1.
Powick
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Powick is a village and civil parish in the Malvern Hills district of Worcestershire, England, located two miles south of the city of Worcester and four miles north of Great Malvern. The parish includes the village of Callow End and the hamlets of Bastonford, Clevelode, Colletts Green, Powick lies on the A449 and has two bridges across the River Teme, one ancient and one modern. The village contains a school, three pubs - The Crown, The Red Lion and The Three Nuns, a garage. A mile from the village towards Malvern was the site of the Victorian complex of the county psychiatric hospital, the hospital was notorious for its use of LSD in therapy and mistreatment of patients. Built in 1852, the hospital closed in 1989 and was mostly demolished shortly thereafter. The name Powick entered the local colloquialisms and became synonymous for mental disorder in many informal expressions relating to madness or stupidity. Before he became Englands most famous composer, in 1879 at the age of 22 Edward Elgar was appointed bandmaster of the asylum until about 1886, the old bridge across the Teme at Powick is late mediaeval with 17th-century alterations, built of sandstone with brick parapets. It is a grade I listed structure, in 1642 the bridge was the scene of one of the very first skirmishes between Royalist and Parliamentarian soldiers in the English Civil War in what became known as the Battle of Powick Bridge. A long ballad gives a detailed account of the battle. The church in Powick village was used by the Royalists as a point as it commanded elevated views over the surrounding countryside. Its tower has a lot of pockmarks from small bore cannon balls which were fired by Parliamentarian gunners to deter the Scottish Royalist forces using the tower and they extend up the south face of the tower from as low as head height up to the top. A former water mill, next to Powick Bridge, was converted in 1894 to become the worlds first combined steam/hydro electric power station, electricity from this provided about half the city of Worcesters needs. The Powick site continued generating until the 1950s, when it closed, it was converted into a laundry and has since been converted into residential apartments. The site was chosen as a site from at least the 11th century. The mill leat was dug in 1291, a succession of water mills replaced each other throughout the Middle Ages and into the 16th century and later. John Wall was born at Powick in 1708
2.
Worcestershire
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Worcestershire is a county in the West Midlands of England. Between 1974 and 1998, it was merged with the county of Herefordshire as Hereford. The cathedral city of Worcester is the largest settlement and county town, other towns in the county include Redditch, Bromsgrove, Stourport-on-Severn, Droitwich, Evesham, Kidderminster, and Malvern. The north-east of Worcestershire includes part of the industrial West Midlands, the county is divided into six administrive districts, Worcester, Redditch, Wychavon, Malvern Hills, Wyre Forest, and Bromsgrove. The county borders Herefordshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, West Midlands, Warwickshire, to the west, the county is bordered by the Malvern Hills and the spa town of Malvern. The south of the county is bordered by Gloucestershire and the edge of the Cotswolds. Two major rivers flow through the county, the Severn and the Avon, Worcestershire was the heartland of the early English kingdom of the Hwicce. It was absorbed by the Kingdom of Mercia during the 7th century and it was a separate ealdormanship briefly in the 10th century before forming part of the Earldom of Mercia in the 11th century. In the years leading up to the Norman conquest, the Church, supported by the cathedral, Evesham Abbey, Pershore Abbey, Malvern Priory, and other religious houses, increasingly dominated the county. The last known Anglo-Saxon sheriff of the county was Cyneweard of Laughern, on 4 August 1265, Simon de Montfort was killed in the Battle of Evesham in Worcestershire. In 1642, the Battle of Powick Bridge was the first major skirmish of the English Civil War, during the Middle Ages, much of the countys economy was based on the wool trade. Many areas of its forests, such as Feckenham Forest, Horewell Forest. Droitwich Spa, situated on large deposits of salt, was a centre of production from Roman times. These old industries have declined, to be replaced by other. The county is home to the worlds oldest continually published newspaper. Malvern was one of the centres of the 19th century rise in English spa towns due to Malvern water being believed to be very pure, containing nothing at all. The 2011 census found the population of Worcestershire to be 566,169, while this change is in line with the nationwide trend of White British peoples share of the population shrinking, Worcestershire is still much more ethnically homogeneous than the national average. In 2011 England as a whole was 79. 8% White British, the most notable were Dudley, Evenlode, and the area around Shipston-on-Stour
3.
Lancing, West Sussex
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Lancing is a village and civil parish in the Adur district of West Sussex, England, on the western edge of the Adur Valley. It occupies part of the central section of the Sussex coastal plain between smaller Sompting to the west, larger Shoreham-by-Sea to the east and the parish of Coombes to the north. Excluding definitive suburbs it may have the largest undivided village cluster in Britain, however, its economy is commonly analysed as integral to the Brighton/Worthing/Littlehampton conurbation. Its settled area beneath the South Downs National Park covers 3.65 square miles and it is a mix of no more than mid-rise coastal urban homes and farms and wildlife reserves on northern chalk downs. The oldest non-religious buildings date to around 1500 CE, the 2002 population was around 19,000, being measured at 18,810 in the 2011 Census. The 2011 Census included the population of Coombes The village was a seaside resort in the mid-19th century. Summer tourist hallmarks are the traditional guest houses on the A259 coast road, as well as beach chair hire, there is a shingle beach with good stretches of clean sand at low water. Part of the coast road does not directly adjoin the sea but instead the long and narrow Widewater, a brackish lagoon. Immediately north of the area is Lancing Ring, a Nature Reserve in the South Downs National Park. To the north of that is farmed agricultural downland connected to Lancing College Farm, on its eastern side is Shoreham Airport, the worlds oldest continually operated airport, which served as an RAF base during World War II. The villages boundary with Sompting to the west has historically been along Boundstone Lane, much of Lancings northern boundary with the village of Coombes runs along the Ladywell Stream, a tributary of the River Adur which runs from the South Downs near to Lancing College. The source of the Ladywell Stream, the Ladywell Spring, is believed to be an ancient holy well or sacred stream with pre-Christian significance. In 1828, remains of what may be an Iron Age shrine, the Romano-British temple was located within an oval temenos and seems to have been built in the 1st century AD. Among this lowest lying farmland to the east of the village proper are remains of salt workings. The Roman road from Noviomagus Reginorum to Novus Portus also ran through modern North Lancing down to the ford, much of the land which is residential was formerly taken up by family-run market gardening businesses growing fruit or flowers for the Brighton Market or Covent Garden in London. The largest businesses were Sparks who grew such as tomatoes. Chrysanthemums were grown by Frank Lisher on land south of The Finches, nashs fruit growers produced grapes under huge glass cloches that could be rolled into place on a rail track. Lancing railway station opened with what is now known as the West Coastway Line in 1849, the land on which the works were sited was predominantly turned over to this park which also bears the name the Churchill Industrial Estate
4.
Sussex
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Sussex, from the Old English Sūþsēaxe, is a historic county in South East England corresponding roughly in area to the ancient Kingdom of Sussex. Brighton and Hove was created as an authority in 1997. Until then, Chichester was Sussexs only city, Sussex has three main geographic sub-regions, each oriented approximately east to west. In the south-west is the fertile and densely populated coastal plain, North of this are the rolling chalk hills of the South Downs, beyond which is the well-wooded Sussex Weald. The name derives from the Kingdom of Sussex, which was founded, according to legend, in 825, it was absorbed into the kingdom of Wessex and subsequently into the kingdom of England. It was the home of some of Europes earliest hominids, whose remains have been found at Boxgrove, in 1974, the Lord-Lieutenant of Sussex was replaced with one each for East and West Sussex, which became separate ceremonial counties. Sussex continues to be recognised as a territory and cultural region. It has had a police force since 1968 and its name is in common use in the media. In 2007, Sussex Day was created to celebrate the rich culture. Based on the emblem of Sussex, a blue shield with six gold martlets. In 2013, Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government Eric Pickles formally recognised and acknowledged the existence of Englands 39 historic counties. The name Sussex is derived from the Middle English Suth-sæxe, which is in turn derived from the Old English Suth-Seaxe which means of the South Saxons, the South Saxons were a Germanic tribe that settled in the region from the North German Plain during the 5th and 6th centuries. The earliest known usage of the term South Saxons is in a charter of 689 which names them and their king, Noðhelm. The monastic chronicler who wrote up the entry classifying the invasion seems to have got his dates wrong, the New Latin word Suthsexia was used for Sussex by Dutch cartographer Joan Blaeu in his 1645 map. Three United States counties, and a former division of Western Australia, are named after Sussex. The flag of Sussex consists of six gold martlets, or heraldic swallows, on a background, blazoned as Azure. Officially recognised by the Flag Institute on 20 May 2011, its design is based on the shield of Sussex. The first known recording of this emblem being used to represent the county was in 1611 when cartographer John Speed deployed it to represent the Kingdom of the South Saxons
5.
Winchester College
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Winchester College is an independent boarding school for boys in the British public school tradition, situated in Winchester, Hampshire. It has existed in its present location for over 600 years and it is the oldest of the original seven English public schools defined by the Clarendon Commission and regulated by the Public Schools Act 1868. It is sometimes referred to by pupils, former pupils and others as Win, Coll, the upper-class lifestyle magazine Tatler named the school as its Public School of the Year in 2010. Winchester College was founded in 1382 by William of Wykeham, Bishop of Winchester and it was founded in conjunction with New College, Oxford, for which it was designed to act as a feeder, the buildings of both colleges were designed by master mason William Wynford. In addition to the 70 scholars and 16 Quiristers, the provided for ten noble Commoners. These Commoners were paying guests of the Headmaster or Second Master in his apartments in College. In the 1860s New Commoners was closed and converted to classrooms, at the same time two more houses were acquired and added to the Houses category, a tenth was acquired in 1905 and allotted to Commoners. There are therefore now ten houses in addition to College, which continues to occupy the original 14th-century buildings, from the late 1970s there has been a continual process of extension to and upgrading of College Chambers. The Scholars live in the buildings, known as College. College is not usually referred to as a house, hence the terms housemaster of College and College house are not generally used, the housemaster of College is now known as the Master in College, though these duties formerly belonged to the Second Master. Within the school, College refers only to the body of scholars, Winchester College, every pupil at Winchester, apart from the Scholars, lives in a boarding house, chosen or allocated when applying to Winchester. It is here that he studies, eats and sleeps, each house is presided over by a housemaster and a number of house tutors. Houses compete in competitions, mostly in sporting competitions. Each house has a name, usually based on the family name of the first housemaster. Each house also has a name, which is more frequently used in speech. Each house also has a letter assigned to it, in the order of their founding, to act as an abbreviation, especially on laundry tags. A member of a house is described by the name of the house with -ite suffixed, as a Furleyite, a Toyeite. The houses have been ordered by their year of founding, College does not have an informal name, although the abbreviation Coll is sometimes used, especially on written work
6.
