1.
Hyacinthe Rigaud
–
Hyacinthe Rigaud was a French baroque painter of Catalan origin whose career was based in Paris. Hyacinthe Rigaud was born in Perpignan, the grandson of painter-gilders from Roussillon and he was trained in tailoring in his fathers workshop but perfected his skills as a painter under Antoine Ranc at Montpellier from 1671 onwards, before moving to Lyon four years later. It was in cities that he became familiar with Flemish, Dutch and Italian painting, particularly that of Rubens, Van Dyck, Rembrandt and Titian. Arriving in Paris in 1681, he won the prix de Rome in 1682, received into the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture in 1700, he rose to the top of this institution before retiring from it in 1735. Since Rigauds paintings captured very exact likenesses along with the costumes and background details. Rigaud was baptised with his Catalan name in the old cathédrale Saint-Jean de Perpignan on 20 July 1659 and he would not have become French had not Roussillon and the Cerdanya been annexed to France the following 7 November thanks to the Treaty of the Pyrenees. That Treaty also put an end to the wars that had taken place between France and Habsburg Spain since 1635 and married King Louis XIV of France to the infanta Maria Theresa of Spain, few of these have survived to the present. On 13 March 1647 Hyacinthes father Matias Rigau, married Thérèse Faget, widowed shortly after, he decided to speedily remarry, to Maria Serra, daughter of a Perpignan textile merchant, on 20 December 1655. In 1665, he acquired a house en lo carrer de las casas cremades, by his second marriage, he also acquired a house on place de lHuile, but he soon sold it. Unfortunately, little is known about Rigauds activities in Lyon, due to the lack of surviving documents, however, as per tradition, artists from Montpellier had strong ties with this city, as had, for example, Samuel Boissière who was trained in there, in Lyon. The identity of Rigauds future depicted models shows that he worked for the cloth merchants. Rigauds portrait of Jean de Brunenc, painted in 1687, a merchant, banker and consul of Lyon. In his first will, dated 30 May 1707, the artist left the bust to the Grand Dauphin, Louis XIVs son, also in the document, Rigaud bequeathed the portrait containing the two profiles of Maria Serra to the elder son of his brother Gaspard, named Hyacinthe. He also applied sketches of his sister Claire, accompanied by her husband and their first daughter, in spring 1696, Hyacinthe Rigaud returned to Paris, where he painted one of his most important portraits of the year. This was in fact sollicited by the duke of Saint-Simon, to depict Armand Jean le Bouthillier de Rancé, in 1709 he was made a noble by his hometown of Perpignan. In 1727 he was made a knight of the Order of Saint Michael, Rigaud died in Paris in 1743 at the age of 84. He was one of the most important portrait painters during the reign of King Louis XIV and his instinct for impressive poses and grand presentations precisely suited the tastes of the royal personages, ambassadors, clerics, courtiers, and financiers who sat for him. His œuvre reads as a portrait gallery of the chief movers in France from 1680 to 1740
2.
Palace of Versailles
–
The Palace of Versailles, Château de Versailles, or simply Versailles, is a royal château in Versailles in the Île-de-France region of France. Versailles is therefore not only as a building, but as a symbol of the system of absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime. First built by Louis XIII in 1623, as a lodge of brick and stone. The first phase of the expansion was designed and supervised by the architect Louis Le Vau and it culminated in the addition of three new wings of stone, which surrounded Louis XIIIs original building on the north, south, and west. After Le Vaus death in 1670, the work was taken over and completed by his assistant, charles Le Brun designed and supervised the elaborate interior decoration, and André Le Nôtre landscaped the extensive Gardens of Versailles. Le Brun and Le Nôtre collaborated on the fountains, and Le Brun supervised the design. During the second phase of expansion, two enormous wings north and south of the wings flanking the Cour Royale were added by the architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart. He also replaced Le Vaus large terrace, facing the garden on the west, with became the most famous room of the palace. The Royal Chapel of Versailles, located at the end of the north wing, was begun by Mansart in 1688. One of the most baffling aspects to the study of Versailles is the cost – how much Louis XIV, owing to the nature of the construction of Versailles and the evolution of the role of the palace, construction costs were essentially a private matter. Initially, Versailles was planned to be a residence for Louis XIV and was referred to as the kings house. Once Louis XIV embarked on his campaigns, expenses for Versailles became more of a matter for public record. To counter the costs of Versailles during the years of Louis XIVs personal reign. Accordingly, all materials that went into the construction and decoration of Versailles were manufactured in France, even the mirrors used in the decoration of the Hall of Mirrors were made in France. While Venice in the 17th century had the monopoly on the manufacture of mirrors, to meet the demands for decorating and furnishing Versailles, Colbert nationalised the tapestry factory owned by the Gobelin family, to become the Manufacture royale des Gobelins. In 1667, the name of the enterprise was changed to the Manufacture royale des Meubles de la Couronne, the Comptes meticulously list the expenditures on the silver furniture – disbursements to artists, final payments, delivery – as well as descriptions and weight of items purchased. Entries for 1681 and 1682 concerning the silver used in the salon de Mercure serve as an example. 5 In anticipation, For the silver balustrade for the bedroom,90,000 livres II
3.
