Crystal structure
In crystallography, crystal structure is a description of the ordered arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in a crystalline material. Ordered structures occur from the intrinsic nature of the constituent particles to form symmetric patterns that repeat along the principal directions of three-dimensional space in matter; the smallest group of particles in the material that constitutes this repeating pattern is the unit cell of the structure. The unit cell reflects the symmetry and structure of the entire crystal, built up by repetitive translation of the unit cell along its principal axes; the translation vectors define the nodes of the Bravais lattice. The lengths of the principal axes, or edges, of the unit cell and the angles between them are the lattice constants called lattice parameters or cell parameters; the symmetry properties of the crystal are described by the concept of space groups. All possible symmetric arrangements of particles in three-dimensional space may be described by the 230 space groups.
The crystal structure and symmetry play a critical role in determining many physical properties, such as cleavage, electronic band structure, optical transparency. Crystal structure is described in terms of the geometry of arrangement of particles in the unit cell; the unit cell is defined as the smallest repeating unit having the full symmetry of the crystal structure. The geometry of the unit cell is defined as a parallelepiped, providing six lattice parameters taken as the lengths of the cell edges and the angles between them; the positions of particles inside the unit cell are described by the fractional coordinates along the cell edges, measured from a reference point. It is only necessary to report the coordinates of a smallest asymmetric subset of particles; this group of particles may be chosen so that it occupies the smallest physical space, which means that not all particles need to be physically located inside the boundaries given by the lattice parameters. All other particles of the unit cell are generated by the symmetry operations that characterize the symmetry of the unit cell.
The collection of symmetry operations of the unit cell is expressed formally as the space group of the crystal structure. Vectors and planes in a crystal lattice are described by the three-value Miller index notation; this syntax uses the indices ℓ, m, n as directional orthogonal parameters, which are separated by 90°. By definition, the syntax denotes a plane that intercepts the three points a1/ℓ, a2/m, a3/n, or some multiple thereof; that is, the Miller indices are proportional to the inverses of the intercepts of the plane with the unit cell. If one or more of the indices is zero, it means. A plane containing a coordinate axis is translated so that it no longer contains that axis before its Miller indices are determined; the Miller indices for a plane are integers with no common factors. Negative indices are indicated with horizontal bars, as in. In an orthogonal coordinate system for a cubic cell, the Miller indices of a plane are the Cartesian components of a vector normal to the plane. Considering only planes intersecting one or more lattice points, the distance d between adjacent lattice planes is related to the reciprocal lattice vector orthogonal to the planes by the formula d = 2 π | g ℓ m n | The crystallographic directions are geometric lines linking nodes of a crystal.
The crystallographic planes are geometric planes linking nodes. Some directions and planes have a higher density of nodes; these high density planes have an influence on the behavior of the crystal as follows: Optical properties: Refractive index is directly related to density. Adsorption and reactivity: Physical adsorption and chemical reactions occur at or near surface atoms or molecules; these phenomena are thus sensitive to the density of nodes. Surface tension: The condensation of a material means that the atoms, ions or molecules are more stable if they are surrounded by other similar species; the surface tension of an interface thus varies according to the density on the surface. Microstructural defects: Pores and crystallites tend to have straight grain boundaries following higher density planes. Cleavage: This occurs preferentially parallel to higher density planes. Plastic deformation: Dislocation glide occurs preferentially parallel to higher density planes; the perturbation carried by the dislocation is along a dense direction.
The shift of one node in a more dense direction requires a lesser distortion of the crystal lattice. Some directions and planes are defined by symmetry of the crystal system. In monoclinic, rhombohedral and trigonal/hexagonal systems there is one unique axis which has higher rotational symmetry than the other two axes; the basal plane is the plane perpendicular to the principal axis in these crystal systems. For triclinic and cubic crystal systems the axis designation is arbitrary and there is no principal axis. For the special case of simple cubic crystals, the lattice vectors are orthogonal and of equal length. So, in this common case, the Miller indices and both denote normals/directions in Cartesian coordinates. For cubic crystals with lattice constant a, the spacing d between adjacent l
Space group
In mathematics and chemistry, a space group is the symmetry group of a configuration in space in three dimensions. In three dimensions, there are 230 if chiral copies are considered distinct. Space groups are studied in dimensions other than 3 where they are sometimes called Bieberbach groups, are discrete cocompact groups of isometries of an oriented Euclidean space. In crystallography, space groups are called the crystallographic or Fedorov groups, represent a description of the symmetry of the crystal. A definitive source regarding 3-dimensional space groups is the International Tables for Crystallography. Space groups in 2 dimensions are the 17 wallpaper groups which have been known for several centuries, though the proof that the list was complete was only given in 1891, after the much more difficult classification of space groups had been completed. In 1879 Leonhard Sohncke listed the 65 space groups. More he listed 66 groups, but Fedorov and Schönflies both noticed that two of them were the same.
