1.
Gastonia, North Carolina
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Gastonia is the largest city and county seat of Gaston County, North Carolina, United States. It is also the second largest satellite city of the Charlotte area, the population was 71,741 at the 2010 Census. Gastonia is the 13th largest city in North Carolina and it is part of the Charlotte metropolitan area, officially designated the Charlotte Metropolitan Statistical Area. Gastonia has experienced growth, with a population increase between 2000 and 2010 of nearly 8. 2%, according to the U. S. Census Bureau. Gastonia is named for William Gaston, member of the North Carolina Supreme Court, wilson House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Loray Mill strike of 1929 in Gastonia, was one of the most notable strikes in the history of the United States. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 50.7 square miles, of which 50.5 square miles is land and 0.23 square miles. Gastonia occupies 14% of the area of Gaston County. As of 2010, there were 71,741 people,27,770 households, the population density was 1,420.6 people per square mile. There were 31,238 housing units at a density of 618.6 per square mile. The racial composition of the city was 63. 0% White,27. 8% Black or African American,1. 3% Asian,0. 4% Native American,5. 2% some other race, and 2. 2% two or more races. 9. 6% of the population were Hispanic or Latino American of any race,27. 1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9. 7% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52, and the family size was 3.05. In the city, the population was out with 24. 7% under the age of 18,8. 9% from 18 to 24,26. 5% from 25 to 44,26. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38.0 years, for every 100 females there were 89.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.6 males, in 2011 the estimated median income for a household in the city was $36,881, and the median income for a family was $44,576. Male full-time workers had an income of $38,151 versus $29,590 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,277,20. 9% of the population and 18. 3% of families were below the poverty line
2.
North Carolina
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North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City. The state has a range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell. The climate of the plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a highland climate. North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, the United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region. So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, the most famous of these is the Queen Annes Revenge, which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the states most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet in the west, the western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, the Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet, the highest point east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has 17 major river basins, the five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins,11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the states border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, the climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, the coastal plain averages around 1 inch of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all. North Carolina experiences severe weather in summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain
3.
Strike action
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Strike action, also called labor strike, labour strike, or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances, Strikes became common during the Industrial Revolution, when mass labor became important in factories and mines. In most countries, strike actions were made illegal, as factory owners had far more power than workers. Most Western countries partially legalized striking in the late 19th or early 20th centuries, Strikes are sometimes used to pressure governments to change policies. Notable examples are the 1980 Gdańsk Shipyard or 1981 Warning Strike, official publications have typically used the more neutral words work stoppage or industrial dispute. The first historically certain account of action was towards the end of the 20th dynasty. The artisans of the Royal Necropolis at Deir el-Medina walked off their jobs because they had not been paid, the Egyptian authorities raised the wages. An early predecessor of the strike may have been the secessio plebis in ancient Rome. In the Outline Of History, H. G. Wells characterized this event as the strike of the plebeians, the plebeians seem to have invented the strike. The strike action became a feature of the political landscape with the onset of the Industrial Revolution. For the first time in history, large numbers of people were members of the working class, they lived in cities. By the 1830s, when the Chartist movement was at its peak, in 1842 the demands for fairer wages and conditions across many different industries finally exploded into the first modern general strike. Instead of being a spontaneous uprising of the masses, the strike was politically motivated and was driven by an agenda to win concessions. Probably as much as half of the industrial work force were on strike at its peak – over 500,000 men. The local leadership marshalled a growing working class tradition to organize their followers to mount an articulate challenge to the capitalist. Friedrich Engels, an observer in London at the time, wrote, by its numbers, this class has become the most powerful in England, the English proletarian is only just becoming aware of his power, and the fruits of this awareness were the disturbances of last summer. Karl Marx has condemned the theory of Proudhon criminalizing strike action in his work The Poverty of Philosophy, in 1937 there were 4,740 strikes in the United States. This was the greatest strike wave in American labor history, the number of major strikes and lockouts in the U. S. fell by 97% from 381 in 1970 to 187 in 1980 to only 11 in 2010
4.
Labor history of the United States
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The labor history of the United States describes the history of organized labor, as well as more general history of working people, in the United States. Unions have been important components of the Democratic Party, but that began in the 1930s, however, historians have long debated why no Labor Party emerged in the United States, in contrast to Western Europe. As commentator E. J. Dionne has noted, the movement has traditionally espoused a set of values—solidarity being the most important. Dionne notes that these values are increasingly foreign to American culture, in most industrial nations the labor movement sponsored its own political parties, with the U. S. as a conspicuous exception. Both major American parties vied for votes, with the Democrats usually much more successful. Labor unions became an element of the New Deal Coalition that dominated national politics from the 1930s into the mid-1960s during the Fifth Party System. Liberal Republicans who supported unions in the Northeast lost power after 1964, the history of organized labor has been a specialty of scholars since the 1890s, and has produced a large amount of scholarly literature focused on the structure of organized unions. In the 1960s, as social history gained popularity, a new emphasis emerged on the history of workers, including unorganized workers and this is called the new labor history. Much scholarship has attempted to bring the social history perspectives into the study of organized labor, the history of labor disputes in America substantially precedes the Revolutionary period. In 1636, for instance, there was a strike on an island off the coast of Maine. However, most instances of labor unrest during the period were temporary and isolated. Little legal recourse was available to those injured by the unrest, the only known case of criminal prosecution of workers in the colonial era occurred as a result of a carpenters strike in Savannah, Georgia, in 1746. By the beginning of the 19th century, after the revolution, the career path for most artisans still involved apprenticeship under a master, followed by moving into independent production. However, over the course of the Industrial Revolution, this rapidly changed. For instance, in Boston in 1790, the vast majority of the 1,300 artisans in the city described themselves as master workman, by 1815, journeymen workers without independent means of production had displaced these masters as the majority. By that time journeymen also outnumbered masters in New York City and this shift occurred as a result of large-scale transatlantic and rural-urban migration. Migration into the cities created a larger population of potential laborers. These conditions led to the first labor combination cases in America, the cases overwhelmingly resulted in convictions
5.
Foothills
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Foothills are geographically defined as gradual increase in elevation at the base of a mountain range, higher hill range or an upland area. They are a zone between plains and low relief hills to the adjacent topographically higher mountains, hills, and uplands. Foothills primarily border mountains, especially those which are reached through low ridges that increase in size closer and closer to the mountain, generally the area from Ferntree Gully/Boronia/The Basin through to Belgrave. Another word for a region is piedmont, derived from foot of the mount in Romance languages. The Piedmont region of Italy lies in the foothills of the Alps and they are also known as submontane zones, especially when referring to montane ecosystems
6.