Wixenford School
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Wixenford School, also known as Wixenford Preparatory School and Wixenford-Eversley, was an independent preparatory school for boys near Wokingham, founded in 1869. A feeder school for Eton, after it closed in 1934 its former buildings were taken over by the present-day Ludgrove School, among the schools first intake of boys, in May 1869, was George Nathaniel Curzon, a future Viceroy of India. Before being attached to the school, Wixenford was the name of its first home, a new house built for Powles at Eversley in 1868–69. Powles, who in his youth had been a fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, had operated a school at Blackheath. After Kingsleys death in 1875, Powles became less active in the school and he moved to Chichester in 1881, where he became a prebendary of the cathedral. Powles was succeeded in 1879 by Ernest Penrose Arnold, a graduate of Balliol College, Oxford, and a nephew of Thomas Arnold of Rugby School. Arnold remained as master of the school until 1903. At six feet, five inches, in height, Arnold has been described by Rupert Croft-Cooke as a kindly. Wixenford was still small, as most such schools were at the time, the school moved to Luckley Park, Wokingham, Berkshire, in the late 19th century. Throughout its history, it had a connection with Eton. A few boys stayed longer, and at least one, Peter Anson, was almost fifteen when he left the school in the summer of 1904. In 1910, Morton was joined by two joint headmasters, who were partners, Harold Wallis and Ernest Garnett, forming a triumvirate. By 1920, Morton had retired and had replaced by Charles Mansfield. By 1924, Mansfield was acting as the head master. In September 1931 Garnett withdrew from the partnership, amid the Great Depression of the 1930s, Wixenford suffered a decline in numbers and finally closed in 1934. With its demise, its former buildings presented an opportunity for another fashionable prep school, Ludgrove, until then based at Cockfosters, while retaining its existing school name, Ludgrove kept Wixenford as the name of its new premises. Old boys of the school are called Old Wixenfordians, the following, in chronological order, are among the most notable
7.
Magdalen College, Oxford
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Magdalen College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford. As of 2014, the college had a financial endowment of £180.8 million. Magdalen stands next to the River Cherwell and has within its grounds a deer park and Addisons Walk. The large, square Magdalen Tower is an Oxford landmark, and it is a tradition, dating to the days of Henry VII, Magdalen College was founded in 1458 by William of Waynflete, Bishop of Winchester and Lord Chancellor. The founders statutes included provision for a foundation of men and boys. The college received another substantial endowment from the estate of Sir John Fastolf of Caister Castle in Norfolk, another unrelated college named Magdalen Hall adjacent to Magdalen College eventually became part of Hertford College. Magdalens prominence since the mid-20th century owes much to such famous fellows as C. S. Lewis and A. J. P. Taylor, women were first admitted to the college in 1979. In 2015, Magdalen topped Oxfords Norrington Table of college undergraduate examination results, the college has large grounds, close to the city centre. They stretch north and east from the college, and are most of the bounded by Longwall Street, the High Street. This large meadow occupies most of the north west of the grounds, from the New Buildings. During the winter and spring, it is the home of a herd of Fallow Deer and it is possible to view the meadow from the path between New Buildings and Grove Quad, and also from the archway in New Buildings. In the 16th century, long before the introduction of the deer, the grove consisted of gardens, orchards, during the Civil War, it was used to house a regiment of soldiers. At one point in the 19th century it was home to three traction engines belonging to the department of the college. By the 20th century it had become well-wooded with many large trees and this triangular meadow lies to the east of the college, bounded on all sides by the River Cherwell. In the spring, it is filled with the flower Fritillaria meleagris and these flowers grow in very few places, and have been recorded growing in the meadow since around 1785. Once the flowering has finished, the deer are moved in for the summer, in wet winters, some or all of the meadow may flood, as the meadow is lower lying than the surrounding path. All around the edge of the meadow is a tree-lined path and it is a beautiful and tranquil walk, favoured by students, dons, and visitors alike. It also links the college with Holywell Ford, and the Fellows Garden, located to the north east of the Meadow, directly behind the new building of the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies
8.
Olive Custance
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Olive Eleanor Custance was a British poet and wife of Lord Alfred Douglas. She was part of the movement of the 1890s. Custance spent the majority of her childhood at Weston Old Hall in Norfolk, Custance joined the London literary circle around such figures as Oscar Wilde, Aubrey Beardsley, Ernest Dowson and John Gray in about 1890 when she was only 16. At this time she became infatuated with the poet John Gray, heavily influenced by French poets such as Verlaine and Rimbaud and by the decadent mood of that period, she quickly rose to prominence as a poet. In 1901 she became involved in a relationship with the overtly lesbian writer Natalie Clifford Barney in Paris, Barney, and a friend of hers, Renée Vivien, were keen to win Custance as a partner, and indeed Custance remained on close terms with Barney for years. Custance and Barney exchanged love poems, including Custances poems The White Witch, viviens roman à clef A Woman Appeared to Me also recounts her brief relationship with Custance. During her brief affair with Barney, Custance also instigated a courtship with Lord Alfred Douglas by writing to him admiringly in June 1901, the two corresponded under the nicknames of the Prince and Princess or Page for Custance. However, in late 1901, in an odd turn of events, Custance became engaged to George Montagu and it was a short engagement because when Douglas returned from a trip to the USA the two of them ran away and married each other on 4 March 1902. Custances father did not approve of Douglas and they had one child, Raymond Wilfred Sholto Douglas, born on 17 November 1902. The marriage was stormy after Douglas became a Roman Catholic in 1911 and they began to live apart in 1913, after the couple lost a custody battle for their only child to Custances father. In 1913 Douglas was charged with libelling his father-in-law who had disapproved of him. The couple again lived together for a time in the 1920s after Olive also converted to Catholicism in 1917 and their only child, Raymond, showed signs of instability in his youth. For a time he served in the army, but was confined to institutions for long periods. This placed further strain on the marriage, so that by the end of the 1920s they had separated again, however, they did not divorce, and in 1932, she followed Douglas to Hove, taking a house near his. In the final 12 years of her life, they saw each other almost every day, in 1931 Douglas had already written that their marriage held firm despite the welter of mud and stones hurled at it by their enemies. Custance continued to write and publish poems in local newspapers and journals, often of a patriotic nature and she died on 12 February 1944 holding Lord Alfred Douglas hand, Douglas himself died the next year, on 20 March 1945. Their son Raymond survived to the age of 61, after several episodes of mental instability throughout his lifetime. Opals Rainbows The Blue Bird The Inn of Dreams The Inn of Dreams, Poems by Olive Custance, the Selected Poems of Olive Custance, edited by Brocard Sewell Posthumous Olive Custance, I Desire the Moon, The Diary of Lady Alfred Douglas 1905-1910, ed. C
9.
Oscar Wilde
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Oscar Fingal OFlahertie Wills Wilde was an Irish playwright, novelist, essayist, and poet. After writing in different forms throughout the 1880s, he one of Londons most popular playwrights in the early 1890s. He is remembered for his epigrams, his novel The Picture of Dorian Gray, his plays, as well as the circumstances of his imprisonment, Wildes parents were successful Anglo-Irish, Dublin intellectuals. Their son became fluent in French and German early in life, at university, Wilde read Greats, he proved himself to be an outstanding classicist, first at Dublin, then at Oxford. He became known for his involvement in the philosophy of aestheticism. After university, Wilde moved to London into fashionable cultural and social circles, known for his biting wit, flamboyant dress and glittering conversation, Wilde became one of the best-known personalities of his day. The opportunity to construct aesthetic details precisely, and combine them with social themes. He wrote Salome in French in Paris but it was refused a licence for England due to the prohibition of Biblical subjects on the English stage. Unperturbed, Wilde produced four society comedies in the early 1890s, at the height of his fame and success, while The Importance of Being Earnest, was still being performed in London, Wilde had the Marquess of Queensberry prosecuted for criminal libel. The Marquess was the father of Wildes lover, Lord Alfred Douglas, the charge carried a penalty of up to two years in prison. The trial unearthed evidence that caused Wilde to drop his charges and led to his own arrest, after two more trials he was convicted and imprisoned for two years hard labour. Upon his release he left immediately for France, never to return to Ireland or Britain, there he wrote his last work, The Ballad of Reading Gaol, a long poem commemorating the harsh rhythms of prison life. He died destitute in Paris at the age of 46, Oscar Wilde was born at 21 Westland Row, Dublin, the second of three children born to Sir William Wilde and Jane Wilde, two years behind William. Wildes mother was of Italian descent, and under the pseudonym Speranza and she read the Young Irelanders poetry to Oscar and Willie, inculcating a love of these poets in her sons. Lady Wildes interest in the neo-classical revival showed in the paintings and busts of ancient Greece, William Wilde was Irelands leading oto-ophthalmologic surgeon and was knighted in 1864 for his services as medical adviser and assistant commissioner to the censuses of Ireland. He also wrote books about Irish archaeology and peasant folklore, a renowned philanthropist, his dispensary for the care of the citys poor at the rear of Trinity College, Dublin, was the forerunner of the Dublin Eye and Ear Hospital, now located at Adelaide Road. On his fathers side Wilde was descended from a Dutchman, Colonel de Wilde, on his mothers side Wildes ancestors included a bricklayer from County Durham who emigrated to Ireland sometime in the 1770s. Wilde was baptised as an infant in St, marks Church, Dublin, the local Church of Ireland church
10.