Nobility
–
The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be largely honorary, and vary from country to country and era to era. There is often a variety of ranks within the noble class. g, san Marino and the Vatican City in Europe. Hereditary titles often distinguish nobles from non-nobles, although in many nations most of the nobility have been un-titled, some countries have had non-hereditary nobility, such as the Empire of Brazil. The term derives from Latin nobilitas, the noun of the adjective nobilis. In modern usage, nobility is applied to the highest social class in pre-modern societies and it rapidly came to be seen as a hereditary caste, sometimes associated with a right to bear a hereditary title and, for example in pre-revolutionary France, enjoying fiscal and other privileges. Nobility is a historical, social and often legal notion, differing from high socio-economic status in that the latter is based on income. Being wealthy or influential cannot, ipso facto, make one noble, various republics, including former Iron Curtain countries, Greece, Mexico, and Austria have expressly abolished the conferral and use of titles of nobility for their citizens. Not all of the benefits of nobility derived from noble status per se, usually privileges were granted or recognised by the monarch in association with possession of a specific title, office or estate. Most nobles wealth derived from one or more estates, large or small and it also included infrastructure such as castle, well and mill to which local peasants were allowed some access, although often at a price. Nobles were expected to live nobly, that is, from the proceeds of these possessions, work involving manual labour or subordination to those of lower rank was either forbidden or frowned upon socially. In some countries, the lord could impose restrictions on such a commoners movements. Nobles exclusively enjoyed the privilege of hunting, in France, nobles were exempt from paying the taille, the major direct tax. In some parts of Europe the right of war long remained the privilege of every noble. During the early Renaissance, duelling established the status of a respectable gentleman, Nobility came to be associated with social rather than legal privilege, expressed in a general expectation of deference from those of lower rank. By the 21st century even that deference had become increasingly minimised, in France, a seigneurie might include one or more manors surrounded by land and villages subject to a nobles prerogatives and disposition. Seigneuries could be bought, sold or mortgaged, if erected by the crown into, e. g. a barony or countship, it became legally entailed for a specific family, which could use it as their title. Yet most French nobles were untitled, in other parts of Europe, sovereign rulers arrogated to themselves the exclusive prerogative to act as fons honorum within their realms. Nobility might be inherited or conferred by a fons honorum
4.
Louis Henri de Pardaillan de Gondrin
–
Louis Henri de Pardaillan de Gondrin, marquis de Montespan, was a French nobleman, most notable as the husband of Louis XIVs mistress Madame de Montespan. He was the son of Roger-Hector de Pardaillan de Gondrin, marquis of Antin, in February 1663 he married Françoise-Athénaïs de Rochechouart de Mortemart. They had two children, Marie-Christine de Pardaillan de Gondrin, Louis Antoine de Pardaillan de Gondrin, the duke of Antin. He was promptly imprisoned in the For-lÉvêque, then exiled to his lands. This did not stop his agitation, and not only did Montespan go to Paris nearly every year between 1670 and 1686, he commanded an annual requiem mass to be sung for his wife during her lifetime. Jean Teulé, Le Montespan, Julliard,2008, Grand Prix du roman historique Saint-Simon, Mémoires
5.