Gaston County, North Carolina
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Gaston County is a county in the U. S. state of North Carolina. As of the 2010 census, the population was 206,086, Dallas served as the original county seat from 1846 until 1911. Gaston County is included in the Charlotte-Concord-Gastonia, NC-SC Metropolitan Statistical Area and it is the third largest county in the metropolitan area, behind Mecklenburg County and York County, SC. It is located in the southern Piedmont region, of North Carolinas one hundred counties, Gaston County ranks 74th in size, consisting of approximately 364.5 square miles, and is seventh in population. The county has fifteen incorporated towns, the earliest European settlers of Gaston County were principally Scots Irish, Pennsylvania Dutch, and English. In the 1750s, Dutch settler James Kuykendall and others constructed the Fort at the Point at the junction of the Catawba, the fort was built because of ongoing hostilities with the Cherokee, but it was apparently never attacked. Most early farms were small, cultivated primarily by White yeoman farmers of English ancestry, North Carolinas colonial policy restricted the size of land grants, and in Gaston County they tended to be about 400 acres each. One of the earliest grants in the area was given to Captain Samuel Cobrin, commander of a militia company. Gaston County was founded in 1846 and it is named for William Gaston, member of the state supreme court. Between 1845 and 1848, Gaston County experienced an industrial boom, during this three-year period, the first three cotton mills in the County were established. Some authorities say that the first one was established by Thomas R. Tate on Mountain Island, near the present site of Duke Energys Mountain Island Dam, other sources say that the first mill was established by the Linebergers and others on the South Fork River near McAdenville. Most sources agree that among the first three mills in operation in the County was the Stowesville Mill, founded by Jasper Stowe, Gaston County still leads all other counties in the country both in the number of spindles in operation and in the number of bales of cotton consumed. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 364 square miles. It belongs to the southern Piedmont physiographic province, most of Gaston County is in the drainage basin of the Catawba River, except for small areas along the western edge of the county which are in the basin of the Broad River. Both the Catawba and Broad Rivers are in the greater Santee River basin, the Catawba forms the eastern border of the county and much of the central part of the county is in the drainage basin of its right tributary, the South Fork Catawba River. The highest point in Gaston County is Kings Pinnacle, a monadnock which sharply rises over 800 feet above the city of Gastonia. Kings Pinnacle rises 1,690 feet above sea level, and is part of Crowders Mountain State Park, the population density was 534 people per square mile. There were 78,842 housing units at a density of 221 per square mile
7.
Manufacturing
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Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials are modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems, in a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In mixed market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation, modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required the production and integration of a products components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead, the manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Sony, Huawei, Lenovo, Toyota, Samsung, in its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. In much of the world, the guild system protected the privileges. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm, manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs, the clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks and these costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally, developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a role in the negotiation of worker rights. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world, tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing
8.
Sharecropping
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Sharecropping is a form of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crops produced on their portion of land. Sharecropping has a history and there are a wide range of different situations. Some are governed by tradition, and others by law, legal contract systems such as the Italian mezzadria, the French métayage, the Spanish mediero, or the Islamic system of muqasat, occur widely. Sharecropping has benefits and costs for both the owners and the tenant and it encourages the cropper to remain on the land, solving the harvest rush problem. At the same time, since the cropper pays in shares of his harvest, owners and croppers share the risks of harvests being large or small and of prices being high or low. Because tenants benefit from larger harvests, they have an incentive to work harder, however, by dividing the working force into many individual workers, large farms no longer benefit from economies of scale. On the whole, sharecropping was not as efficient as the gang agriculture of slave plantations. In the U. S. tenant farmers own their own mules and equipment, and sharecroppers do not, Sharecropping occurred extensively in Scotland, Ireland and colonial Africa, and came into wide use in the Southern United States during the Reconstruction era. The South had been devastated by war - planters had ample land, at the same time, most of the former slaves had labor but no money and no land - they rejected the kind of gang labor that typified slavery. A solution was the system focused on cotton, which was the only crop that could generate cash for the croppers, landowners, merchants. Poor white farmers, who previously had done little cotton farming, needed cash as well, jeffery Paige made a distinction between centralized sharecropping found on cotton plantations and the decentralized sharecropping with other crops. The former is characterized by political conservatism and long lasting tenure, tenants are tied to the landlord through the plantation store. Their work is heavily supervised as slave plantations were and this form of tenure tends to be replaced by wage slavery as markets penetrate. Decentralized sharecropping involves virtually no role for the landlord, plots are scattered, peasants manage their own labor, leases are very short which leads to peasant radicalism. This form of tenure becomes more common when markets penetrate, use of the sharecropper system has also been identified in England. It is still used in many poor areas today, notably in Pakistan. It has therefore been seen as an issue of reform in contexts such as the Mexican Revolution. Sharecropping agreements can however be made fairly, as a form of tenant farming or sharefarming that has a variable rental payment, there are three different types of contracts
9.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
10.
Communism
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Communism includes a variety of schools of thought, which broadly include Marxism, anarchism, and the political ideologies grouped around both. The primary element which will enable this transformation, according to analysis, is the social ownership of the means of production. Likewise, some communists defend both theory and practice, while others argue that historical practice diverged from communist principles to a greater or lesser degree, according to Richard Pipes, the idea of a classless, egalitarian society first emerged in Ancient Greece. At one time or another, various small communist communities existed, in the medieval Christian church, for example, some monastic communities and religious orders shared their land and their other property. Communist thought has also traced back to the works of the 16th-century English writer Thomas More. In his treatise Utopia, More portrayed a society based on ownership of property. In the 17th century, communist thought surfaced again in England, criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Age of Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such thinkers as Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Later, following the upheaval of the French Revolution, communism emerged as a political doctrine, in the early 19th century, Various social reformers founded communities based on common ownership. But unlike many previous communist communities, they replaced the emphasis with a rational. Notable among them were Robert Owen, who founded New Harmony in Indiana, in its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe. As the Industrial Revolution advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for the misery of the new class of urban factory workers who labored under often-hazardous conditions. Foremost among these critics were Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels, in 1848, Marx and Engels offered a new definition of communism and popularized the term in their famous pamphlet The Communist Manifesto. The 1917 October Revolution in Russia set the conditions for the rise to power of Lenins Bolsheviks. The revolution transferred power to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, in which the Bolsheviks had a majority, the event generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx predicted that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development, Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate peasantry and a minority of industrial workers. Marx had explicitly stated that Russia might be able to skip the stage of bourgeois rule, the moderate Mensheviks opposed Lenins Bolshevik plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed. The Great Purge of 1937–1938 was Stalins attempt to destroy any possible opposition within the Communist Party and its leading role in the Second World War saw the emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower, with strong influence over Eastern Europe and parts of Asia. The European and Japanese empires were shattered and Communist parties played a role in many independence movements
11.