The space groups in three dimensions were first enumerated by Fedorov, shortly afterwards were independently enumerated by Schönflies. The correct list of 230 space groups was found by 1892 during correspondence between Fedorov and Schönflies. Barlow enumerated the groups with a different method, but omitted four groups though he had the correct list of 230 groups from Fedorov and Schönflies. Burckhardt describes the history of the discovery of the space groups in detail; the space groups in three dimensions are made from combinations of the 32 crystallographic point groups with the 14 Bravais lattices, each of the latter belonging to one of 7 lattice systems. This results in a space group being some combination of the translational symmetry of a unit cell including lattice centering, the point group symmetry operations of reflection and improper rotation, the screw axis and glide plane symmetry operations; the combination of all these symmetry operations results in a total of 230 different space groups describing all possible crystal symmetries.
The elements of the space group fixing a point of space are the identity element, reflections and improper rotations. The translations form a normal abelian subgroup of rank 3, called the Bravais lattice. There are 14 possible types of Bravais lattice; the quotient of the space group by the Bravais lattice is a finite group, one of the 32 possible point groups. Translation is defined as the face moves from one point to another point. A glide plane is a reflection in a plane, followed by a translation parallel with that plane; this is noted depending on which axis the glide is along. There is the n glide, a glide along the half of a diagonal of a face, the d glide, a fourth of the way along either a face or space diagonal of the unit cell; the latter is called the diamond glide plane. In 17 space groups, due to the centering of the cell, the glides occur in two perpendicular directions i.e. the same glide plane can be called b or c, a or b, a or c. For example, group Abm2 could be called Acm2, group Ccca could be called Cccb.
In 1992, it was suggested to use symbol e for such planes. The symbols for five space groups have been modified: A screw axis is a rotation about an axis, followed by a translation along the direction of the axis; these are noted by a number, n, to describe the degree of rotation, where the number is how many operations must be applied to complete a full rotation. The degree of translation is added as a subscript showing how far along the axis the translation is, as a portion of the parallel lattice vector. So, 21 is a twofold rotation followed by a translation of 1/2 of the lattice vector; the general formula for the action of an element of a space group is y = M.x + D where M is its matrix, D is its vector, where the element transforms point x into point y. In general, D = D + D, where D is a unique function of M, zero for M being the identity; the matrices M form a point group, a basis of the space group. The lattice dimension can be less than the overall dimension, resulting in a "subperiodic" space group.
For:: One-dimensional line groups: Two-dimensional line groups: frieze groups: Wallpaper groups: Three-dimensional line groups. Some of these methods can assign several different names to the same space group, so altogether there are many thousands of different names. Number; the International Union of Crystallography publishes tables of all space group types, assigns each a unique number from 1 to 230. The numbering is arbitrary, except that groups with the same crystal system or point group are given consecutive numbers. International symbol or Hermann–Mauguin notation; the Hermann–Mauguin notation describes the lattice and some generators for the group. It has a shortened form called the international short symbol, the one most used in crystallography
Transparency and translucency
In the field of optics, transparency is the physical property of allowing light to pass through the material without being scattered. On a macroscopic scale, the photons can be said to follow Snell's Law. Translucency is a superset of transparency: it allows light to pass through, but does not follow Snell's law. In other words, a translucent medium allows the transport of light while a transparent medium not only allows the transport of light but allows for image formation. Transparent materials appear clear, with the overall appearance of one color, or any combination leading up to a brilliant spectrum of every color; the opposite property of translucency is opacity. When light encounters a material, it can interact with it in several different ways; these interactions depend on the nature of the material. Photons interact with an object by some combination of reflection and transmission; some materials, such as plate glass and clean water, transmit much of the light that falls on them and reflect little of it.