Gascony
–
Gascony is an area of southwest France that was part of the Province of Guyenne and Gascony prior to the French Revolution. The region is defined, and the distinction between Guyenne and Gascony is unclear, by some they are seen to overlap, while others consider Gascony a part of Guyenne. Most definitions put Gascony east and south of Bordeaux and it is currently divided between the region of Aquitaine and the region of Midi-Pyrénées. Gascony was historically inhabited by Basque-related people who appear to have spoken a language similar to Basque, the name Gascony comes from the same root as the word Basque. From medieval times until today, the Gascon language has been spoken, Gascony is the land of dArtagnan, who inspired Alexandre Dumass character dArtagnan in The Three Musketeers. It is also home to Henry III of Navarre, who became king of France as Henry IV. In pre-Roman times, the inhabitants of Gascony were the Aquitanians, the Aquitanians inhabited a territory limited to the north and east by the Garonne River, to the south by the Pyrenees mountain range, and to the west by the Atlantic Ocean. In the 50s BC, Aquitania was conquered by lieutenants of Julius Caesar, later, in 27 BC, during the reign of Emperor Augustus, the province of Gallia Aquitania was created. In 297, as Emperor Diocletian reformed the administrative structures of the Roman Empire, the territory of Novempopulania corresponded quite well to what we call now Gascony. The Aquitania Novempopulana or Novempopulania suffered like the rest of the Western Roman Empire from the invasions of Germanic tribes, the Visigoths were defeated by the Franks in 507, and fled into Spain and Septimania, as well as Albania. Novempopulania then became part of the Frankish Kingdom like the rest of southern France, however, Novempopulania was far away from the home base of the Franks in northern France, and was only very loosely controlled by the Franks. Modern historians reject this hypothesis, which is sustained by no archeological evidence, for Juan José Larrea, and Pierre Bonnassie, a Vascon expansionism in Aquitany is not proved and is not necessary to understand the historical evolution of this region. This Basque-related culture and race is, whatever the origin, attested in Medieval documents, the word Vasconia evolved into Wasconia, and then into Gasconia. The gradual abandonment of the Basque-related Aquitanian language in favor of a local vulgar Latin, was not reversed, the replacing local vulgar Latin evolved into Gascon. It was heavily influenced by the original Aquitanian language, quite paradoxically the Basques from the French side of the Basque Country traditionally call anyone who does not speak Basque a Gascon. Meanwhile, Viking raiders conquered several Gascon towns, among them Bayonne in 842–844 and their attacks in Gascony may have helped the political disintegration of the Duchy until their defeat against William II Sánchez of Gascony in 982. In turn, the weakened ethnic polity known as Duchy of Wasconia/Wascones, unable to get round the general spread of feudalization and his 1152 marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine allowed the future Henry II to gain control of his new wifes possessions of Aquitaine and Gascony. This addition to his already plentiful holdings made Henry the most powerful vassal in France, in 1248, Simon de Montfort was appointed Governor in the unsettled Duchy of Gascony
6.
Louis, Grand Dauphin
–
Louis of France was the eldest son and heir of Louis XIV, King of France, and his spouse, Maria Theresa of Spain. As the heir apparent to the French throne, he was styled Dauphin and he became known as Le Grand Dauphin after the birth of his own son, Le Petit Dauphin. As he died before his father, he never became king, as a Fils de France he was entitled to the style of Royal Highness. He was baptised on 24 March 1662 at the chapel of the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, at the ceremony, Cardinal de Vendôme and the Princess of Conti acted as proxies for the godparents, Pope Clement IX and Queen Henrietta Maria of England. For this ceremony, Jean-Baptiste Lully composed the motet Plaude Laetare Gallia, when Louis reached the age of seven, he was removed from the care of women and placed in the society of men. No prince could have been deserving of such feelings. Monseigneur, as the heir to the throne was now known, had inherited his mothers docility, all his life he remained petrified with admiration of his formidable father and stood in fear of him even while lavish proofs of affection were showered upon him. The best way for Monseigneur to do someone an injury was to him to the royal favour. He knew it, and did not conceal it from his rare petitioners, Louis XIV saw to it that his sons upbringing was quite the opposite of his own. Bossuet overwhelmed his backward pupil with such splendid lessons that the Dauphin developed a horror of books, learning. By the age of eighteen, Monseigneur had assimilated almost none of the knowledge amassed to so little purpose, and it was said that when Louis was an adult, he could pass a whole day simply tapping his cane against his foot in an armchair. Nonetheless, his generosity, affability, and liberality gave him popularity in Paris. Louis was one of six children of his parents. The others all died in childhood, the second longest-lived, Marie Thérèse of France. According to various reports, Marie Louise and Louis were in love, however, Louis XIV used Marie Louise to forge a link with Spain and forced her to marry the invalid Charles II of Spain, the Dauphins own half-uncle. Louis was engaged to his cousin, Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria. She was an older than Louis and, upon arriving at the French court, was described as being very unattractive. Nonetheless, she was a cultured princess
7.