Labor union
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The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour contracts with employers. The most common purpose of these associations or unions is maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment and this may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. Unions may organize a section of skilled workers, a cross-section of workers from various trades. The agreements negotiated by a union are binding on the rank and file members, originating in Great Britain, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions may be composed of workers, professionals, past workers, students. Trade union density, or the percentage of workers belonging to a union, is highest in the Nordic countries. The trade unions aim at nothing less than to prevent the reduction of wages below the level that is maintained in the various branches of industry. That is to say, they wish to prevent the price of labour-power from falling below its value, yet historian R. A. the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all labouring men and women for a different order of things. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners. In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote, We rarely hear, it has said, of the combination of masters. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate When workers combine, masters. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, there were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings, Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions, although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in cities such as London. Sympathy for the plight of the workers brought repeal of the acts in 1824, by the 1810s, the first labour organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, the latter name was to hide the organizations real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile related unions, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others
12.
Trade Union Unity League
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The Trade Union Unity League was an industrial union umbrella organization under the Communist Party of the United States between 1929 and 1935. The group was an American affiliate of the Red International of Labor Unions, TUUL unions aimed to organize semi-skilled and unskilled workers, many whom had expelled from the American Federation of Labor. According to the TUUL, the AFL was “an instrument of the capitalists for the exploitation of the workers. ”Thus, the TUUL was formed as an organization in opposition to the AFL. ”The Trade Union Unity League had its roots in an earlier Communist Party foray into the union movement. The TUEL sought to build a democratic, industrial, rank and file-centered union movement by attempting to steer conservative AFL, despite his lifelong enmity towards dual unionism, Foster remained at the helm of the TUEL organization when it changed its name and tactics at its 1929 convention. As a good Communist I just have to go along, the TUUL was founded at a convention held in Cleveland, Ohio, on August 31,1929. The TUUL emerged out the Trade Union Education League, which was founded by William Zebulon Foster in 1920, the TUEL aimed to provide leadership for numerous local, as well as regional, industry-wide strikes. In 1928, the Communist International finally encouraged League members to abandon their “boring from within” strategy, in 1929, the TUEL gave way to the Trade Union Unity League and began to establish new unions. The TUUL founded about a dozen industrial unions in economic sectors including textiles, marine labor, mining, shoe and leather manufacturing. Soon after the founding of the TUUL, approximately 50,000 workers were organized by TUUL affiliates and this period in the Partys history has been called its hey day and is notable for Communists unyielding antagonism to more moderate organizers, who were branded social fascists. TUUL activists attempted to organize some of the most marginal populations of the class, such as the unemployed, women. The TUUL largely focused on building extensive industrial unions and on inter-ethnic and inter-racial organizing. Specifically, the TUUL focused on promoting the rights of marginalized African American workers, beginning in 1928, when the TUUL the organization helped organize between 40,000 and 60,000 workers. The passage of the National Industrial Recovery Act in 1933 led to increase in activity by the AFL. Clause 7 of the NIRA was unclear regarding workers’ legal right to collective-bargaining representation, therefore, many employers established company unions in an attempt to prevent workers from joining AFL, TUUL, or independent unions. Nevertheless, the TUUL benefited from the National Industrial Recovery Act through significant increases in its membership, at one point, the TUUL had an estimated membership of 125,000 to 130,000 members. The CPUSA referred to the NIRA as “slave legislation” and considered its character to be protofascist. This was largely because the National Industrial Recovery Act promoted the regulation of prices, wages, and production through a relationship of labor, capital, and the state. ”Furthermore, the CPUSA viewed the NIRA as an attempt by the state, capital. While TUUL unions suffered major defeats and had difficulty organizing in heavy and mass production industries, specifically, the TUUL organized light industries in New York City
13.
Oliver Max Gardner
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Oliver Max Gardner was an American politician who served as the 57th Governor of the U. S. state of North Carolina from 1929 to 1933. A member of the Democratic Party, Gardner worked in the administrations of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, born in Shelby, North Carolina, Gardner was orphaned at a young age. Gardner was selected by John Heisman, then coach at Clemson for his All-Southern team in 1903, as a player he weighed 212 pounds. He later taught organic chemistry on campus after graduating in 1903 and he then enrolled at the University of North Carolina School of Law, where he also played football. Gardner distinguished himself off the field as well, becoming one of the most respected members of The Dialectic and Philanthropic Societies at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Gardner was the person ever to captain the football teams of both the North Carolina Tar Heels and the NC State Wolfpack. Gardner returned to Shelby to practice law and married Fay Webb, daughter of prominent politician James L. Webb, Gardner was elected as a state senator from Cleveland County, North Carolina and served one term as President Pro Tempore of the North Carolina Senate. He served a term as the 13th Lieutenant Governor of North Carolina, in 1920, he lost the Democratic nomination for Governor to Cameron Morrison. Gardner led in the vote count, but after several days of counting, more votes for Morrison were found in western North Carolina. Gardner lost the runoff to Morrison by a wider margin, Gardner made peace with Sen. Simmons. He agreed to support Simmonss favored candidate for Governor in 1924, Angus Wilton McLean, while Gardner was out of politics, he pursued business interests, including a textile mill. Easily elected governor in 1928, Gardner assumed control over a state that was in debt, Gardner commissioned a report by the Brookings Institution on how to cut costs in government and cut local property taxes. He reorganized and reformed the state government, meanwhile, Gardner took a pro-business, anti-union stance in a period of labor unrest, including the Loray Mill Strike. He did, however, push through the legislature a workmans compensation law, after leaving the governors mansion, Gardner practiced law and lobbied in Washington, D. C. President Harry S. Truman appointed him Under Secretary of the Treasury, in 1947, Gardner was appointed by Truman to be ambassador to the United Kingdom. Though, prior to arriving in London, Gardner died of Coronary thrombosis at The St. Regis Hotel in New York City. Gardner founded the influential Shelby Dynasty or Cleveland Dynasty of politicians, the pro-business organization controlled the North Carolina Democratic Party, and therefore, state politics, until 1948. Gardner-Webb University is named for Gardner and his wife, Fay Webb Gardner, the fine arts building at Gardner-Webb University is named for him as well
14.