Uranian
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Ulrichs developed his terminology before the first public use of the term homosexual, which appeared in 1869 in a pamphlet published anonymously by Karl-Maria Kertbeny. The word Uranian was derived by Ulrichs from the Greek goddess Aphrodite Urania, therefore, it stands for homosexual gender, while Aphrodite Dionea represents the heterosexual gender. Oscar Wilde wrote to Robert Ross in a letter, To have altered my life would have been to have admitted that Uranian love is ignoble. I hold it to be noble - more noble than other forms, the term also gained currency among a group that studied Classics and dabbled in pederastic poetry from the 1870s to the 1930s. The writings of this group are now known by the phrase Uranian poetry, the art of Henry Scott Tuke and Wilhelm von Gloeden is also sometimes referred to as Uranian. The word itself alludes to Platos Symposium, a discussion on Eros, in this dialog, Pausanias distinguishes between two types of love, symbolised by two different accounts of the birth of Aphrodite, the goddess of love. In one, she was born of Uranus, a birth in which the female has no part and this Uranian Aphrodite is associated with a noble love for male youths, and is the source of Ulrichss term urning. After Dione, Ulrichs gave the name dioning to men who are attracted to women. However, unlike Platos account of love, Ulrichs understood male urnings to be essentially feminine. John Addington Symonds, who was one of the first to take up the term Uranian in the English language, was a student of Benjamin Jowett and was familiar with the Symposium. However, it has argued that this etymology, at least for the English-speaking countries, is unrelated to Ulrichss coinage. In his volume Secreted Desires, The Major Uranians, Michael M. Kaylor writes and he developed a more complex threefold axis for understanding sexual and gender variance, sexual orientation, preferred sexual behavior, and gender characteristics. The three axes were usually, but not necessarily, linked — Ulrichs himself, for example, was a Weibling who preferred the active sexual role, note that in these terms, -in is an ordinary German suffix usually meaning female. Urningin, A person assigned female at birth with a male psyche, urning, A person assigned male at birth with a female psyche, whose main sexual attraction is to men
11.
John Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry
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John Douglas was born in Florence, Italy, the eldest son of Conservative politician Archibald Viscount Drumlanrig and Caroline Margaret Clayton. He had three brothers, Francis, Archibald, and James, and two sisters, Gertrude and Florence and he was briefly styled Viscount Drumlanrig following his fathers succession in 1856, and on the latters death in 1858 he inherited the Marquessate of Queensberry. The 9th Marquess was educated in the training ships Illustrious and Britannia at Portsmouth and he was Lieutenant-Colonel commanding the 1st Dumfriesshire Rifle Volunteers from 1869 to 1871. In 1864 Queensberry entered Magdalene College, Cambridge, which he left two years later taking a degree. He was more distinguished in sport, playing cricket as well as running, hunting. He married Sibyl Montgomery in 1866 and they had four sons and a daughter, his wife successfully sued for divorce in 1887 on the grounds of his adultery. She survived him to the age of 90, dying in 1935, Queensberry married Ethel Weeden in 1893 but the marriage was annulled the following year. Queensberry sold the family seat of Kinmount in Dumfriesshire, Scotland and he wrote a poem starting with the words When I am dead cremate me. After cremation at Woking Crematorium, his ashes were buried at Kinmount in the Douglas Mausoleum outside Cummertrees Parish Church. His eldest son and heir apparent was Francis Viscount Drumlanrig, who was rumoured to have engaged in a homosexual relationship with the Liberal Prime Minister. He died unmarried and without issue, Douglas second son, Lord Percy Douglas, succeeded to the peerage instead. Lord Alfred Bosie Douglas, the son, was the close friend and lover of the famous author. Queensberrys efforts to end that led to his famous dispute with Wilde. Queensberry was a patron of sport and a boxing enthusiast. The following year the Club published a set of rules for conducting boxing matches. The rules had been drawn up by John Graham Chambers but appeared under Queensberrys sponsorship and are known as the Queensberry rules. A keen rider, Queensberry was also active in fox hunting, as a rider his first winner was in the Dumfriesshire Hunt Club chase in 1865, and his last was at Sandown Park in 1883. He was Master of the Worcester Fox Hounds in 1870 and he was on the committee of the National Hunt but never won a Grand National as a rider, a last-minute substitution on the victorious Old Joe keeping him out of the 1886 National
12.
Marquess
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A marquess is a nobleman of hereditary rank in various European peerages and in those of some of their former colonies. The term is used to translate equivalent Asian styles, as in imperial China. In Great Britain and Ireland, the spelling of the aristocratic title of this rank is marquess. In Scotland the French spelling is sometimes used. In Great Britain and Ireland, the ranks below a duke. A woman with the rank of a marquess, or the wife of a marquess, is called a marchioness /ˌmɑːrʃəˈnɛs/ in Great Britain, the dignity, rank or position of the title is referred to as a marquisate or marquessate. The theoretical distinction between a marquess and other titles has, since the Middle Ages, faded into obscurity. In times past, the distinction between a count and a marquess was that the land of a marquess, called a march, was on the border of the country, while a land, called a county. As a result of this, a marquess was trusted to defend and fortify against potentially hostile neighbours and was more important. The title is ranked below that of a duke, which was restricted to the royal family. In the German lands, a Margrave was a ruler of an immediate Imperial territory, German rulers did not confer the title of marquis, holders of marquisates in Central Europe were largely associated with the Italian and Spanish crowns. The word entered the English language from the Old French marchis in the late 13th or early 14th century, the French word was derived from marche, itself descended from the Middle Latin marca, from which the modern English words march and mark also descend. In Great Britain and Ireland, the spelling for an English aristocrat of this rank is marquess. The word marquess is unusual in English, ending in -ess but referring to a male, a woman with the rank of a marquess, or the wife of a marquess, is called a marchioness in Great Britain and Ireland, or a marquise /mɑːrˈkiːz/ elsewhere in Europe. The dignity, rank or position of the title is referred to as a marquisate or marquessate, the honorific prefix The Most Honourable is a form of address that precedes the name of a marquess or marchioness in the United Kingdom. The rank of marquess was a late introduction to the British peerage, no marcher lords had the rank of marquess. The following list may still be incomplete, feminine forms follow after a slash, many languages have two words, one for the modern marquess and one for the original margrave. Even where neither title was used domestically, such duplication to describe foreign titles can exist
13.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
14.
George Cecil Ives
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George Cecil Ives was a German-English poet, writer, penal reformer and early homosexual law reform campaigner. Ives was the son of an English army officer and a Spanish baroness. He was raised by his grandmother, Emma Ives. They lived between Bentworth in Hampshire and the South of France, Ives was educated at home and at Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he started to amass 45 volumes of scrapbooks. His interest in cricket led him to play a single first-class cricket match for the Marylebone Cricket Club in 1902, Ives met Oscar Wilde at the Authors Club in London in 1892. Ives was already working for the end of the oppression of homosexuals and he hoped that Wilde would join the Cause, but was disappointed. In 1893, Lord Alfred Douglas, with whom he had a brief affair, members included Charles Kains Jackson, Samuel Elsworth Cottam, Montague Summers, and John Gambril Nicholson. The same year, Ives visited Edward Carpenter at Millthorpe and this marked the beginning of their friendship. In 1914, Ives, together with Edward Carpenter, Magnus Hirschfeld, Laurence Housman and others and he also kept in touch with other progressive psychologists such as Havelock Ellis and Professor Cesare Lombroso. In 1931, the became the British Sexological Society. Ives was the archivist for the Society whose papers are now held by the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin, Ives also visited prisons across Europe and specialised in the study of the penal methods, particularly that of England. He lectured and published books on the topic, at his death in 1950, George Ives left a large archive covering his life and work between 1874 and 1949. The papers were bought in 1977 by the Harry Ransom Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin, Ives correspondents include Adolf Brand, Oscar Browning, Edward Carpenter, Havelock Ellis, Norman Gale, Augustus Hare, Ernest Jones, Cesare Lombroso, C. M. North, Reggie Turner and Edward Westermarck and this section groups examples of Ives published works, lectures, notes and samples of verse, both as typescripts and holographs. The topics represented include, prison reform, crime and punishment, historical views of sexuality, the bulk of the material consists of 122 volumes of diaries kept by Ives from the age of nineteen until about six months before his death at age eighty-two. Most of the diaries have daily entries for the period from 20 December 1886 to 16 November 1949, the content varies from descriptive impressions of social events to detailed examinations of his friends and acquaintances, analyses of the treatment of criminals, and the workings of prisons. From volume thirteen on, Ives indexed his diaries, and he used them when he was preparing for a lecture or other writings. There is also a proof of George Bernard Shaws preface to English Prisons Today
15.
Archibald Douglas, 8th Marquess of Queensberry
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Archibald William Douglas, 8th Marquess of Queensberry PC, styled Viscount Drumlanrig between 1837 and 1856, was a Scottish Conservative Party politician. He notably served as Comptroller of the Household between 1853 and 1856, Douglas was the son of John Douglas, 7th Marquess of Queensberry, by Sarah Douglas, daughter of Major James Sholto Douglas. He became known by the courtesy title Viscount Drumlanrig when his father succeeded to the marquessate of Queensberry in 1837 and he played first-class cricket for the Marylebone Cricket Club in 1841. Lord Drumlanrig was returned to parliament for Dumfriesshire in 1847, in 1856 he also succeeded his father in the marquessate. However, as this was a Scottish peerage, it did not entitle him to a seat in the House of Lords and he stood down from the House of Commons in early 1857. Apart from his career he was also Lord-Lieutenant of Dumfriesshire from 1850 to 1858. Lord Queensberry married Caroline Margaret Clayton, daughter of General Sir William Clayton, 5th Baronet, at Gretna Green, Scotland and they had six children, Lady Gertrude Georgiana Douglas, married Thomas Stock. Lord Francis William Bouverie Douglas, beaten by A. W. Moore and party by a day to first ascent of the Ober Gabelhorn, Lady Florence Caroline Douglas, war correspondent, travel writer, and feminist. Lord James Edward Sholto Douglas, married racehorse breeder Martha Lucy Hennessy in 1888, lord Queensberry died while hunting in August 1858 aged forty, officially from the explosion of his gun. However, the event was believed to be a suicide. The Marchioness of Queensberry died in February 1904, hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by Archibald Douglas, 8th Marquess of Queensberry
16.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
17.