Catherine de Vivonne, marquise de Rambouillet
–
Catherine de Vivonne, marquise de Rambouillet, known as Madame de Rambouillet, was a society hostess and a major figure in the literary history of 17th-century France. Born in Rome, she was the daughter and heiress of Jean de Vivonne, marquis of Pisani, and Giulia Savelli and she was married at the age of twelve to Charles dAngennes, vidame du Mans, and in 1612, marquis de Rambouillet. They had seven children, two sons and five daughters and she and her husband had taken residence in Paris at the Hôtel Pisani, later renamed Hôtel de Rambouillet, and which she restored between 1618 and 1620. It was situated rue Saint-Thomas-du-Louvre, between the Louvre and the Tuileries, the former Hôtel de Rambouillet, which belonged to the dAngennes family, was located rue Saint-Honoré and was sold in 1602 by her father-in-law, Nicolas dAngennes. In 1624, it was bought by Cardinal Richelieu who had it demolished, and she received her visitors in the chambre bleue, a salon painted in blue and with blue heavy brocade wall hangings. Almost all major personages of the French aristocracy and literature of the time frequented it, occasionally, in spring and summer, the marquis and marquise de Rambouillet would entertain the habitués of their Parisian residence in the château de Rambouillet and its beautiful park. Her success as a literary hostess has many explanations and her natural abilities had been carefully trained. The respect paid to ability in the salon effected a great advancement in the position of French men of letters, mme de Rambouillet was known as the incomparable Arthénice, the name being an anagram for Catherine, devised by François de Malherbe and Racan. Julie herself, the Hôtel de Rambouillet Princesse Julie, was responsible for a deal of the preciosity for which the Précieuses were later ridiculed by Molière. They especially favoured an elaborate and quintessenced kind of colloquial and literary expression, imitated from Giambattista Marini and Luís de Góngora y Argote, the satire affected the originators as well as the imitators, the former more closely perhaps than they perceived. The Hôtel de Rambouillet remained in existence until the death of its hostess, the chief original authorities respecting Madame de Rambouillet and her set are Tallemant des Réaux in his Historiettes, and Antoine Baudeau de Somaize in his Grand Dictionnaire des Précieuses. Vivonne This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
8.
Louis Auguste, Duke of Maine
–
Louis-Auguste de Bourbon, duc du Maine was a legitimised son of the French king Louis XIV and his official mistress, Madame de Montespan. The kings favourite son, he was the founder of the semi-royal House of Bourbon-Maine named after his title, Louis-Auguste de Bourbon was born at the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye on 31 March 1670. His siblings, Louis-César, Louise-Françoise and Louise Marie Anne de Bourbon were also there after their births. Their mother, living with the king at Versailles, rarely saw her children, on 19 December 1673, when Louis-Auguste was three years old, Louis XIV legitimised his children by Montespan by letters patent registered by the Parlement de Paris. At this time, Louis-Auguste received the title of duc du Maine, in 1674, at the age of four, Louis-Auguste and his siblings were officially introduced to the court at Versailles. In the same year, he was made a colonel-general of the Swiss Guards, du Maines greatest enemy at court became his fathers sister-in-law, the duchesse dOrléans, known at court as Madame. The maréchal du Luxembourg, a military strategist, was put in charge of the childs military training. Despite this, Louis-Auguste never became more than a mediocre soldier and he was made Grand Maître de France. As a result, Louis-Auguste became the comte dEu, sovereign Prince of the Dombes and he also received the governorship of Languedoc and was awarded the Order of the Holy Spirit. In April 1684 du Maine represented the king at the wedding of the Duke of Savoy to du Maines cousin, in 1688, Louis Auguste