National Guard of the United States
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All members of the National Guard of the United States are also members of the militia of the United States as defined by 10 U. S. C. National Guard units are under the control of the state. The majority of National Guard soldiers and airmen hold a civilian job full-time while serving part-time as a National Guard member, local militias were formed from the earliest English colonization of the Americas in 1607. The first colony-wide militia was formed by Massachusetts in 1636 by merging small older local units, the various colonial militias became state militias when the United States became independent. The title National Guard was used from 1824 by some New York State militia units, National Guard became a standard nationwide militia title in 1903, and specifically indicated reserve forces under mixed state and federal control from 1933. The first muster of militia forces in what is today the United States took place on September 16,1565, appropriately enough, this muster occurred in the shadow of an oncoming hurricane. This Spanish militia tradition and the English tradition that would be established to the north would provide the nucleus for Colonial defense in the New World. The militia tradition continued with the first permanent English settlements in the New World, Jamestown Colony and Plymouth Colony both had militia forces, which initially consisted of every able bodied adult male. By the mid-1600s every town had at least one militia company, as a result of the Spanish–American War, Congress was called upon to reform and regulate the training and qualification of state militias. The first national laws regulating the militia were the Militia acts of 1792, in 1903, with passage of the Dick Act, the predecessor to the modern-day National Guard was formed. It required the states to divide their militias into two sections, the law recommended the title National Guard for the first section, known as the organized militia, and Reserve Militia for all others. During World War I, Congress passed the National Defense Act of 1916, Congress also authorized the states to maintain Home Guards, which were reserve forces outside the National Guards being deployed by the Federal Government. The National Guard of the states, territories, and the District of Columbia serves as part of the first-line of defense for the United States. C. Where the National Guard operates under the President of the United States or his designee, the governors exercise control through the state adjutants general. The National Guard may be called up for duty by the governors to help respond to domestic emergencies and disasters, such as hurricanes, floods. The National Guard is administered by the National Guard Bureau, which is a joint activity of the Army, the National Guard Bureau provides a communication channel for state National Guards to the DoD. S. C. The National Guard Bureau is headed by the Chief of the National Guard Bureau, prior to 2008, the functions of Agricultural Development Teams were within Provincial Reconstruction Teams of the US Government. Today, ADTs consist of soldiers and airmen from the Army National Guard, today, ADTs bring an effective platform for enhanced dialogue, building confidence, sharing interests, and increasing cooperation amongst the disparate peoples and tribes of Afghanistan
15.
Tent city
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A tent city is a temporary housing facility made using tents or other temporary structures. Informal tent cities may be set up without authorization by homeless people or protesters, as well, state governments or military organizations set up tent cities to house refugees, evacuees, or soldiers. Tent cities set up by people may be similar to shanty towns. In the military, the tent city usually refers to temporary living quarters erected on deployed military bases, such as those found in Bosnia. Depending on the branch of service and the length of time the tent city has been in place, for sanitary reasons, military tent cities place toilet, shower, and laundry facilities at least 50 feet from living quarters. Also, tents are typically divided into clusters of 8-10 to prevent the spread of fire. Since Hurricane Katrina made landfall in August 2005, the term has been used to temporary housing sites set up for Gulf Coast residents who were left homeless by the storm. Some of the tents that were built by Seabees and funded by the U. S. Federal Emergency Management Agency are wooden structures covered by tents, with the exception of indoor plumbing, most of the tents have heat, air, and lights. The tent city can hold as many as 250 occupants, displaced residents are only expected to stay for three to six months. Camp Hope is a transitional living project, for the homeless. It is located on the Mesilla Valley Community of Hope campus and is an alliance of agencies that address homelessness in Las Cruces, New Mexico. The tent city can house 50 people that would otherwise be on the streets, providing them a place to seek direct services, healthcare. Camp Hope has provided the homeless with the opportunity to be next to all the Direct Services the agencies on the MVCH campus provide. The camp was founded in November 2011 with temporary permission from the city of Las Cruces, the camp was supposed to disband in March 2012, but there was no funding available to build another shelter and the City Council stated that the tent city benefited the city. Dignity Village is an encampment of homeless people in Portland, Oregon. Dignity Village is incorporated in Oregon as a 501 membership-based non-profit organization, and is governed by bylaws, dignity Village states that membership is not limited based on religion, race, sex, sexual orientation, handicap, age, lifestyle choice, previous record or economic status. Continued membership is dependent upon following the rules of behavior, contained in their membership agreement. No illegal substances or alcohol or paraphernalia on the premises or within a one-block radius, everyone contributes to the upkeep and welfare of the village and works to become a productive member of the community
16.