Lady Florence Dixie
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Lady Florence Caroline Dixie, was a Scottish traveller, war correspondent, writer and feminist. Florence has been described as a tomboy who tried to match her brothers in physical activities, whether swimming, riding and she rode astride, wore her hair short in a boyish crop, and refused to conform to fashion when being presented to Queen Victoria. She and her twin brother James were particularly close during childhood, calling each other Darling and she was also close to her older brother John, whom she resembled in temperament, both being fearless, dynamic and opinionated. Her childhood was marked by a number of dramatic and even tragic events, on 6 August 1858, when she was 3, Lady Florences father died in what was reported as a shooting accident, but was widely believed to have been suicide. In 1862 his widow Caroline acted upon a conviction and converted to Catholicism. She took her youngest children, Archibald, Florence and James to France and this led the childrens guardians to threaten Lady Queensberry with the loss of her children under English law. The three were too young to choose a guardian under Scottish law and they remained in France for two years. Archibald converted and took orders, becoming a Roman Catholic priest. Carolines older daughter, Gertrude, also became Catholic, when her Protestant fiance would not agree to raise their children in the Catholic faith, Gertrudes engagement was broken off. She entered a convent in Hammersmith and completed her novitiate to become a Sister of the Black Veil in 1867, eventually, it was agreed that Caroline would retain custody of the children, and they returned to England. Lady Florence was originally educated at home by a governess, but is described as defiant, rebellious, after returning from France at age 9, the twins were separated. James was sent to a Catholic boarding school, and Florence to a convent school and she apparently found some consolation in writing poetry, her childhood verses were published much later as The songs of a child, and other poems, under the pseudonym Darling. Another tragedy struck the family just days before Florences eldest brother, Queensberry travelled post-haste to Zermatt with the intention of bringing home his brothers body, but nothing had been found of Lord Francis but some tattered shreds of his clothing. Queensberry, alone, without a guide, and starting by moonlight, attacked the Matterhorn himself and it was largely a matter of chance that two guides found and rescued him before he died of cold. He wrote apologetically to Florence, I thought and thought where he was, and called him, I was half mad with misery, and I could not help it. Exceedingly amiable and talented Francis loss was felt by his family. In 1876, Florence would accompany Queensbury on his return to Zermatt, beyond the family, the tragedy was a long-running sensation, reported by newspapers all over the world, often in tones both sensational and denunciatory. On 3 April 1875, at the age of nineteen, Douglas married Sir Alexander Beaumont Churchill Dixie, 11th Baronet and he served as High Sheriff of Leicestershire for 1876
18.
Lord Francis Douglas
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Lord Francis William Bouverie Douglas was a novice British mountaineer. After sharing in the first ascent of the Matterhorn, he died in a fall on the way down from the summit and he was an uncle of Oscar Wildes lover Lord Alfred Douglas, and a younger brother of John Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry. In 1858, Douglass father, Lord Queensberry, died in what was reported as a shooting accident, in 1862, his mother, Lady Queensberry, converted to Roman Catholicism and took her children to live in Paris. Douglas was educated at the Edinburgh Academy, at the beginning of 1865, the Matterhorn was still unconquered, and more than one assault on it was planned. One such group consisted of Douglas, Edward Whymper, and their guide Peter Taugwalder, Whymper had already made several unsuccessful attempts on the mountain. At 4,30 a. m. on 13 July, a party of seven men, led by Whymper, set off for the Matterhorn under a clear sky, Whymper, Douglas, Hudson and Hadow, plus Taugwalder and son. They climbed past the Schwarzsee to a plateau where they camped, meanwhile, the Italians, led by Carrel, had camped at a height of about 4000 meters on the Lion Ridge. On 14 July, Whympers party proceeded to a successful first ascent by the Hörnli route, however, on the way down, Hadow fell, knocking down Croz, and also dragging Hudson and Douglas, connected by a rope. The four fell to their deaths on the Matterhorn Glacier 1,400 metres below, three of the bodies lost were later found, but not Douglass. Whymper later described the deaths as follows, The rival party of Italian alpinists reached the Matterhorns summit three days later, the deaths of Douglas, Croz, Hadow and Hudson led to years of recriminations and debate, many blaming Whymper, others suggesting sabotage and even murder. The coroner in Zermatt asked few searching questions, and the fraternity was deeply divided over the matter until long after the deaths of all concerned. The incident is seen as marking the end of the Golden age of alpinism, thirty years on, as the father of Lord Alfred Douglas, he became the man who brought down Oscar Wilde. Their sister Lady Florence Dixie also came to attention, as a traveller, war correspondent, writer. Their brother Lord James Douglas suffered for years from depression and alcoholism. New York City, Charles Scribners Sons, the First Descent of the Matterhorn. Condensed as Ascent of the Matterhorn
19.
Matterhorn
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The Matterhorn is a mountain of the Alps, straddling the main watershed and border between Switzerland and Italy. It is a huge and near-symmetrical pyramidal peak in the extended Monte Rosa area of the Pennine Alps, whose summit is 4,478 metres high, making it one of the highest summits in the Alps and Europe. The four steep faces, rising above the glaciers, face the four compass points and are split by the Hörnli, Furggen, Leone. The mountain overlooks the Swiss town of Zermatt in the canton of Valais to the north-east, just east of the Matterhorn is Theodul Pass, the main passage between the two valleys on its north and south sides and a trade route since the Roman Era. The Matterhorn was studied by Horace-Bénédict de Saussure in the eighteenth century. It remained unclimbed after most of the other great Alpine peaks had been attained, the first ascent of the Matterhorn was finally made in 1865 from Zermatt by a party led by Edward Whymper but ended disastrously when four of its members fell to their deaths on the descent. That climb and disaster, later portrayed in films, marked the end of the golden age of alpinism. The north face was not climbed until 1931, and is amongst the three biggest north faces of the Alps, known as the ‘The Trilogy’, the west face, which is the highest of the four, was completely climbed only in 1962. It is estimated that over 500 alpinists have died on the Matterhorn since the first climb in 1865, making it one of the deadliest peaks in the world. The current shape of the mountain is the result of erosion due to multiple glaciers diverging from the peak, such as the Matterhorn Glacier at the base of the north face. Sometimes referred to as the Mountain of Mountains, the Matterhorn has become an emblem of the Swiss Alps. Since the end of the 19th century, when railways were built in the area, each year a large number of mountaineers try to climb the Matterhorn from the Hörnli Hut via the northeast Hörnli ridge, the most popular route to the summit. Many trekkers also undertake the 10-day-long circuit around the mountain, the Matterhorn is part of the Swiss Federal Inventory of Natural Monuments since 1983. Decomposing Matterhorn yields Matter and Horn, here Matter is Matte in the case. Commonly, prepositions related to Zermatt are dropped as in Matterhorn, Mattertal, in Sebastian Münsters Cosmography, published in 1543, the name Matter is given to the Theodul Pass, which seems to be the origin of the present German name of the mountain. On Münsters topographical map this group is marked under the names of Augstalberg, the French name Cervin, from which the Italian term Cervino derives, stems from the Latin Mons Silvanus where silva, means forest which was corrupted to Selvin and then Servin. The change of the first letter s to c is attributed to Horace Bénédict de Saussure, servius Galba, in order to carry out Caesars orders, came with his legions from Allobroges to Octodurum in the Valais, and pitched his camp there. It is unknown when the new name of Servin, or Cervin, replaced the old, the Matterhorn is also named Gran Becca by the Valdôtains and Horu by the local Walliser German speaking people
20.
War correspondent
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A war correspondent is a journalist who covers stories firsthand from a war zone. They were also called special correspondents in the 19th century and their jobs require war correspondents to deliberately go to the most conflict-ridden parts of the world. Once there, they attempt to get enough to the action to provide written accounts, photos. Thus, being a war correspondent is often considered the most dangerous form of journalism, on the other hand, war coverage is also one of the most successful branches of journalism. Newspaper sales increase greatly in wartime and television news ratings go up, News organizations have sometimes been accused of militarism because of the advantages they gather from conflict. William Randolph Hearst is often said to have encouraged the Spanish–American War for this reason, only some conflicts receive extensive worldwide coverage, however. Among recent wars, the Kosovo War received a deal of coverage. Written war correspondents have existed as long as journalism, before modern journalism it was more common for longer histories to be written at the end of a conflict. The first known of these is Herodotuss account of the Persian Wars, thucydides, who some years later wrote a history of the Peloponnesian Wars was an observer to the events he described. Her description of the events took place in the Marshall House are particularly poignant because she was in the midst of battle. A further modernization came with the development of newspapers and magazines, one of the earliest war correspondents was Henry Crabb Robinson, who covered Napoleons campaigns in Spain and Germany for The Times of London. Another early correspondent was William Hicks who letters describing the Battle of Trafalgar were also published in The Times, early film and television news rarely had war correspondents. Rather, they would simply collect footage provided by sources, often the government. This footage was often staged as cameras were large and bulky until the introduction of small, the situation changed dramatically with the Vietnam War when networks from around the world sent cameramen with portable cameras and correspondents. This proved damaging to the United States as the brutality of war became a daily feature on the nightly news. The discourse in mediated conflicts is influenced by its public character, by forwarding information and arguments to the media, conflict parties attempt to use the media influence to gain support from their constituencies and persuade their opponents. The continued progress of technology has allowed live coverage of events via satellite up-links, the rise of twenty-four hour news channels has led to a heightened demand for coverage. William Howard Russell, who covered the Crimean War, also for The Times, is described as the first modern war correspondent
21.
Morning Post
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The Morning Post was a conservative daily newspaper published in London from 1772 to 1937, when it was acquired by The Daily Telegraph. The paper was founded by John Bell, originally a Whig paper, it was purchased by Daniel Stuart in 1795, who made it into a moderate Tory organ. A number of well-known writers contributed, including Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Charles Lamb, James Mackintosh, Robert Southey, in the seven years of Stuarts proprietorship, the papers circulation rose from 350 to over 4,000. From 1803 until his death in 1833, the owner and editor of the Post was Nicholas Byrne, later the paper was acquired by a Lancashire papermaker named Crompton. In 1848 he hired Peter Borthwick, a Scot who had been a Conservative MP for Evesham 1835-1847, when Peter died in 1852, his son Algernon took over. During the 1850s, the Post was very closely associated with the Palmerston ministry, with the aid of Andrew Montagu, Borthwick purchased the Post in 1876. His son Oliver was business manager and editor, but died young, in 1881, the paper appointed the first woman war correspondent when it sent Lady Florence Dixie to South Africa to cover the First Boer War. The paper was noted for its attentions to the activities of the powerful and wealthy, its interest in foreign affairs, and in literary and artistic events. It began regular printing of notices of plays, concerts, and operas in the early 20th century, Arthur Hervey was the papers music critic between 1892 and 1908. Beginning in 1900, the Australian politician Alfred Deakin wrote anonymous commentaries on Australian politics for the paper, maurice Baring was a foreign correspondent for the paper, reporting from Manchuria, Russia and Constantinople between 1904 and 1909. He was war correspondent with Russian forces during the Russo-Japanese War, also Harold Williams started to write from Russia. Howell Arthur Gwynne took over as editor in 1911 and it is still widely held that Victor E. Marsden, the papers Russian desk correspondent, used the copy of this rare book retained by the British Museum to translate this last chapter for the paper. Some have questioned this because the anonymous 1923 publication crediting Marsden as the translator in the pamphlets preface occurred three years after Marsdens death on October 28,1920. These articles were collected and formed the basis of the book, The Cause of World Unrest, to which half the papers staff contributed, mainly George Shanks. But main credit for the compilation was given to the papers editor, the book further denounced international Jewry and cultural and social dissolution among the Christian Nations. The Bathursts sold the paper to a consortium headed by the Duke of Northumberland in 1924, in 1937, the Morning Post was sold to the Daily Telegraph, which was owned by William Berry. The Post did not remain a separate title and it was absorbed into the Telegraph,1848, Peter Borthwick 1852, Algernon Borthwick 1905, Spenser Wilkinson 1905, Fabian Ware 1911, Howell Arthur Gwynne Hindle, Wilfrid. The Morning Post, 1772-1937, Portrait of a Newspaper, OCLC59113358, re-published in 1974, Google Books The Morning Post, 1772-1937, Portrait of a Newspaper
22.