was made a capitaine général des galères. However, the Grand Condé, a distant relative of the king. So du Maine was allowed to choose among the three unmarried daughters of Condés son, the duc dEnghien and he chose Louise Bénédicte, Mademoiselle de Charolais, over her sisters, Anne Marie, Mademoiselle de Condé and Marie Anne, Mademoiselle de Montmorency. All three were small, the eldest was beautiful, and full of sense and wit. Presided over by the Cardinal de Bouillon, the guest of honour was the exiled James II of England, Madame de Montespan, who had fallen out of favour with the king after the Affaire des Poisons, did not attend her sons wedding. The duc du Maine received a gift of one million livres from his father at his wedding and his bride was given a hundred thousand livres in cash, with clothes and jewels worth an additional two hundred thousand livres. Louise Bénédicte felt disgraced by her marriage to a légitimé de France and was often unfaithful, as the groom and bride were both physically handicapped, people at court snickered, Voici lunion dun boiteux et dune manchote. Nonetheless, the couple eventually had three children who grew to adulthood and their daughter, baptised at Versailles on 9 April 1714, was known as Mademoiselle du Maine and named Louise-Françoise de Bourbon. In 1707, Madame de Montespan died, and the duc du Maine inherited a portion of her fortune, including the château de Clagny
9.
Louis Alexandre, Count of Toulouse
–
Louis Alexandre de Bourbon, comte de Toulouse, duc de Penthièvre, a legitimated prince of the blood royal, was the son of Louis XIV and of his mistress Françoise-Athénaïs, marquise de Montespan. At the age of five, he became admiral of France. Born at the Château de Clagny in Versailles, Louis Alexandre de Bourbon was the third son, at birth, he was put in the care of Madame de Monchevreuil along with his older sister Françoise-Marie de Bourbon. Louis Alexandre was created Count of Toulouse in 1681 at the time of his legitimation, in February 1684, he became colonel of an infantry regiment named after him and in 1693 mestre de camp of a cavalry regiment. During the War of Spanish Succession, he was given the task of defending Sicily, in January 1689, he was named governor of Guyenne, a title which he exchanged for that of governor of Brittany six years later. On 3 January 1696, he was created a marshal of France, during the War of the Spanish Succession he commanded the French fleet at the Battle of Vélez-Málaga in 1704. He remained in this capacity until being succeeded by Joseph Fleuriau dArmenonville in 1722, the proposal of his marriage to Charlotte de Lorraine, Mademoiselle dArmagnac, member of a cadet branch of the House of Guise had met with the categorical refusal of Louis XIV. On 2 February 1723, the comte de Toulouse married Marie Victoire de Noailles and she was the widow of Louis de Pardaillan de Gondrin, his nephew, son of his half-brother Louis Antoine de Pardaillan de Gondrin, whose mother was Madame de Montespan. The marriage was kept secret until the death of the regent, the couple had one son, Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, Duke of Penthièvre. He and his sisters tried to avoid the court and the intrigues of their brother, the duc du Maine, and his wife Anne Louise Bénédicte de Bourbon, the duchess, at the Château de Sceaux. The decision was reversed after the death of Louis XIV when Louis Alexandres cousin, Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, the comte de Toulouse died at the Château de Rambouillet on 1 December 1737. He was buried in the village 12th century Saint-Lubin church, on 30 September 1766, the countess died at the Hôtel de Toulouse, the Parisian mansion not far from the Louvre which the count had bought from Phélypeaux, marquis de La Vrillière, in 1712. She too was buried in the crypt in the Rambouillet church. Upon the counts death, the duc de Penthièvre, succeeded his father in his posts and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Toulouse, Louis Alexandre de Bourbon, Count of. Mgr le comte de Toulouse, son père. »
10.