International Labor Defense
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The International Labor Defense was a legal advocacy organization established in 1925 in the United States as the American section of the Cominterns International Red Aid network. Its work contributed to the appeal of the Communist Party among African Americans in the South, in addition to fundraising for defense and assisting in defense strategies, from January 1926 it published Labor Defender, a monthly illustrated magazine that achieved wide circulation. In 1946 the ILD was merged with the National Federation for Constitutional Liberties to form the Civil Rights Congress and it intended to expand its appeal, especially to African Americans in the South. In several prominent cases in which blacks had been sentenced to death in the South and it had some conflict with former allies, such as the NAACP, and became increasingly isolated. Because of federal government pressure against organizations it considered subversive, such as the CRC, the CRC was dissolved in 1956. At the same time, in period, black leaders were expanding the activities. In 1954, in a case managed by the NAACP, the US Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that segregation of schools was unconstitutional. Ever since the birth of the labor movement, economic disputes have been contested in the legal system. The Pullman Strike of 1894, which brought about the trial and imprisonment of the officers of the American Railway Union, is, to defend its core activists and their activities from what was systematic legal attack, the IWW established a legal advocacy organization called the General Defense Committee. It raised funds and coordinated the legal defense efforts. Government efforts to silence and jail conscientious objectors and anti-militarist political opponents of World War I in 1917 and 1918 resulted in more than 2,000 prosecutions. These cases led to the formation of a defense organization for these defendants called the Civil Liberties Bureau. The fledgling American Communist movement which emerged in the summer of 1919 quickly was subject to legal attack as part of the First Red Scare. This followed a series of strikes and bombings in 1919, including one against US Attorney General Palmer, there was a massive need for legal defense on the part of those arrested in connection with these official operations against the communist political movement. A number of leading communist activists, including political leaders Max Bedacht, katterfeld of the Communist Labor Party and C. E. Ruthenberg of the CPA, as well as attorney I. E. Ferguson, served on the governing Executive Committee of the NDC, CLP member Edgar Owens acted as Secretary-Treasurer. A number of prominent liberal and radical attorneys were employed by the group, including Swinburne Hale, Walter Nelles, Charles Recht, the NDC maintained headquarters in Chicago and coordinated its work with another radical legal defense organization based in the East called the Workers Defense Committee. Foster and CPA Executive Secretary C. E. Ruthenberg, the latter had only recently been released from Sing Sing prison after a conviction for Criminal Anarchism under New York state law
17.
Sacco and Vanzetti
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They were executed in the electric chair seven years later at Charlestown State Prison. Both men adhered to an anarchist movement that advocated relentless warfare against a violent, after a few hours deliberation on July 14,1921, the jury convicted Sacco and Vanzetti of first-degree murder and they were sentenced to death by the trial judge. A series of appeals followed, funded largely by the private Sacco, the appeals were based on recanted testimony, conflicting ballistics evidence, a prejudicial pre-trial statement by the jury foreman, and a confession by an alleged participant in the robbery. All appeals were denied by trial judge Webster Thayer and also denied by the Massachusetts State Supreme Court. By 1926, the case had drawn worldwide attention, as details of the trial and the mens suspected innocence became known, Sacco and Vanzetti became the center of one of the largest causes célèbres in modern history. In 1927, protests on their behalf were held in major city in North America and Europe, as well as in Tokyo, Sydney, São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires. Celebrated writers, artists, and academics pleaded for their pardon or for a new trial, Harvard law professor and future Supreme Court justice Felix Frankfurter argued for their innocence in a widely read Atlantic Monthly article that was later published in book form. Sacco and Vanzetti were scheduled to die in April 1927, accelerating the outcry, responding to a massive influx of telegrams urging their pardon, Massachusetts governor Alvan T. Fuller appointed a three-man commission to investigate the case. After weeks of secret deliberation that included interviews with the judge, lawyers, and several witnesses, Sacco and Vanzetti were executed in the electric chair just after midnight on August 23,1927. Subsequent riots destroyed property in Paris, London, and other cities, investigations in the aftermath of the executions continued throughout the 1930s and 1940s. The publication of the letters, containing eloquent professions of innocence. Additional ballistics tests and incriminating statements by the mens acquaintances have clouded the case, writer Bruce Watson, in his introduction to the 2007 re-printing of The Letters of Sacco and Vanzetti, noted Sacco and Vanzetti are still on trial and probably always will be. Sacco was a shoemaker and a watchman, born April 22,1891 in Torremaggiore, Province of Foggia, Apulia region, Italy. Vanzetti was a fishmonger born June 11,1888 in Villafalletto, Province of Cuneo, Piedmont region, both men left Italy for the US in 1908, although they did not meet until a 1917 strike. The men were believed to be followers of Luigi Galleani, an Italian anarchist who advocated violence, including bombing. Galleani published Cronaca Sovversiva, a periodical that advocated violent revolution, at the time, Italian anarchists – in particular the Galleanist group – ranked at the top of the United States governments list of dangerous enemies. Since 1914, the Galleanists had been identified as suspects in several violent bombings and assassination attempts, publication of Cronaca Sovversiva was suppressed in July 1918, and the government deported Galleani and eight of his closest associates on June 24,1919. Among the dozen or more violent acts was the bombing of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmers home on June 2,1919
18.
Scopes Trial
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The trial was deliberately staged in order to attract publicity to the small town of Dayton, Tennessee, where it was held. Scopes was unsure whether he had actually taught evolution. Scopes was found guilty and fined $100, but the verdict was overturned on a technicality, the trial served its purpose of drawing intense national publicity, as national reporters flocked to Dayton to cover the big-name lawyers who had agreed to represent each side. William Jennings Bryan, three-time presidential candidate, argued for the prosecution, while Clarence Darrow, the case was thus seen as both a theological contest and a trial on whether modern science should be taught in schools. State Representative John W. Butler, a Tennessee farmer and head of the World Christian Fundamentals Association and he succeeded when the Butler Act was passed in Tennessee, on March 25,1925. Butler later stated, I didnt know anything about evolution, id read in the papers that boys and girls were coming home from school and telling their fathers and mothers that the Bible was all nonsense. Tennessee governor Austin Peay signed the law to support among rural legislators. In response, the American Civil Liberties Union financed a test case in which John Scopes, the American Civil Liberties Union offered to defend anyone accused of teaching the theory of evolution in defiance of the Butler Act. According to Robinson, Rappleyea said, As it is, the law is not enforced, If you win, it will be enforced. If I win, the law will be repealed, the men then summoned 24-year-old John T. Scopes, a Dayton high school science and math teacher. The group asked Scopes to admit to teaching the theory of evolution, Scopes mentioned that while he couldnt remember whether he had actually taught evolution in class, he had, however, gone through the evolution chart and chapter with the class. Scopes added to the group, If you can prove that Ive taught evolution, Scopes urged students to testify against him and coached them in their answers. Judge John T. Raulston accelerated the convening of the grand jury, paul Patterson, owner of The Baltimore Sun, put up $500 in bail for Scopes. Hoping to attract press coverage, George Rappleyea went so far as to write to the British novelist H. G. Wells asking him to join the defense team. Wells replied that he had no training in Britain, let alone in America. John R. Neal, a law professor from Knoxville, announced that he would act as Scopes attorney whether Scopes liked it or not. Bryan had originally invited by Sue Hicks to become an associate of the prosecution and Bryan had readily accepted. In response, the defense sought out Clarence Darrow, an agnostic, the prosecution team was led by Tom Stewart, district attorney for the 18th Circuit, and included, in addition to Herbert and Sue Hicks, Ben B
19.