First Boer War
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The war resulted in defeat for the British and the second independence of the South African Republic. The southern part of the African continent was dominated in the 19th century by a set of struggles to create within it a single unified state. British attempts in 1880 to annex the Transvaal were their biggest incursions into southern Africa, in the 1880s, Bechuanaland, became an object of dispute between the Germans to the west, the Boers to the east, and the British in the Cape Colony to the south. Although Bechuanaland had almost no value, the Missionaries Road passed through it toward territory farther north. After the Germans annexed Damaraland and Namaqualand in 1884, the British annexed Bechuanaland in 1885, after the Battle of Blaauwberg Britain had acquired the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa from the Dutch in 1815 during the Napoleonic Wars. Certain groups of Dutch speaking settler farmers resented British rule, even though British control brought some economic benefits, the British did not try to stop the Trekboers from moving away from the Cape. The Trekboers were farmers gradually extending their range and territory with no agenda, the formal abolition of slavery in the British Empire in 1834 led to more organised groups of Boer settlers attempting to escape British rule, some travelling as far north as modern-day Mozambique. However, British colonial expansion was, from the 1830s, marked by skirmishes, the discovery of diamonds in 1867 near the Vaal River, some 550 miles northeast of Cape Town, ended the isolation of the Boers in the interior and changed South African history. In the 1870s, the British annexed West Griqualand, site of the Kimberley diamond discoveries, however the cultural and historical context was entirely different, and the Boer leaders turned him down. The successive British annexations, and in particular the annexation of West Griqualand, there were other more pressing concerns for the Boer Republics. During the 1870s there was a series of skirmishes within the Transvaal between the Boers and indigenous local tribes, there were also serious tensions between the Transvaal Republic and the Zulus led by King Cetshwayo. The Zulus occupied a kingdom located to the southeast, bordered on the one side by the Transvaal Republic, upon taking the throne, King Cetshwayo had expanded his army and reintroduced many of the paramilitary practices of the famous Shaka, king of the Zulus. He had also started equipping his impis with firearms, although this was a process and the majority had only shields, knobkerries, throwing spears and the famous stabbing spear. Over 40,000 Zulu warriors were a force on their own home ground. The Transvaal Boers became more and more concerned, but King Cetshwayos policy was to good relations with the British in Natal in an effort to counter the Boer threat. In 1877, Sir Theophilus Shepstone, the British Secretary for Native Affairs in Natal, annexed the South African Republic, for Britain, using a special warrant. They also feared a war on two fronts, namely that the tribes would seize the opportunity to rebel and the simmering unrest in the Transvaal would be re-ignited. The British annexation nevertheless resulted in resentment against the British occupation, the Transvaal Boers, led by Paul Kruger, thereafter elected to deal first with the perceived Zulu threat to the status quo, and local issues, before directly opposing the British annexation
23.
Feminism
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Feminism is a range of political movements, ideologies, and social movements that share a common goal, to define and advance political, economic, personal, and social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish opportunities for women in education. Feminists have also worked to promote autonomy and integrity, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years and represent different viewpoints, some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle class, and educated perspectives. This criticism led to the creation of specific or multicultural forms of feminism, including black feminism. Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having coined the word féminisme in 1837, depending on the historical moment, culture and country, feminists around the world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist historians assert that all working to obtain womens rights should be considered feminist movements. Other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and those historians use the label protofeminist to describe earlier movements. The history of the modern western feminist movements is divided into three waves, each wave dealt with different aspects of the same feminist issues. The first wave comprised womens suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second wave was associated with the ideas and actions of the womens liberation movement beginning in the 1960s. The second wave campaigned for legal and social equality for women, the third wave is a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s. First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th century, in the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902, in 1928 this was extended to all women over 21. In the U. S. notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing womens right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, in the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, granting women the right to vote in all states. During the late Qing period and reform movements such as the Hundred Days Reform, Chinese feminists called for womens liberation from traditional roles, later, the Chinese Communist Party created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved womens liberation. According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with Arab nationalism, in 1899, Qasim Amin, considered the father of Arab feminism, wrote The Liberation of Women, which argued for legal and social reforms for women. He drew links between womens position in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to the development of Cairo University, in 1923 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Union, became its president and a symbol of the Arab womens rights movement
24.
Women's suffrage
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Womens suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Limited voting rights were gained by women in Finland, Iceland, Sweden and some Australian colonies, National and international organizations formed to coordinate efforts to gain voting rights, especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, and also worked for equal civil rights for women. In 1881, the Isle of Man gave women who owned property the right to vote, in 1893, the British colony of New Zealand, granted women the right to vote. The colony of South Australia, did the same in 1894 and women were able to vote in the next election, South Australia also permitted women to stand for election alongside men. In 1899 Western Australia enacted full womens suffrage, enabling women to vote in the referendum of 31 July 1900. In 1902 women in the four colonies also acquired the right to vote. Discriminatory restrictions against Aboriginal people, including women, voting in elections, were not completely removed until 1962. Norway followed, granting full womens suffrage in 1913, most independent countries enacted womens suffrage in the interwar era, including Canada in 1917, Britain in 1918 and the United States in 1920. If women could work in factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was more than simply a reward for war work. Late adopters in Europe included Spain in 1931, France in 1944, Italy in 1946, Greece in 1952, Switzerland in 1971, the United States gave women equal voting rights in all states with the Nineteenth Amendment ratified in 1920. Canada and a few Latin American nations passed womens suffrage before World War II while the vast majority of Latin American nations established womens suffrage in the 1940s, the last Latin American country to give women the right to vote was Paraguay in 1961. In December 2015, women were first allowed to vote in Saudi Arabia, extended political campaigns by women and their supporters have generally been necessary to gain legislation or constitutional amendments for womens suffrage. In many countries, limited suffrage for women was granted before universal suffrage for men, for instance, in ancient Athens, often cited as the birthplace of democracy, only adult, male citizens who owned land were permitted to vote. Through subsequent centuries, Europe was generally ruled by monarchs, though forms of parliament arose at different times. Their Protestant successors enjoyed the same privilege almost into modern times and they make decisions there like the men, and it is they who even delegated the first ambassadors to discuss peace. The Iroquois, like many First Nations peoples in North America, had a kinship system. Property and descent were passed through the female line, Women elders voted on hereditary male chiefs and could depose them
25.
Robert Smythe Hichens
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Robert Hichens was an English journalist, novelist, music lyricist, short story writer, music critic and collaborated on successful plays. He is best remembered as a satirist of the Naughty Nineties, Hichens was born in Speldhurst in Kent, the eldest son of a clergyman. He was educated at Clifton College, the Royal College of Music, later in life he would be a music critic on the World, taking the place of George Bernard Shaw. He studied at the London School of Journalism, egypt was one of his favourite destinations – he first went there in the early 1890s for his health. For most of his life he lived outside England, in Switzerland. Hichens was a homosexual, he never married, Hichens first novel, The Coastguards Secret, was written when he was only seventeen. Hichens was also friends with other writers, including E. F. Benson and Reggie Turner. How Love Came to Professor Guildea was not initially well-received, with Frederic Taber Cooper calling the story a bit of morbidity. Later reviews of the story were more positive, J. A. Cuddon called it outstanding and compared it with The Horla by Guy de Maupassant and The Beckoning Fair One by Oliver Onions. Brian Stableford described the story as a masterpiece of horror fiction. Hichens Felix, is a fictional treatment of hypodermic morphine addiction, while the The Garden of Allah sold well internationally. Hichens published his memoirs in 1947, Yesterday, volume 153, Late-Victorian and Edwardian British Novelists
26.
The Green Carnation
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It was an instant succès de scandale on both sides of the Atlantic. The reviewer for The Observer wrote, The Green Carnation will be read, nothing so impudent, so bold, or so delicious has been printed these many years. The book features the characters of Esmé Amarinth, and Lord Reginald Hastings, the words put in the mouths of the hero and his young friend in the story are mostly gathered from the sayings of their originals. Robert Hichens spent nearly a year in the company of the men and was able to recreate the atmosphere. The book was withdrawn from circulation in 1895, but by time the damage had been done. Wilde soon stood three consecutive trials for gross indecency and was sentenced to two years at hard labour, the Green Carnation was one of the works used against him by the prosecution. The Green Carnation was republished in 1948 with an introduction by the author and it was reissued in paperback in this form in 1992, and republished again in 2006 as a hardcover with a foreword by Anthony Wynn. In the letter Wilde wrote, Sir, but with the middle-class and mediocre book that usurps its strangely beautiful name I have, I need hardly say, nothing whatsoever to do. The Flower is a work of Art, project Gutenberg edition Wildes letter to the Pall Mall Gazette denying authorship of The Green Carnation. The Green Carnation public domain audiobook at LibriVox
27.