Many liquids and aqueous solutions are transparent. Absence of structural defects and molecular structure of most liquids are responsible for excellent optical transmission. Materials which do not transmit light are called opaque. Many such substances have a chemical composition which includes what are referred to as absorption centers. Many substances are selective in their absorption of white light frequencies, they absorb certain portions of the visible spectrum while reflecting others. The frequencies of the spectrum which are not absorbed are either reflected or transmitted for our physical observation; this is. The attenuation of light of all frequencies and wavelengths is due to the combined mechanisms of absorption and scattering. Transparency can provide perfect camouflage for animals able to achieve it; this is easier in turbid seawater than in good illumination. Many marine animals such as jellyfish are transparent. With regard to the absorption of light, primary material considerations include: At the electronic level, absorption in the ultraviolet and visible portions of the spectrum depends on whether the electron orbitals are spaced such that they can absorb a quantum of light of a specific frequency, does not violate selection rules.
For example, in most glasses, electrons have no available energy levels above them in range of that associated with visible light, or if they do, they violate selection rules, meaning there is no appreciable absorption in pure glasses, making them ideal transparent materials for windows in buildings. At the atomic or molecular level, physical absorption in the infrared portion of the spectrum depends on the frequencies of atomic or molecular vibrations or chemical bonds, on selection rules. Nitrogen and oxygen are not greenhouse gases because there is no absorption, but because there is no molecular dipole moment. With regard to the scattering of light, the most critical factor is the length scale of any or all of these structural features relative to the wavelength of the light being scattered. Primary material considerations include: Crystalline structure: whether or not the atoms or molecules exhibit the'long-range order' evidenced in crystalline solids. Glassy structure: scattering centers include fluctuations in density or composition.
Microstructure: scattering centers include internal surfaces such as grain boundaries, crystallographic defects and microscopic pores. Organic materials: scattering centers include fiber and cell structures and boundaries. Diffuse reflection - Generally, when light strikes the surface of a solid material, it bounces off in all directions due to multiple reflections by the microscopic irregularities inside the material, by its surface, if it is rough. Diffuse reflection is characterized by omni-directional reflection angles. Most of the objects visible to the naked eye are identified via diffuse reflection. Another term used for this type of reflection is "light scattering". Light scattering from the surfaces of objects is our primary mechanism of physical observation. Light scattering in liquids and solids depends on the wavelength of the light being scattered. Limits to spatial scales of visibility therefore arise, depending on the frequency of the light wave and the physical dimension of the scattering center.
Visible light has a wavelength scale on the order of a half a micrometer. Scattering centers as small. Optical transparency in polycrystalline materials is limited by the amount of light, scattered by their microstructural features. Light scattering depends on the wavelength of the light. Limits to spatial scales of visibility therefore arise, depending on the frequency of the light wave and the physical dimension of the scattering center. For example, since visible light has a wavelength scale on the order of a micrometer, scattering centers will have dimensions on a similar spatial scale. Primary scattering centers in polycrystalline materi
Diamond
Diamond is a solid form of the element carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal structure called diamond cubic. At room temperature and pressure, another solid form of carbon known as graphite is the chemically stable form, but diamond never converts to it. Diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any natural material, properties that are utilized in major industrial applications such as cutting and polishing tools, they are the reason that diamond anvil cells can subject materials to pressures found deep in the Earth. Because the arrangement of atoms in diamond is rigid, few types of impurity can contaminate it. Small numbers of defects or impurities color diamond blue, brown, purple, orange or red. Diamond has high optical dispersion. Most natural diamonds have ages between 1 billion and 3.5 billion years. Most were formed at depths between 150 and 250 kilometers in the Earth's mantle, although a few have come from as deep as 800 kilometers. Under high pressure and temperature, carbon-containing fluids dissolved minerals and replaced them with diamonds.
Much more they were carried to the surface in volcanic eruptions and deposited in igneous rocks known as kimberlites and lamproites. Synthetic diamonds can be grown from high-purity carbon under high pressures and temperatures or from hydrocarbon gas by chemical vapor deposition. Imitation diamonds can be made out of materials such as cubic zirconia and silicon carbide. Natural and imitation diamonds are most distinguished using optical techniques or thermal conductivity measurements. Diamond is a solid form of pure carbon with its atoms arranged in a crystal. Solid carbon comes in different forms known as allotropes depending on the type of chemical bond; the two most common allotropes of pure carbon are graphite. In graphite the bonds are sp2 orbital hybrids and the atoms form in planes with each bound to three nearest neighbors 120 degrees apart. In diamond they are sp3 and the atoms form tetrahedra with each bound to four nearest neighbors. Tetrahedra are rigid, the bonds are strong, of all known substances diamond has the greatest number of atoms per unit volume, why it is both the hardest and the least compressible.