Communist Party USA
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The Communist Party USA is a communist political party in the United States. Established in 1919 after a split in the Socialist Party of America, it has a long, complex history that is tied with the U. S. labor movement. For the first half of the 20th century, the Communist Party was an influential force in various struggles for democratic rights. It played a prominent role in the U. S. S, by August 1919, only months after its founding, the Communist Party claimed 50,000 to 60,000 members. Members also included anarchists and other radical leftists, at the time, the older and more moderate Socialist Party of America, suffering from criminal prosecutions for its antiwar stance during World War I, had declined to 40,000 members. But the Communist Partys early labor and organizing successes did not last, by 1957, membership had dwindled to less than 10,000, of whom some 1,500 were informants for the FBI. At the same time, the partys aging membership demographics and noticeably hollow calls for peaceful coexistence failed to speak to a new Left in the United States. In 1989, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union cut off funding to the CPUSA due to its opposition to glasnost. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the party held its convention, the majority reasserted the partys now purely Marxist outlook, prompting a minority faction which urged social democrats to exit the now reduced party. The party has since adopted Marxism-Leninism within its program, in 2014, the new draft of the party constitution declared, We apply the scientific outlook developed by Marx, Engels, Lenin and others in the context of our American history, culture, and traditions. The Communist Party USA is based in New York City, for decades, its West Coast newspaper was the Peoples World, and its East Coast newspaper was The Daily World. The two newspapers merged in 1986 into the Peoples Weekly World, the PWW has since become an online only publication, called Peoples World. The partys former theoretical journal, Political Affairs Magazine, is now published exclusively online. In June 2014, the Party held its 30th National Convention in Chicago, against homophobia and all manifestations of discrimination against gays, lesbians, bisexuals and transgender people. Among the points in the partys Immediate Program are a minimum wage for all workers, national universal health care. The Communist Party USA emphasizes a vision of socialism as an extension of American democracy, millions of workers are unemployed, underemployed, or insecure in their jobs, even during economic upswings and periods of recovery from recessions. Most workers experience long years of stagnant and declining wages, while health. Many workers are forced to second and third jobs to make ends meet
20.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
21.
Pete Seeger
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Peter Pete Seeger was an American folk singer and social activist. Members of the Weavers were blacklisted during the McCarthy Era, in the 1960s, he re-emerged on the public scene as a prominent singer of protest music in support of international disarmament, civil rights, counterculture, and environmental causes. A prolific songwriter, his songs include Where Have All the Flowers Gone. If I Had a Hammer, and Turn, Turn. which have been recorded by many artists both in and outside the folk revival movement and are sung throughout the world. Flowers was a hit recording for the Kingston Trio, Marlene Dietrich, who recorded it in English, German and French, if I Had a Hammer was a hit for Peter, Paul and Mary and Trini Lopez while the Byrds had a number one hit with Turn. In the PBS American Masters episode Pete Seeger, The Power of Song, Seeger was born on May 3,1919, at the French Hospital, Midtown Manhattan. His Yankee-Protestant family, which Seeger called enormously Christian, in the Puritan, Calvinist New England tradition, Petes father, the Harvard-trained composer and musicologist Charles Louis Seeger, Jr. was born in Mexico City, Mexico, to American parents. Petes mother, Constance de Clyver, raised in Tunisia and trained at the Paris Conservatory of Music, was a concert violinist and later a teacher at the Juilliard School. In 1912, Charles Seeger was hired to establish the department at the University of California, Berkeley. Charles and Constance moved back east, making Charles parents estate in Patterson, New York, northeast of New York City, their base of operations. When baby Pete was eighteen months old they set out with him, upon their return, Constance taught violin and Charles taught composition at the New York Institute of Musical Art, whose president, family friend Frank Damrosch, was Constances adoptive uncle. Charles also taught part-time at the New School for Social Research, beginning in 1936, Charles held various administrative positions in the federal governments Farm Resettlement program, the WPAs Federal Music Project, and the wartime Pan American Union. After World War II, he taught ethnomusicology at the University of California, Petes uncle, Alan Seeger, a noted poet, had been one of the first American soldiers to be killed in World War I. All four of Petes half-siblings from his fathers second marriage – Margaret, Mike, Barbara, peggy Seeger, a well-known performer in her own right, married British folk singer and activist Ewan MacColl. Mike Seeger was a founder of the New Lost City Ramblers, one of members, John Cohen. Barbara Seeger joined her siblings in recording songs for children. In 1935, Pete attended Camp Rising Sun, a leadership camp held every summer in upstate New York that influenced his lifes work. He visited it most recently in 2012, in 1943, Pete married Toshi-Aline Ōta, whom he credited with being the support that helped make the rest of his life possible
22.
Bessemer City, North Carolina
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Bessemer City is a small suburban city in Gaston County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 5,340 at the 2010 census, the city is approximately 6 miles northwest of Gastonia and 25 miles west of Charlotte. It was settled in 1756 and founded in 1893, Bessemer City is located at 35°17′3″N 81°16′58″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 4.8 square miles, of which 4.8 square miles is land and 0.039 square miles. The elevation at city hall is 904 feet above sea level, Bessemer City is named for Sir Henry Bessemer who created the Bessemer process for smelting iron. Bessemer City was founded on land purchased from the Ormand family, ironically, it was the Bessemer Process which made Bessemer Citys early iron smelting industry obsolete. By 1786, a furnace had been built on the land, the Old Ormand Furnace was used to process most of the iron ore that was mined in the area and today is one of the oldest remaining furnaces in the country. Despite a local tale that cannonballs were made during the Revolutionary War, the furnace was sold and later bought back by the family of Zenas Stanhope Ormand. The furnace made iron implements and other products for local and statewide use and was in operation until the mid-19th century, during the late 1840s, corn and cotton were the regions two main crops. Gaston County had more licensed whiskey distilleries than any county in North Carolina, in 1871, the Atlanta & Charlotte Division of the Richmond & Danville Railroad Company built through Gaston County. Laying the track through Whetstone Mountain, located west of modern-day Bessemer City, was considered a great engineering accomplishment, John Wooten built a general store next to the railroad on the site of present-day Bessemer City and called the store and depot Wootens Station. In 1891, John Askew Smith, previously of Reidsville, North Carolina, moved with his wife Fannie and brother-in-law, John A. Pinchback, Smith purchased 1,700 acres and wanted to establish a town to the east of Whetstone Mountain. By 1893, Smith and other residents petitioned the North Carolina legislature to incorporate the town, on March 6,1893, Bessemer City was officially chartered. Smith hired W. R. Richardson, an engineer from Guilford County, in 1896 Smith built the first luxurious home in the area he named Long View where he lived with his wife for nearly 20 years. This house still stands in pristine condition, and the Mitchell family has taken up its stewardship, smiths Highacre house, built in the early 20th century, is now occupied by the Eury family. The population of Bessemer City at the time of its charter was very small, with only a few families, in 1895, Stonewall Jackson Durham and John M. Odell incorporated Southern Cotton Mills and as their first venture completed and opened the failed Smith/Pinchback Mill. A series of textile mills opened by Smith and Pinchback, Durham and Odell, Frank, Robert and Max Goldberg, as well as the Ragan Spinning Company, living in an African-American neighborhood outside Bessemer City known as Stumptown. Her neighbors would look after her children as she worked as a spinner at American Mill No.2 and she also told her story, “I’m the mother of nine
23.