Salome (play)
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Salome is a tragedy by Oscar Wilde. The original 1891 version of the play was in French, three years later an English translation was published. The play was first published in French in February 1893, on the Dedication page, Wilde indicated that his lover Lord Alfred Douglas was the translator. Beardsley and the publisher John Lane got drawn in when they sided with Wilde, in a gesture of reconciliation, Wilde did the work himself but dedicated Douglas as the translator rather than having them sharing their names on the title-page. Douglas compared a dedication to sharing the title-page as the difference between a tribute of admiration from an artist and a receipt from a tradesman. The play was premiered on 11 February 1896, while Wilde was in prison, in Paris at the Comédie-Parisienne – - in a staging by Lugné-Poes theatre group. In Pall Mall Gazette of 29 June 1892 Wilde explained, why he had written Salomé in French, I have one instrument that I know I can command, and that is the English language. There was another instrument to which I had listened all my life, of course, there are modes of expression that a Frenchman of letters would not have used, but they give a certain relief or colour to the play. A great deal of the effect that Maeterlinck produces comes from the fact that he. The same thing is true of Rossetti, who, though he wrote in English, was essentially Latin in temperament. A performance of the play was arranged by the New Stage Club at the Bijou Theatre in Archer Street, London, on 10 and 13 May 1905, starring Millicent Murby as Salome and directed by Florence Farr. In June 1906 the play was presented privately with A Florentine Tragedy by the Literary Theatre Society at Kings Hall, Covent Garden. The Lord Chamberlains ban was not lifted for almost forty years and she took the role of Herodias herself and cast her daughter Joan Maude as Salomé. In 1992 the play was performed on Broadway at the Circle in the Square Theatre, sheryl Lee starred as the title role alongside Al Pacino. The play costarred Suzanne Bertish, Esai Morales and Arnold Vosloo, Al Pacino said in an interview that a new production of the play where he will star as King Herod is to open in Londons West End in 2016. Wilde had considered the subject since he had first been introduced to Hérodias, one of Flauberts Trois Contes, by Walter Pater and his interest had been further stimulated by descriptions of Gustave Moreaus paintings of Salome in Joris-Karl Huysmanss À rebours. Other literary influences include Heinrich Heines Atta Troll, Laforgues Salomé in Moralités Légendaires, Wilde often referred to the play in musical terms and believed that recurring phrases bind it together like a piece of music with recurring motifs. Although the kissing of the element was used in Heine and even Joseph Converse Heywoods production
28.
John Lane (publisher)
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John Lane was a British publisher who with Charles Elkin Mathews founded The Bodley Head in 1887. Originally from Devon, where he was born into a farming family, while working as a clerk at the Railway Clearing House, he acquired knowledge as an autodidact. After entering the London book trade he became co-founder of The Bodley Head, Lane is mainly associated with publishing controversial and audacious texts, especially for a small, sophisticated audience. G. Wellss novel about his affair with Amber Reeves, The New Machiavelli, on 13 August 1898, John Lane married Annie Philippine King, the widow of Tyler Batcheller King and the daughter of Julius Eichberg. Annie Lane was author of To Thee, O Country and of the books Browns Retreat, Kitwyk, The Champagne Standard, Talk of the Town, John Lane died of pneumonia on 2 February 1925 at his London home,8 Lancaster Gate Terrace, Bayswater, London. He was cremated at Golders Green, and his ashes were interred at St Nectans Church, Hartland and his nephews, Allen, Richard and John, founded Penguin Books. In the churchyard of St Nectans, Stoke, near Hartland in Devon, there is a stone seat commemorating various members of the Lane family
29.
Aubrey Beardsley
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Aubrey Vincent Beardsley was an English illustrator and author. His drawings in ink, influenced by the style of Japanese woodcuts, emphasized the grotesque, the decadent. He was a figure in the Aesthetic movement which also included Oscar Wilde. Beardsleys contribution to the development of the Art Nouveau and poster styles was significant, Beardsley was born in Brighton, England, on 21 August 1872, and christened on 24 October 1872. Vincents wife, Ellen Agnus Pitt, was the daughter of Surgeon-Major William Pitt of the Indian Army, the Pitts were a well-established and respected family in Brighton, and Beardsleys mother married a man of lesser social status than might have been expected. Soon after their wedding, Vincent was obliged to sell some of his property in order to settle a claim for his breach of promise from another woman who claimed that he had promised to marry her. At the time of his birth, Beardsleys family, which included his sister Mabel who was one year older, were living in Ellens familial home at 12 Buckingham Road. The number of the house in Buckingham Road was 12, but the numbers were changed years ago, in 1883 his family settled in London, and in the following year he appeared in public as an infant musical phenomenon, playing at several concerts with his sister. In January 1885 he began to attend Brighton, Hove and Sussex Grammar School and his first poems, drawings and cartoons appeared in print in Past and Present, the schools magazine. In 1888 he obtained a post in an office, and afterwards one in the Guardian Life. In 1891, under the advice of Sir Edward Burne-Jones and Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, in 1892 he attended the classes at the Westminster School of Art, then under Professor Fred Brown. Beardsleys first commission was Le Morte dArthur by Thomas Malory, which he illustrated for the publishing house J. M. Dent and his six years of major creative output can be divided into several periods, identified by the form of his signature. In the early period his work is mostly unsigned, during 1891 and 1892 he progressed to using his initials, A. V. B. In mid-1892, the period of Le Morte dArthur and The Bon Mots he used a Japanese-influenced mark which became progressively more graceful, sometimes accompanied by A. B. in block capitals. He co-founded The Yellow Book with American writer Henry Harland, and for the first four editions he served as Art Editor and produced the cover designs and he was also closely aligned with Aestheticism, the British counterpart of Decadence and Symbolism. Most of his images are done in ink, and feature large dark areas contrasted with blank ones. Beardsley was the most controversial artist of the Art Nouveau era, renowned for his dark and perverse images and grotesque erotica and his illustrations were in black and white, against a white background. Some of his drawings, inspired by Japanese shunga artwork, featured enormous genitalia, other major illustration projects included an 1896 edition of The Rape of the Lock by Alexander Pope, and the collection A Book of Fifty Drawings by Aubrey Beardsley
30.
Robbie Ross
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Robert Baldwin Robbie Ross was a Canadian journalist, art critic and art dealer, best known for his relationship with Oscar Wilde, to whom he was a devoted friend and literary executor. His open homosexuality, in a period when male homosexual acts were illegal, Ross was born in Tours, France. He became Speaker of the Senate in 1869, Ross was the youngest of five children, with two sisters, Mary and Maria, and two brothers, John and Alexander. The family moved to Tours, France, in 1866 while Elizabeth was pregnant with Maria, who was born in 1867, the year of Canadian Confederation. John fulfilled his duties as Senator largely in absentia until he was chosen as Speaker of the Senate in 1869, the rest of the family followed in 1870. John died in January 1871 and Elizabeth moved the family to London, England, Ross caught pneumonia after a dunking in a fountain by a number of students who had, according to Ross, the full support of a professor, Arthur Augustus Tilley. After recovering, he fought for an apology from his students, which he received. The college refused to punish Tilley and Ross dropped out, soon after that, he chose to come out to his family. Ross found work as a journalist and critic, but he did not escape scandal and he is believed to have become Oscar Wildes first male lover in 1886, even before he went to Cambridge. In 1893, a few years before Wildes imprisonment, Ross had a relationship with a boy of sixteen. The boy confessed to his parents that he had engaged in activity with Ross. On 1 March 1895 Wilde, Douglas, and Ross approached a solicitor, Charles Octavius Humphreys, with the intention of suing the Marquess of Queensberry, Douglas’ father, for criminal libel. Humphreys asked Wilde directly whether there was any truth to Queensberry’s allegations of homosexual activity between Wilde and Douglas, to which Wilde replied “No. ”Humphreys applied for a warrant for Queensberry’s arrest, and approached Sir Edward Clarke and Charles Willie Mathews to represent Wilde. His son, Travers Humphreys, appeared as counsel for the prosecution in the subsequent case of Wilde vs Queensbury. Following Wilde’s imprisonment in 1895 Ross went abroad, but he returned to both financial and emotional support to Wilde during his last years. Ross remained loyal to Wilde and was with him when he died on 30 November 1900. It also meant fighting the rampant trade in black market copies of his books and, in particular, books, usually erotic, that Wilde did not write, Ross was assisted in this task by Christopher Sclater Millard, who compiled a definitive bibliography of Wildes writings. Ross gave Wildes sons the rights to all their fathers works along with the money earned from their publication or performance while he was executor, in 1908, some years after Wildes death, Ross produced the definitive edition of his works
31.
Brighton
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Brighton /ˈbraɪtən/ is a seaside resort on the south coast of England. It is part of the county of East Sussex, within the historic county of Sussex. Archaeological evidence of settlement in the dates back to the Bronze Age, Roman. The ancient settlement of Brighthelmstone was documented in the Domesday Book, Brighton began to attract more visitors following improved road transport to London and becoming a boarding point for boats travelling to France. The town also developed in popularity as a resort for sea bathing as a purported cure for illnesses. Brighton continued to grow as a centre of tourism following the arrival of the railways in 1841. Many of the attractions were built in the Victorian era, including the Grand Hotel, the West Pier. Brighton attracted 7.5 million day visitors in 2015/16 and 4.9 million overnight visitors, Brighton has also been called the UKs hippest city, and the happiest place to live in the UK. Brightons earliest name was Bristelmestune, recorded in the Domesday Book, although more than 40 variations have been documented, Brighthelmstone was the standard rendering between the 14th and 18th centuries. Brighton was originally a shortened form, first seen in 1660, it gradually supplanted the longer name. Brighthelmstone was the official name until 1810, though. The name is of Anglo-Saxon origin, most scholars believe that it derives from Beorthelm + tūn—the homestead of Beorthelm, a common Old English name associated with villages elsewhere in England. The tūn element is common in Sussex, especially on the coast, an alternative etymology taken from the Old English words for stony valley is sometimes given but has less acceptance. Brighthelm gives its name to, among other things, a church, the town was originally split in half by the Wellesbourne, a winterbourne which was culverted and buried in the 18th century. Poet Horace Smith called it The Queen of Watering Places, which is widely used. Novelist William Makepeace Thackeray referred to Doctor Brighton, calling the one of the best of Physicians. London-by-Sea is well-known, reflecting Brightons popularity with Londoners as a resort, a commuter dormitory. The Queen of Slaughtering Places, a pun on Smiths description, the mid 19th-century nickname School Town referred to the remarkable number of boarding, charity and church schools in the town at the time
32.