It has a high density, ranging from 3150 to 3530 kilograms per cubic metre in natural diamonds and 3520 kg/m³ in pure diamond. In graphite, the bonds between nearest neighbors are stronger but the bonds between planes are weak, so the planes can slip past each other. Thus, graphite is much softer than diamond. However, the stronger bonds make graphite less flammable. Diamonds have been adapted for many uses because of the material's exceptional physical characteristics. Most notable are its extreme hardness and thermal conductivity, as well as wide bandgap and high optical dispersion. Diamond's ignition point is 720 -- 800 °C in 850 -- 1000 °C in air; the equilibrium pressure and temperature conditions for a transition between graphite and diamond is well established theoretically and experimentally. The pressure changes linearly between 1.7 GPa at 0 K and 12 GPa at 5000 K. However, the phases have a wide region about this line where they can coexist. At normal temperature and pressure, 20 °C and 1 standard atmosphere, the stable phase of carbon is graphite, but diamond is metastable and its rate of conversion to graphite is negligible.
However, at temperatures above about 4500 K, diamond converts to graphite. Rapid conversion of graphite to diamond requires pressures well above the equilibrium line: at 2000 K, a pressure of 35 GPa is needed. Above the triple point, the melting point of diamond increases with increasing pressure. At high pressures and germanium have a BC8 body-centered cubic crystal structure, a similar structure is predicted for carbon at high pressures. At 0 K, the transition is predicted to occur at 1100 GPa; the most common crystal structure of diamond is called diamond cubic. It is formed of unit cells stacked together. Although there are 18 atoms in the figure, each corner atom is shared by eight unit cells and each atom in the center of a face is shared by two, so there are a total of eight atoms per unit cell; each side of the unit cell is 3.57 angstroms in length. A diamond cubic lattice can be thought of as two interpenetrating face-centered cubic lattices with one displaced by 1/4 of the diagonal along a cubic cell, or as one lattice with two atoms associated with each lattice point.
Looked at from a <1 1 1> crystallographic direction, it is formed of layers stacked in a repeating ABCABC... pattern. Diamonds can form an ABAB... structure, known as hexagonal diamond or lonsdaleite, but this is far less common and is formed under different conditions from cubic carbon. Diamonds occur most as euhedral or rounded octahedra and twinned octahedra known as macles; as diamond's crystal structure has a cubic arrangement of the atoms, they have many facets that belong to a cube, rhombicosidodecahedron, tetrakis hexahedron or disdyakis dodecahedron. The crystals can be elongated. Diamonds are found coated in nyf, an opaque gum-like skin; some diamonds have opaque fibers. They are referred to as opaque if the fibers
Crystallography
Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids. The word "crystallography" derives from the Greek words crystallon "cold drop, frozen drop", with its meaning extending to all solids with some degree of transparency, graphein "to write". In July 2012, the United Nations recognised the importance of the science of crystallography by proclaiming that 2014 would be the International Year of Crystallography. X-ray crystallography is used to determine the structure of large biomolecules such as proteins. Before the development of X-ray diffraction crystallography, the study of crystals was based on physical measurements of their geometry; this involved measuring the angles of crystal faces relative to each other and to theoretical reference axes, establishing the symmetry of the crystal in question. This physical measurement is carried out using a goniometer; the position in 3D space of each crystal face is plotted on a stereographic net such as a Wulff net or Lambert net.
The pole to each face is plotted on the net. Each point is labelled with its Miller index; the final plot allows the symmetry of the crystal to be established. Crystallographic methods now depend on analysis of the diffraction patterns of a sample targeted by a beam of some type. X-rays are most used; this is facilitated by the wave properties of the particles. Crystallographers explicitly state the type of beam used, as in the terms X-ray crystallography, neutron diffraction and electron diffraction; these three types of radiation interact with the specimen in different ways. X-rays interact with the spatial distribution of electrons in the sample. Electrons are charged particles and therefore interact with the total charge distribution of both the atomic nuclei and the electrons of the sample. Neutrons are scattered by the atomic nuclei through the strong nuclear forces, but in addition, the magnetic moment of neutrons is non-zero, they are therefore scattered by magnetic fields. When neutrons are scattered from hydrogen-containing materials, they produce diffraction patterns with high noise levels.
