completely paved and straightened on a diagonal route alongside the railroad tracks between Boulder and Longmont. When Interstate 25 was built east of Longmont by 1963, SH119 was extended by overlapping US287 to Third Avenue, CDOT plans various safety upgrades for the section between US6 and Blackhawk. A diamond interchange is planned for the busy intersection with SH52 to ease the congestion at the large IBM facility. Peak to Peak Scenic and Historic Byway Boulder Country Transportation Master Plan
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Interstate 25 in Colorado
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In the U. S. state of Colorado, Interstate 25 follows the north–south corridor through Colorado Springs and Denver. The highway enters the state from the north near Carr and exits the state near Starkville, the highway also runs through the cities of Fort Collins, Loveland, and Pueblo. The route is concurrent with U. S. Highway 87 through the length of the state. I-25 replaced U. S. Highway 87 and most of U. S. Highway 85 for through traffic, historical nicknames for this route have included the Valley Highway, Monument Valley Highway, and the Pueblo Freeway. Within El Paso County, the route has been dedicated as the Ronald Reagan Highway, in Pueblo County, the route is called John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway. Interstate 25 is also considered to be part of the unofficial Pan-American Highway, the route turns from north to west-northwest as I-25 serves Wootton. After leaving Wootton, I-25 turns back up north and bypasses near the east side of the Trinidad Lake State Park, Trinidad, a city near the Trinidad Lake, is the first major city that lies along I-25. For the next 30 miles, I-25 continues north through the areas of Colorado until it reaches the small city of Walsenburg. I-25 then continues in a north-northwest direction until it bypasses the Orlando Reservoir, in Colorado City, I-25 interchanges with the east end of the Frontier Pathways Scenic and Historic Byway at exit 74. The Arkansas River in Pueblo serves as a feeder to the Lake Pueblo State Park, home of the Pueblo Lake, which is located to the west of the western city limits of Pueblo. After leaving Pueblo, I-25 continues up north with the Union Pacific Railroad line paralleling closely to the route on the side after interchanging with Porter Draw at exit 106. By exit 119, the Fountain Creek joins along and travels parallel with I-25, I-25 gradually turns from a general north direction to the north-northwest and serves the census-designated place of Buttes at exit 122. As soon as US85 leaves I-25 at exit 128, I-25 enters the city limits of Fountain, basically, I-25 serves as the border between the western city limits of Fountain on the east side of I-25 and Fort Carson on the west side. Exit 132 serves the north side of the Fountain Creek Regional Park as well as the entrance to Fort Carson and connects to SH21, the eastern bypass for the Colorado Springs metro area. By the time I-25 reaches exit 138, the route crosses into the city limits of Colorado Springs, I-25 turns west at exit 140, along with the Fountain Creek, where it interchanges with US85, US87, and I-25 Bus. I-25 again turns north by exit 141. Swinging around the west side of downtown Colorado Springs at exit 142, and to the north of the city lies the Colorado College, continuing north and northeast, the highway intersects the north terminus of I-25 Bus. and US85. The interstate leaves Colorado Springs between exits 153 and 156, where I-25 enters the United States Air Force Academy, going through the east side of the institution
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Sea level
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Mean sea level is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earths oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured. A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a low and mean high tide at a particular location. Sea levels can be affected by factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales. The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change, the term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level. Precise determination of a sea level is a difficult problem because of the many factors that affect sea level. Sea level varies quite a lot on several scales of time and this is because the sea is in constant motion, affected by the tides, wind, atmospheric pressure, local gravitational differences, temperature, salinity and so forth. The easiest way this may be calculated is by selecting a location and calculating the mean sea level at that point, for example, a period of 19 years of hourly level observations may be averaged and used to determine the mean sea level at some measurement point. One measures the values of MSL in respect to the land, hence a change in MSL can result from a real change in sea level, or from a change in the height of the land on which the tide gauge operates. In the UK, the Ordnance Datum is the sea level measured at Newlyn in Cornwall between 1915 and 1921. Prior to 1921, the datum was MSL at the Victoria Dock, in Hong Kong, mPD is a surveying term meaning metres above Principal Datum and refers to height of 1. 230m below the average sea level. In France, the Marégraphe in Marseilles measures continuously the sea level since 1883 and it is used for a part of continental Europe and main part of Africa as official sea level. Elsewhere in Europe vertical elevation references are made to the Amsterdam Peil elevation, satellite altimeters have been making precise measurements of sea level since the launch of TOPEX/Poseidon in 1992. A joint mission of NASA and CNES, TOPEX/Poseidon was followed by Jason-1 in 2001, height above mean sea level is the elevation or altitude of an object, relative to the average sea level datum. It is also used in aviation, where some heights are recorded and reported with respect to sea level, and in the atmospheric sciences. An alternative is to base height measurements on an ellipsoid of the entire Earth, in aviation, the ellipsoid known as World Geodetic System 84 is increasingly used to define heights, however, differences up to 100 metres exist between this ellipsoid height and mean tidal height. The alternative is to use a vertical datum such as NAVD88. When referring to geographic features such as mountains on a topographic map, the elevation of a mountain denotes the highest point or summit and is typically illustrated as a small circle on a topographic map with the AMSL height shown in metres, feet or both. In the rare case that a location is below sea level, for one such case, see Amsterdam Airport Schiphol
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