Grand Brighton Hotel
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The Grand Brighton Hotel is a historic Victorian sea front hotel in Brighton on the south coast of England. The Grand Hotel was designed by architect John Whichcord Jr. and it was built for members of the upper classes visiting Brighton and Hove and remains one of the most expensive hotels in the city. Among its advanced engineering features at the time was the Vertical Omnibus and this was the first lift built in the United Kingdom outside London, at a time when only two others had been installed. The building itself is an example of Italian influence in Victorian architecture, the bomb exploded at 2, 51am 12 October. It had been three weeks earlier behind the bath panel of room 629. Thatcher survived the bombing, but five people died in the attack, including Roberta Wakeham, wife of the governments Chief Whip John Wakeham. Norman Tebbit, a member of the Cabinet, was injured, along with his wife Margaret, Thatcher insisted that the conference open on time the next day and made her speech as planned in defiance of the bombers, a gesture which won widespread approval across the political spectrum. The hotel was re-opened on 28 August 1986, the re-inauguration was attended by Thatcher who spoke at a reception to celebrate the reopening. Tebbit accompanied her during the reopening, concorde flew low from the south to salute the opening. The hotel belonged to the De Vere Group beginning in the 1990s, De Vere Hotels undertook a multimillion-pound refurbishment of The Grand which was completed in 2013. The new spa opened on 10 May 2013, the refurbishment programme included GB1, a fish restaurant which opened on 6 February 2013, deluxe sea facing bedrooms and The Spa at The Grand. A range of ESPA, Carita, Lycon, Jessica and Geleration treatments are available to book with the Spa packages. On 15 October 2011 the Grand Hotel was inducted into the Brighton Walk of Fame and is only the structure in Brighton to be recognised by the Walk of Fame committee. De Vere Hotels sold the Grand in 2014 and it offers bespoke conferencing facilities for up to 800 guests. The largest room is the Empress Suite, which has a capacity of 800 guests and it is commonly used as a matrimonial venue for weddings. The hotels 43 ft yacht, the AnnabelOlivia, can be used for corporate functions and it was awarded 5 star status in 1988, but in 2008 it dropped out of the ratings system when a major refit was put on hold. The current manager is Andrew Mosley, the hotel has also been featured in ITVs Coronation Street
33.
Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery
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Between the death of his father, in 1851, and the death of his grandfather, the 4th Earl, in 1868, he was known by the courtesy title of Lord Dalmeny. Rosebery first came to attention in 1879–1880 by sponsoring the successful Midlothian campaign of William Ewart Gladstone. He briefly was in charge of Scottish affairs and this finest performance in office came as chairman of the London County Council in 1889. He entered the cabinet in 1885 and served twice as minister, paying special attention to French. He succeeded Gladstone as prime minister and leader of the Liberal party in 1894 and he resigned the party leadership in 1896 and never again held political office. He was widely known as a brilliant orator, a sportsman and marksman. All of these activities attracted him more politics, which grew boring. Furthermore, he drifted to the right of the Liberal party, winston Churchill, observing that he never adapted to democratic electoral competition, quipped, He would not stoop, he did not conquer. Rosebery was a Liberal Imperialist who favoured strong national defence and imperialism abroad and social reform at home, historians judge him a failure as foreign minister and as prime minister. Archibald Philip Primrose was born on 7 May 1847 in his parents house in Charles Street, Mayfair and his father was Archibald Primrose, Lord Dalmeny, son and heir apparent to Archibald Primrose, 4th Earl of Rosebery, whom he predeceased. Lord Dalmeny was a title used by the Earls eldest son and heir apparent, during the Earls lifetime. Lord Dalmeny was MP for Stirling from 1832 to 1847 and served as First Lord of the Admiralty under Lord Melbourne. Roseberys mother was Lady Wilhelmina Stanhope, a historian who wrote under her second married name the Duchess of Cleveland. Lord Dalmeny died on 23 January 1851, having predeceased his father, when the title passed to his son. In 1854 his mother remarried to Lord Harry Vane, the relationship between mother and son was very poor. His elder and favourite sister Lady Leconfield was the wife of Henry Wyndham, Dalmeny attended preparatory schools in Hertfordshire and Brighton and then Eton which he attended between 1860 and 1863, he then went to Brighton College between 1863 and 1865. His remarkable intellect, displayed in debates, attracted the attention of William Johnson Cory, michael Matthew Kaylors Secreted Desires, The Major Uranians, Hopkins, Pater and Wilde explores their personal relationship. Dalmeny proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford, through the years 1865 until 1869, remarkably the three Prime Ministers from 1880 to 1902, namely Gladstone, Salisbury and Rosebery, all attended both Eton and Christ Church
34.
The Importance of Being Earnest
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The Importance of Being Earnest, A Trivial Comedy for Serious People is a play by Oscar Wilde. First performed on 14 February 1895 at the St Jamess Theatre in London and its high farce and witty dialogue have helped make The Importance of Being Earnest Wildes most enduringly popular play. The successful opening night marked the climax of Wildes career but also heralded his downfall, the Marquess of Queensberry, whose son Lord Alfred Douglas was Wildes lover, planned to present the writer with a bouquet of rotten vegetables and disrupt the show. Wilde was tipped off and Queensberry was refused admission, soon afterwards their feud came to a climax in court, where Wildes homosexual double life was revealed to the Victorian public and he was eventually sentenced to imprisonment. His notoriety caused the play, despite its success, to be closed after 86 performances. After his release, he published the play from exile in Paris, the Importance of Being Earnest has been revived many times since its premiere. It has been adapted for the cinema on three occasions, after the success of Wildes plays Lady Windermeres Fan and A Woman of No Importance, Wildes producers urged him to write further plays. In July 1894 he mooted his idea for The Importance of Being Earnest to George Alexander, Wilde spent the summer with his family at Worthing, where he wrote the play quickly in August. His fame now at its peak, he used the working title Lady Lancing to avoid pre-emptive speculation of its content. Many names and ideas in the play were borrowed from people or places the author had known, Lady Queensberry, Lord Alfred Douglass mother, for example, lived at Bracknell. Wilde continually revised the text over the months, no line was left untouched. In revising as he did, Wilde transformed standard nonsense into the more systemic, richard Ellmann argues that Wilde had reached his artistic maturity and wrote this work more surely and rapidly than before. When Henry Jamess Guy Domville failed, Alexander turned to Wilde, Alexander began his usual meticulous preparations, interrogating the author on each line and planning stage movements with a toy theatre. In the course of these rehearsals Alexander asked Wilde to shorten the play from four acts to three, Wilde agreed and combined elements of the second and third acts. The largest cut was the removal of the character of Mr. Gribsby, Algernon, who is posing as Ernest, will be led away to Holloway Jail unless he settles his accounts immediately. Jack finally agrees to pay for Ernest, everyone thinking that it is Algernons bill when in fact it is his own, the four-act version was first played on the radio in a BBC production and is still sometimes performed. Peter Raby argues that the structure is more effective. The play was first produced at the St Jamess Theatre on Valentines Day 1895 and it was freezing cold but Wilde arrived dressed in florid sobriety, wearing a green carnation
35.
Visiting card
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A visiting card, also known as a calling card, is a small card with ones name printed on it, and often bearing an artistic design. Visiting cards became a tool of etiquette, with sophisticated rules governing their use. The essential convention was one person would not expect to see another person in his own home without first leaving his visiting card for the person at his home. Upon leaving the card, he would not expect to be admitted at first and this would serve as a signal that a personal visit and meeting at home would be welcome. On the other hand, if no card was forthcoming, or if a card was sent in an envelope, a personal visit was thereby discouraged. As an adoption from France, they were called une carte dadresse from 1615 to 1800, visiting cards became common among the aristocracy of Europe, and also in the United States. The whole procedure depended upon there being servants to open the door and receive the cards and it was, therefore, if a card was left with a turned corner it indicated that the card had been left in person rather than by a servant. Next day Paul found Stubbs card on his table, the turned up. Paul went to Hertford to call on Stubbs, but found him out and he left his card, the corner turned up. Some visiting cards included refined engraved ornaments, embossed lettering, however, the standard form visiting card in the 19th century in the United Kingdom was a plain card with nothing more than the bearers name on it. Sometimes the name of a gentlemens club might be added, visiting cards were kept in highly decorated card cases. The visiting card is no longer the feature of upper middle class and upper class life that it once was in Europe. Much more common is the card, in which contact details, including address. This has led to the inclusion of such details even on modern domestic visiting cards, a practice endorsed by modern books of etiquette, such as Debretts New Etiquette
36.
Merlin Holland
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Christopher Merlin Vyvyan Holland is a biographer, editor, and the only grandchild of Oscar Wilde. Holland is the son of the author Vyvyan Holland and his wife, Thelma Besant. For the last 30 years Holland has studied and researched Wildes life, Holland has criticized Richard Ellmanns 1989 biography, Oscar Wilde, as inaccurate, particularly the claim of syphilis. According to The Guardian, Holland has also unearthed medical evidence within private family letters, the letters reveal symptoms nowadays associated with multiple sclerosis but apparently wrongly diagnosed by her two doctors. One resorted to dubious remedies and the other conducted an operation that days later claimed her life. Holland has also written The Wilde Album, a volume that included hitherto unpublished photographs of Wilde. The book focuses on how the scandal caused by Wildes trials affected his family, most notably his wife, Constance, and their children, Cyril and Vyvyan. In 2006, his book Oscar Wilde, A Life in Letters was published, and his volume Coffee with Oscar Wilde, in addition, Holland has also worked as a wine writer and occasionally written features for Country Life, and The Oldie. It was a family before he came along, so if I put the family name back on the map for the right reasons, then its all right. ”In July 2013. The address surveyed the popular and critical attitudes towards Wilde and his work from the end of his life to the present day. The symposium was given in conjunction with the companys world premiere presentations of Oscar, which was composed by Theodore Morrison from a libretto written by John Cox. Holland lives in Burgundy, France with his partner and his son, Lucian Holland, Oscar Wildes only great-grandchild, studied classics at Magdalen College, and is a computer programmer, living in London. Both were present at the unveiling of a statue commemorating Wilde, along with Stephen Fry, a fan of Wildes works. Lucian was given rooms in Magdalen College which Wilde had once occupied,1998 – The Wilde Album 2003 – Irish Peacock and Scarlet Marquess, The Real Trial of Oscar Wilde 2004 – The Real Trial of Oscar Wilde Notes Sources Holland, Vyvyan, Son of Oscar Wilde. Radio play Nick Stafford, David Hunter, The Real Trial of Oscar Wilde, based on Irish Peacock and Scarlet Marquess, moss, Stephen, The importance of being Merlin, The Guardian,24 November 2000. Wheatcroft, Geoffrey, The Picture of Dorian Gray is complete tosh, The Guardian,24 November 2000
37.