However, the material can sometimes be treated to substitute deuterium for hydrogen. Because of these different forms of interaction, the three types of radiation are suitable for different crystallographic studies. An image of a small object is made using a lens to focus the beam, similar to a lens in a microscope. However, the wavelength of visible light is three orders of magnitude longer than the length of typical atomic bonds and atoms themselves. Therefore, obtaining information about the spatial arrangement of atoms requires the use of radiation with shorter wavelengths, such as X-ray or neutron beams. Employing shorter wavelengths implied abandoning microscopy and true imaging, because there exists no material from which a lens capable of focusing this type of radiation can be created. Scientists have had some success focusing X-rays with microscopic Fresnel zone plates made from gold, by critical-angle reflection inside long tapered capillaries. Diffracted X-ray or neutron beams cannot be focused to produce images, so the sample structure must be reconstructed from the diffraction pattern.
Sharp features in the diffraction pattern arise from periodic, repeating structure in the sample, which are very strong due to coherent reflection of many photons from many spaced instances of similar structure, while non-periodic components of the structure result in diffuse diffraction features - areas with a higher density and repetition of atom order tend to reflect more light toward one point in space when compared to those areas with fewer atoms and less repetition. Because of their ordered and repetitive structure, crystals give diffraction patterns of sharp Bragg reflection spots, are ideal for analyzing the structure of solids. Coordinates in square brackets such as denote a direction vector. Coordinates in angle brackets or chevrons such as <100> denote a family of directions which are related by symmetry operations. In the cubic crystal system for example, <100> would mean, or the negative of any of those directions. Miller indices in parentheses such as denote a plane of the crystal structure, regular repetitions of that plane with a particular spacing.
In the cubic system, the normal to the plane is the direction, but in lower-symmetry cases, the normal to is not parallel to. Indices in curly brackets or braces such as denote a family of planes and their normals which are equivalent in cubic materials due to symmetry operations, much the way angle brackets denote a family of directions. In non-cubic materials, <hkl> is not perpendicular to. Some materials that have been analyzed crystallographically, such as proteins, do not occur as crystals; such molecules are placed in solution and allowed to crystallize through vapor diffusion. A drop of solution containing the molecule and precipitants is sealed in a container with a reservoir containing a hygroscopic solution. Water in the drop diffuses to the reservoir increasing the concentration and allowing a crystal to form. If the concentration were to rise more the molecule would precipitate out of solution, resulting in disorderly granules rather than an orderly and hence usable crystal. Once a crystal is obtained, data can be collected using a beam of radiation.
Although many universities that engage in crystallographic research have their own X-ray producing equipment, synchrotrons are used as X-ray sources, bec
Mohs scale of mineral hardness
The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is a qualitative ordinal scale characterizing scratch resistance of various minerals through the ability of harder material to scratch softer material. Created in 1812 by German geologist and mineralogist Friedrich Mohs, it is one of several definitions of hardness in materials science, some of which are more quantitative; the method of comparing hardness by observing which minerals can scratch others is of great antiquity, having been mentioned by Theophrastus in his treatise On Stones, c. 300 BC, followed by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia, c. 77 AD. While facilitating the identification of minerals in the field, the Mohs scale does not show how well hard materials perform in an industrial setting. Despite its lack of precision, the Mohs scale is relevant for field geologists, who use the scale to identify minerals using scratch kits; the Mohs scale hardness of minerals can be found in reference sheets. Mohs hardness is useful in milling, it allows assessment of.
The scale is used at electronic manufacturers for testing the resilience of flat panel display components. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the ability of one natural sample of mineral to scratch another mineral visibly; the samples of matter used by Mohs are all different minerals. Minerals are chemically pure solids found in nature. Rocks are made up of one or more minerals; as the hardest known occurring substance when the scale was designed, diamonds are at the top of the scale. The hardness of a material is measured against the scale by finding the hardest material that the given material can scratch, or the softest material that can scratch the given material. For example, if some material is scratched by apatite but not by fluorite, its hardness on the Mohs scale would fall between 4 and 5. "Scratching" a material for the purposes of the Mohs scale means creating non-elastic dislocations visible to the naked eye. Materials that are lower on the Mohs scale can create microscopic, non-elastic dislocations on materials that have a higher Mohs number.