Vigilante
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A vigilante is a civilian or organization acting in a law enforcement capacity without legal authority. Vigilante justice is often rationalized by the concept that proper legal forms of punishment are either nonexistent, insufficient. Vigilantes normally see the government as ineffective in enforcing the law, persons alleged to be escaping the law or above the law are sometimes the victims of vigilantism. Vigilante conduct involves certain degrees of violence, Vigilantes could assault targets verbally and/or physically, damage and/or vandalize property, or even kill individuals. In a number of cases, vigilantism has involved targets with mistaken identities, in Britain in the early 2000s, there were reports of vandalism, assaults, and verbal abuse towards people wrongly accused of being pedophiles, following the murder of Sarah Payne. In Guyana in 2008, Hardel Haynes was beaten to death by a mob who mistook him for a thief, Vigilantism and the vigilante ethos existed long before the word vigilante was introduced into the English language. There are conceptual and psychological parallels between the Dark Age and medieval aristocratic custom of private war or vendetta and the modern vigilante philosophy, when Jacob protested that their actions might bring trouble upon him and his family, the brothers replied Should he treat our sister as a harlot. Similarly, in 2 Samuel 13, Absalom kills Amnon after King David, their father, fails to punish Amnon for raping Tamar, recourse to personal vengeance and dueling was considered a class privilege of the sword-bearing aristocracy before the formation of the modern centralized liberal-bureaucratic nation-state. In addition, sociologists have posited a complex legal and ethical interrelationship between vigilante acts and rebellion and tyrannicide, in the Western literary and cultural tradition, characteristics of vigilantism have often been vested in folkloric heroes and legendary outlaws. Vigilantism in literature, folklore and legend is connected to the issues of dissatisfied morality, injustice, the failures of authority. Formally-defined vigilantism arose in the early American colonies and these people would assault accused thieves, rapists and murderers. When they assaulted these thieves, they would steal their gold, other than reports and newspapers, there are not many records of vigilantes. Few names or groups are known, later in the United States, vigilante groups arose in poorly governed frontier areas where criminals preyed upon the citizenry with impunity. The death of Joseph Smith, Jr. on June 27,1844, in 1851 and 1856, San Francisco Vigilance Movement sought to eliminate crime, an element of this movement focused on immigrants like the Sydney Ducks. This touched off a cycle of retaliatory battles and raids by the two sides in which some 29 people were killed. In 1858 San Luis Obispo vigilantes ended the reign of the bandit gang of Pío Linares on El Camino Real between San Luis and Santa Barbara. In October 1862 in northern Texas, several Unionist sympathizers were arrested and taken to Gainesville, seven were tried and hanged, and 14 were hanged without trial. A few weeks later, Unionist sympathizers were hanged without trial across northern Texas, known as the Great Hanging at Gainesville, it may have been the deadliest act of vigilante violence in U. S. history
24.
Sherwood Anderson
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Sherwood Anderson was an American novelist and short story writer, known for subjective and self-revealing works. Self-educated, he rose to become a successful copywriter and business owner in Cleveland and Elyria, in 1912, Anderson had a nervous breakdown that led him to abandon his business and family to become a writer. At the time, he moved to Chicago and was married three more times. His most enduring work is the short-story sequence Winesburg, Ohio, throughout the 1920s, Anderson published several short story collections, novels, memoirs, books of essays, and a book of poetry. Though his books sold well, Dark Laughter, a novel inspired by Andersons time in New Orleans during the 1920s, was the only bestseller of his career. Sherwood Berton Anderson was born on September 13,1876 in Camden, Ohio and he was the third of seven children born to Emma Jane and former Union soldier and harness-maker Irwin McLain Anderson. Considered reasonably well-off financially—Andersons father was seen as an up-and-comer by his Camden contemporaries, reasons for the departure are uncertain, most biographers note rumors of debts incurred by either Irwin or his brother Benjamin. The Andersons headed north to Caledonia by way of a stay in a village of a few hundred called Independence. Four or five years were spent in Caledonia, years which formed Andersons earliest memories and this period later inspired his semi-autobiographical novel Tar, A Midwest Childhood. In Caledonia Andersons father began drinking excessively, which led to financial difficulties, partly as a result of these misfortunes, young Sherwood became adept at finding various odd jobs to help his family, earning the nickname Jobby. Though he was a decent student, Andersons attendance at school declined as he began picking up work, even in his teens, Andersons talent for selling was evident, a talent he would later draw on it in a successful career in advertising. As a newsboy he was said to have convinced a tired farmer in a saloon to buy two copies of the evening paper. With the exception of work, Andersons childhood resembled that of other boys his age, in addition to participating in local events and spending time with his friends, Anderson was a voracious reader. By Andersons 18th year in 1895, his family was on shaky ground and his father had started to disappear for weeks. Two years earlier, in 1893, Karl, Sherwoods elder brother, had left Clyde for Chicago, on May 10,1895, his mother succumbed to tuberculosis. Sherwood, now essentially on his own, boarded at the Harvey & Yetters livery stable where he worked as an experience that would translate into several of his best-known stories. But his mothers death precipitated the young mans leaving Clyde and he settled in Chicago around late 1896 or spring/summer 1897, having worked a few small-town factory jobs along the way. Finding a place to stay in Chicago was not as difficult for Anderson as it was for many others arriving in Chicago around the same time
25.