Frank Harris
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Frank Harris was a British editor, novelist, short story writer, journalist and publisher, who was friendly with many well-known figures of his day. Born in Ireland, he emigrated to America early in life and he was to eventually become a citizen there. After graduation, he tired of his legal career and returned to Europe in 1882. He traveled on continental Europe before settling in London to pursue a career in journalism, Harris was born James Thomas Harris in 1855, in Galway, Ireland, to Welsh parents. His father, Thomas Vernon Harris, was an officer from Fishguard, Pembrokeshire. While living with his brother he was, for a year or more. At the age of 12 he was sent to Wales to continue his education as a boarder at the Ruabon Grammar School in Denbighshire, Harris was unhappy at the school and ran away within a year. He later invented a game he called Dirty Banshee. The art on the cards showed satyrs and goddesses coupling variously, Harris ran away to the United States in late 1869, arriving in New York City virtually penniless. The 13-year-old took a series of odd jobs to support himself, working first as a black, a porter, a general laborer. Harris would later turn these early occupational experiences into art, incorporating tales from them into his book The Bomb. From New York Harris moved to the American Midwest, settling in the second largest city, Chicago. Owing to Chicagos central place in the packing industry, Harris made the acquaintance of various cattlemen. Harris eventually grew tired of life in the industry and enrolled at the University of Kansas. In 1878, he married Florence Ruth Adams, who died the following year, Harris was not cut out to be a lawyer and soon decided to turn his attention to literature. He returned to England in 1882, later traveling to cities in Germany, Austria, France. He worked briefly as an American newspaper correspondent before settling down in England to seriously pursue the vocation of journalism, G. Wells and George Bernard Shaw as regular contributors. From 1908 to 1914 Harris concentrated on working as a novelist, authoring a series of books such as The Bomb, The Man Shakespeare
38.
George Bernard Shaw
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He wrote more than sixty plays, including major works such as Man and Superman, Pygmalion and Saint Joan. With a range incorporating both contemporary satire and historical allegory, Shaw became the leading dramatist of his generation, born in Dublin, Shaw moved to London in 1873, where he established himself as a writer and novelist. By the mid-1880s he was a theatre and music critic. Following a political awakening, he joined the gradualist Fabian Society, Shaw had been writing plays for years before his first public success, 1894s Arms and the Man. Influenced by Henrik Ibsen, he sought to introduce a new realism into English-language drama, using his plays as vehicles to disseminate his political, social and religious ideas. By the early twentieth century his reputation as a dramatist was secured with a series of critical and popular successes that included Major Barbara, The Doctors Dilemma and Caesar, Shaws expressed views were often contentious, he promoted eugenics and alphabet reform while opposing vaccination and organised religion. He courted unpopularity by denouncing both sides in the First World War as equally culpable and he castigated British policy on Ireland in the postwar period, and became a citizen of the Irish Free State in 1934, maintaining dual citizenship. He was prolific, finishing during the years a series of often ambitious plays which achieved varying degrees of popular success. Since Shaws death, opinion has varied about his works and he has at times been rated as second only to William Shakespeare among English-language dramatists, analysts recognise his extensive influence on generations of playwrights. The word Shavian has entered the language as encapsulating Shaws ideas, Shaw was born at 3 Upper Synge Street in Portobello, a lower-middle-class part of Dublin. He was the youngest child and only son of George Carr Shaw and his elder siblings were Lucinda Frances and Elinor Agnes. The Shaw family was of English descent and belonged to the dominant Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland, George Carr Shaw and his relatives secured him a sinecure in the civil service, from which he was pensioned off in the early 1850s, thereafter he worked irregularly as a corn merchant. In 1852 he married Bessie Gurly, in the view of Shaws biographer Michael Holroyd she married to escape a tyrannical great-aunt, if, as Holroyd and others surmise, Georges motives were mercenary, then he was disappointed, as Bessie brought him little of her familys money. She came to despise her ineffectual and often drunken husband, with whom she shared what their son later described as a life of shabby-genteel poverty. By the time of Shaws birth, his mother had become close to George John Lee, Shaw retained a lifelong obsession that Lee might have been his biological father, there is no consensus among Shavian scholars on the likelihood of this. The young Shaw suffered no harshness from his mother, but he recalled that her indifference. He found solace in the music that abounded in the house, Lee was a conductor and teacher of singing, Bessie had a fine mezzo-soprano voice and was much influenced by Lees unorthodox method of vocal production. The Shaws house was filled with music, with frequent gatherings of singers and players
39.
Defamation
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Under common law, to constitute defamation, a claim must generally be false and must have been made to someone other than the person defamed. Some common law jurisdictions also distinguish between spoken defamation, called slander, and defamation in other such as printed words or images. False light laws protect against statements which are not technically false, in some civil law jurisdictions, defamation is treated as a crime rather than a civil wrong. A person who defames another may be called a defamer, libeler, slanderer, or, rarely, the common law origins of defamation lie in the torts of slander, each of which gives a common law right of action. Defamation is the term used internationally, and is used in this article where it is not necessary to distinguish between slander and libel. Libel and slander both require publication, the fundamental distinction between libel and slander lies solely in the form in which the defamatory matter is published. If the offending material is published in some fleeting form, as by words or sounds, sign language, gestures or the like. Libel is defined as defamation by written or printed words, pictures, the law of libel originated in the 17th century in England. With the growth of publication came the growth of libel and development of the tort of libel, an early example of libel is the case of John Peter Zenger in 1735. Zenger was hired to publish New York Weekly Journal, when he printed another mans article that criticized William Cosby, who was then British Royal Governor of Colonial New York, Zenger was accused of Seditious Libel. Another example of libel is the case of New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, there are several ways a person must go about proving that libel has taken place. For example, in the United States, the person must prove that the statement was false, caused harm and these steps are for an ordinary citizen. Many nations have criminal penalties for defamation in some situations, there can be regional statutes that may differ from the national norm. For example, in the United States, defamation is generally limited to the living, however, there are nine states that have criminal statutes regarding defamation of the dead. Early cases of criminal defamation Questions of group libel have been appearing in law for hundreds of years. One of the earliest known cases of a defendant being tried for defamation of a group was the case of Rex v. Orme and Nutt. In this case, the found that the defendant was guilty of libeling several subjects. Since the jury was unable to identify the people who were being defamed
40.
Sodomy
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Sodomy is generally anal or oral sex between people or sexual activity between a person and a non-human animal, but it may also mean any non-procreative sexual activity. Originally, the sodomy, which is derived from the story of Sodom. Sodomy laws in many countries criminalized these behaviors, and other disfavored sexual activities as well, in the Western world, many of these laws have been overturned or are not routinely enforced. The term is derived from the Ecclesiastical Latin peccatum Sodomiticum or sin of Sodom, Genesis tells how God wished to destroy the sinful cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. Two angels are invited by Lot to take refuge with his family for the night, the men of Sodom surround Lots house and demand that he bring the messengers out so that they may know them. Lot protests that the messengers are his guests and offers the Sodomites his virgin daughters instead, then the angels strike the Sodomites blind, so that they wearied themselves to find the door. In current usage, the term is used in law. Laws prohibiting sodomy were seen frequently in past Jewish, Christian, and Islamic civilizations, but the term has little modern usage outside Africa, Islamic countries, and these laws in the United States have been challenged and have sometimes been found unconstitutional or been replaced with different legislation. Many cognates in other languages, such as French sodomie, Spanish sodomía, in modern German, the word Sodomie has no connotation of anal or oral sex and specifically refers to bestiality. The same goes for the Polish sodomia, the Norwegian word sodomi carries both senses. In Danish, sodomi is rendered as unnatural carnal knowledge with someone of the sex or with animals. In Arabic and Persian, the word for sodomy, لواط, is derived from the source as in Western culture. Its direct reference is to Lot and a literal interpretation of the word is the practice of Lot. The word sod, a noun or verb used as an insult, is derived from sodomite and it is a general-purpose insult term for anyone the speaker dislikes without specific reference to their sexual behaviour. Sod is used as slang in the United Kingdom and Commonwealth and is mildly offensive. However, in New Zealand and Australia it is not considered offensive at all, but only coarse, because it is assumed, even if incorrect. While religion and the law have had a role in the historical definition and punishment of sodomy, sodomitical texts present considerable opportunities for ambiguity. Sodomy is both a real occurrence and an imagined category, in the course of the eighteenth century, what is identifiable as sodomy often becomes identified with effeminacy, for example, or in opposition to a discourse of manliness
41.
Edward Carson
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Edward Henry Carson, Baron Carson, PC, PC, KC, from 1900 to 1921 known as Sir Edward Carson, was an Irish unionist politician, barrister and judge. He was leader of the Irish Unionist Alliance and Ulster Unionist Party between 1910 and 1921, held positions in the Cabinet of the United Kingdom and served as a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary. He was one of the few people not a monarch to receive a British state funeral, Edward Carson was born at 4 Harcourt Street, in Dublin, into a wealthy Anglican family, His father was an architect. The Carsons were of Scottish origin, Edwards grandfather having originally moved to Dublin from Dumfries in 1815, Carsons mother was Isabella Lambert, the daughter of Captain Peter Lambert, part of an old Anglo-Irish family, the Lamberts of Castle Ellen, County Galway. Carson spent holidays at Castle Ellen, which was owned by his uncle and he was one of six children. Edward was educated at Portarlington School, Wesley College, Dublin and Trinity College, Dublin and he also played with the college hurling team. He later received a doctorate from the University of Dublin in June 1901. In 1877 Carson was called to the Irish Bar at Kings Inns and he gained a reputation for fearsome advocacy and supreme legal ability and became regarded as a brilliant barrister, one of the leading ones in Ireland at the time. He was also a master of the appeal to the jury by his legal wit. He was appointed Queens Counsel in 1889, in 1895, he was engaged by the Marquess of Queensberry to lead his defence against Oscar Wildes action for criminal libel. Wilde retaliated with an action, as homosexuality was, at the time. Kevin Myers states that Carsons initial response was to refuse to take the case, later, he discovered that Queensberry had been telling the truth about Wildes activity and was therefore not guilty of the libel of which Wilde accused him. He impugned Wildes works as morally repugnant and designed to corrupt the upbringing of the youth, Queensberry spent a considerable amount of money on private detectives who investigated Wildes activity in the London underworld of homosexual clubs and procurers. Wilde was bankrupted when he was ordered to pay the considerable legal. Based on the evidence of Queensberrys detectives and Carsons cross-examinations of Wilde at the trial and he was eventually found guilty and sentenced to two years hard labour, after which he moved to France, where he died penniless. In 1908 Carson appeared for the London Evening Standard in an action brought by George Cadbury. The Standard was controlled by Unionist interests which supported Joseph Chamberlains Imperial Preference views, the Cadbury family were Liberal supporters of free trade and had, in 1901, purchased The Daily News. The Standard articles alleged that Cadbury Bros Ltd, the Standard alleged that the Cadbury family knew that the reason cocoa from São Tomé was cheaper was because it was grown by slave labour
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