While these microscopic dislocations are permanent and sometimes detrimental to the harder material's structural integrity, they are not considered "scratches" for the determination of a Mohs scale number. The Mohs scale is a purely ordinal scale. For example, corundum is twice as hard as topaz; the table below shows the comparison with the absolute hardness measured by a sclerometer, with pictorial examples. On the Mohs scale, a streak plate has a hardness of 7.0. Using these ordinary materials of known hardness can be a simple way to approximate the position of a mineral on the scale; the table below incorporates additional substances that may fall between levels: Comparison between hardness and hardness: Mohs hardness of elements is taken from G. V. Samsonov in Handbook of the physicochemical properties of the elements, IFI-Plenum, New York, USA, 1968. Cordua, William S. "The Hardness of Minerals and Rocks". Lapidary Digest, c. 1990
Allotropes of carbon
Carbon is capable of forming many allotropes due to its valency. Well-known forms of carbon include graphite. In recent decades many more allotropes, or forms of carbon, have been discovered and researched including ball shapes such as buckminsterfullerene and sheets such as graphene. Larger scale structures of carbon include nanotubes and nanoribbons. Other unusual forms of carbon exist at high temperatures or extreme pressures. Around 500 hypothetical 3-periodic allotropes of carbon are known at the present time according to SACADA database. Diamond is a well known allotrope of carbon; the hardness and high dispersion of light of diamond make it useful for both industrial applications and jewelry. Diamond is the hardest known natural mineral; this makes it an excellent abrasive and makes it hold polish and luster well. No known occurring substance can cut a diamond, except another diamond; the market for industrial-grade diamonds operates much differently from its gem-grade counterpart. Industrial diamonds are valued for their hardness and heat conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamond, including clarity and color irrelevant.
This helps explain why 80% of mined diamonds are unsuitable for use as gemstones and known as bort, are destined for industrial use. In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrial applications immediately after their invention in the 1950s; the dominant industrial use of diamond is cutting, drilling and polishing. Most uses of diamonds in these technologies do not require large diamonds. Diamonds are embedded in drill tips or saw blades, or ground into a powder for use in grinding and polishing applications. Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure experiments, high-performance bearings, limited use in specialized windows. With the continuing advances being made in the production of synthetic diamond, future applications are beginning to become feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a semiconductor suitable to build microchips from, or the use of diamond as a heat sink in electronics. Significant research efforts in Japan and the United States are under way to capitalize on the potential offered by diamond's unique material properties, combined with increased quality and quantity of supply starting to become available from synthetic diamond manufacturers.
Each carbon atom in a diamond is covalently bonded to four other carbons in a tetrahedron. These tetrahedrons together form a 3-dimensional network of six-membered carbon rings, in the chair conformation, allowing for zero bond angle strain; this stable network of covalent bonds and hexagonal rings is the reason. Although graphite is the most stable allotrope of carbon under standard laboratory conditions, a recent computational study indicated that under idealized conditions, diamond is the most stable allotrope by 1.1 kJ/mol compared to graphite. Graphite, named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1789, from the Greek γράφειν is one of the most common allotropes of carbon. Unlike diamond, graphite is an electrical conductor. Thus, it can be used for instance, electrical arc lamp electrodes. Under standard conditions, graphite is the most stable form of carbon. Therefore, it is used in thermochemistry as the standard state for defining the heat of formation of carbon compounds. Graphite conducts electricity, due to delocalization of the pi bond electrons above and below the planes of the carbon atoms.
These electrons are free to move. However, the electricity is only conducted along the plane of the layers. In diamond, all four outer electrons of each carbon atom are'localized' between the atoms in covalent bonding; the movement of electrons is restricted and diamond does not conduct an electric current. In graphite, each carbon atom uses only 3 of its 4 outer energy level electrons in covalently bonding to three other carbon atoms in a plane; each carbon atom contributes one electron to a delocalized system of electrons, a part of the chemical bonding. The delocalized electrons are free to move throughout the plane. For this reason, graphite conducts electricity along the planes of carbon atoms, but does not conduct in a direction at right angles to the plane. Graphite powder is used as a dry lubricant. Although it might be thought that this industrially important property is due to the loose interlamellar coupling between sheets in the structure, in fact in a vacuum environment, graphite was found to be a poor lubricant.
This fact led to the discovery that graphite's lubricity is due to adsorbed air and water between the layers, unlike other layered dry lubricants such as molybdenum disulfide. Recent studies suggest that an effect called superlubricity can account for this effect; when a large number of crystallographic defects bind these planes together, graphite loses its lubrication properties and becomes what is known as pyrolytic carbon, a useful material in blood-contacting implants such as prosthetic heart valves. Graphite is the most stable allotrope of carbon. Contrary to popular belief, high-purity graphit