Mary Heaton Vorse
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Mary Heaton Vorse OBrien was an American journalist, labor activist, and novelist. Vorse was outspoken and active in peace and social causes, such as womens suffrage, civil rights, pacifism, socialism, child labor, infant mortality, labor disputes. Mary Heaton was born October 11,1874, in New York City to Ellen Marvin Heaton and she was raised in prosperity in Amherst, Massachusetts, in a 24-room house with half-siblings from her mothers previous marriage. The money in the family came from her mothers side, in 1852 Vorses mother married Captain Charles Bernard Marvin, a wealthy shipping magnate and liquor merchant more than 20 years her senior when she was a young woman of 18. Ellen Marvin was widowed at age 37 with five children, in 1873, she married Marys father, who with his family operated the Stockbridge Inn. The family traveled widely, spending over a year in Europe, where Mary attended kindergarten in Hanover, later, the family had an apartment in Paris, where Mary learned French, followed later by a winter in Austria. An interest in classic Russian literature followed, complemented by directed reading with her father on topics of American history, Mary Heaton was allowed to leave the formal school system at a young age and subsequently spent several winters in Paris studying art. In 1896, Heaton began to study at the Art Students League, the League was established 20 years earlier by strong-minded young men in rebellion from the conservative nature of the instruction at the National Academy of Design. By the time Mary entered, the school was booming, with over 1100 pupils studying in sex-segregated day and evening classes, studying art, sculpture. While Mary found participation in the artistic avant-garde exhilarating, she unfortunately was sadly lacking in talent and she wrote in her diary, When I come into my room and see my work lying around, my sense of my own futility overwhelms me. After so much work, that is all I can do, young Mary Heaton was intelligent and athletic and deeply influenced by the ideas of feminism that had begun to emerge as the 19th century came to a close. Many upper-class women such as Mary were in the forefront of the movement for womens rights to economic independence, education, voting rights, and birth control. Mary Heatons first husband was Albert White Bert Vorse, a widely traveled journalist who had worked for a year in a Boston settlement house run by Edward Everett Hale. The pair were married after a courtship in 1898 and had two children, a boy born in 1901 and a girl born in 1907. The Vorses would frequently go sailing with Steffens and his wife on the Vorses boat, Bert Vorse was soon assigned to Paris as the correspondent of the Philadelphia Ledger. It was in France that Mary Heaton Vorse, encouraged and instructed by her husband, Mary began to create and sell romantic fiction to womens magazines. Her stories often featured the motif of a rugged and energetic heroine who managed to win the affection of a male over a more constrained. In 1904, Mary and her husband moved to Venice, where Mary was first introduced into the world of the working class, Bert Vorse died on June 14,1910, of a cerebral hemorrhage
26.
Class conflict
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The view that the class struggle provides the lever for radical social change for the majority is central to the work of Karl Marx and the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin. In the past the term Class conflict was a term used mostly by socialists, from this point of view, the social control of production and labor is a contest between classes, and the division of these resources necessarily involves conflict and inflicts harm. It can involve ongoing low-level clashes, escalate into massive confrontations, however, in more contemporary times this term is striking chords and finding new definition amongst capitalistic societies in the United States and other Westernized countries. This was only a potential, and class struggle was, he argued, not always the only or decisive factor in society, by contrast, Marxists argue that class conflict always plays the decisive and pivotal role in the history of class-based hierarchical systems such as capitalism and feudalism. Marxists refer to its overt manifestations as class war, a struggle whose resolution in favor of the class is viewed by them as inevitable under plutocratic capitalism. Where societies are socially divided based on status, wealth, or control of production and distribution. It is well documented since at least European Classical Antiquity and the popular uprisings in late medieval Europe. One of the earliest analysis of these conflicts is Friedrich Engels The Peasant War in Germany, one of the earliest analyses of the development of class as the development of conflicts between emergent classes is available in Peter Kropotkins Mutual Aid. In this work, Kropotkin analyzes the disposal of goods after death in pre-class or hunter-gatherer societies, chris Hedges wrote a column for Truthdig called Lets Get This Class War Started, which was a play on Pinks song Lets Get This Party Started. And I think that can go on for so long without there being more and more outbreaks of what used to be called class struggle. The particular implementation of government programs which may seem purely humanitarian, such as disaster relief, in the USA class conflict is often noted in labor/management disputes. Although Thomas Jefferson led the United States as president from 1801–1809 and is considered one of the founding fathers, among the former, public opinion is in the place of law, & restrains morals as powerfully as laws ever did anywhere. Among the latter, under pretence of governing they have divided their nations into two classes, wolves & sheep and this is a true picture of Europe. Cherish therefore the spirit of our people, and keep alive their attention, do not be too severe upon their errors, but reclaim them by enlightening them. If once they become inattentive to the affairs, you & I, & Congress & Assemblies, judges & governors shall all become wolves. In 2005 Buffet said to CNN, Its class warfare, my class is winning, but they shouldnt be. In a November 2006 interview in The New York Times, Buffett stated that here’s class warfare all right, but it’s my class, the class, that’s making war. Later Warren gave away more than half of his fortune to charitable causes through a developed by himself
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Marxism
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It originates from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat through the alienation of labor, Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, and there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Marxism has been adopted by a number of academics and theorists working in various disciplines. Critics have taken issue with particular Marxist claims or accused Marxism as a whole of being inconsistent, refuted based on new information. The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of the material conditions, the economic system and these social relations form a base and superstructure. As forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefficient, from forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution and these inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority who own the means of production, and the vast majority of the population who produce goods, the socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanitys mode of production through workers revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising from crisis theory, socialism is a historical necessity, in a socialist society private property, in the form of the means of production, would be replaced by co-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits, Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand. The historical materialist theory of history analyses the causes of societal development. All constituent features of a society are assumed to stem from economic activity, the base and superstructure metaphor portrays the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, The sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society and this relationship is reflexive, at first the base gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. As Friedrich Engels clarified, The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles, accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production. Primitive Communism, as in tribal societies. Slave Society, a development of tribal to city-state, aristocracy is born, feudalism, aristocrats are the ruling class, merchants evolve into capitalists. Capitalism, capitalists are the class, who create and employ the proletariat. According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, the content of Marxism was Marxs economic doctrine
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