Louis XIV of France
–
Louis XIV, known as Louis the Great or the Sun King, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643 until his death in 1715. His reign of 72 years and 110 days is the longest of any monarch of a country in European history. In the age of absolutism in Europe, Louis XIVs France was a leader in the centralization of power. Louis began his rule of France in 1661, after the death of his chief minister. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs, under his rule, the Edict of Nantes, which granted rights to Huguenots, was abolished. The revocation effectively forced Huguenots to emigrate or convert in a wave of dragonnades, which managed to virtually destroy the French Protestant minority. During Louis reign, France was the leading European power, and it fought three wars, the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg. There were also two lesser conflicts, the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions, warfare defined Louis XIVs foreign policies, and his personality shaped his approach. Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, in peacetime he concentrated on preparing for the next war. He taught his diplomats their job was to create tactical and strategic advantages for the French military, Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. He was named Louis Dieudonné and bore the title of French heirs apparent. At the time of his birth, his parents had married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631, leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift and his birth a miracle of God. Sensing imminent death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order in the spring of 1643, in defiance of custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, the king decreed that a regency council would rule on his sons behalf. His lack of faith in Queen Annes political abilities was his primary rationale and he did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council. Louis relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time, contemporaries and eyewitnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis journal entries, such as, but attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood
11.
Battle of Ramillies
–
The Battle of Ramillies /ˈræmɪliːz/, fought on 23 May 1706, was a battle of the War of the Spanish Succession. For the Grand Alliance – Austria, England, and the Dutch Republic – the battle had followed a campaign against the Bourbon armies of King Louis XIV of France in 1705. Although the Allies had captured Barcelona that year, they had forced to abandon their campaign on the Moselle, had stalled in the Spanish Netherlands. Yet despite his opponents setbacks Louis XIV was desirous of peace –, for this end and in order to maintain their momentum, the French and their allies took the offensive in 1706. Encouraged by these early gains Louis XIV urged Marshal Villeroi to go over to the offensive in the Spanish Netherlands and, with victory, gain a fair peace. Accordingly, the French Marshal set off from Leuven at the head of 60,000 men and marched towards Tienen, as if to threaten Zoutleeuw. Also determined to fight an engagement, the Duke of Marlborough, commander-in-chief of Anglo-Dutch forces, assembled his army – some 62,000 men – near Maastricht. With both sides seeking battle, they encountered each other on the dry ground between the Mehaigne and Petite Gheete rivers, close to the small village of Ramillies. In less than four hours Marlboroughs Dutch, English, and Danish forces overwhelmed Villerois, the Dukes subtle moves and changes in emphasis during the battle – something his opponents failed to realise until it was too late – caught the French in a tactical vice. With their foe broken and routed, the Allies were able to exploit their victory. Town after town fell, including Brussels, Bruges and Antwerp, with Prince Eugenes subsequent success at the Battle of Turin in northern Italy, the Allies had imposed the greatest loss of territory and resources that Louis XIV would suffer during the war. Thus, the year 1706 proved, for the Allies, to be an annus mirabilis, after their disastrous defeat at Blenheim in 1704, the next year brought the French some respite. Marlborough had to cope with the death of Emperor Leopold I in May and the accession of Joseph I, the resilience of the French King and the efforts of his generals, also added to Marlborough’s problems. Marshal Villeroi, exerting pressure on the Dutch commander, Count Overkirk, along the Meuse. With Marshal Villars sitting strong on the Moselle, the Allied commander – whose supplies had by now very short – was forced to call off his campaign on 16 June. What a disgrace for Marlborough, exulted Villeroi, to have made false movements without any result, with Marlborough’s departure north, the French transferred troops from the Moselle valley to reinforce Villeroi in Flanders, while Villars marched off to the Rhine. On 11 January 1706, Marlborough finally reached London at the end of his diplomatic tour and it seems that the Duke’s favoured scheme was to return to the Moselle valley and once more attempt an advance into the heart of France. But these decisions soon became academic, shortly after Marlborough landed in the Dutch Republic on 14 April, news arrived of big Allied setbacks in the wider war
12.
Order of the Holy Spirit
–
The Order of the Holy Spirit, also known as the Order of the Knights of the Holy Spirit, is a French dynastic order of chivalry under the House of France. It should not be confused with the Congregation of the Holy Ghost or with the religious Order of the Holy Ghost and it was the senior chivalric order of France by precedence, although not by age, since the Order of Saint Michael was established more than a century earlier. Although officially abolished by the government authorities of the French Republic along with the French Monarchy following the French Revolution and it is still recognised by the International Commission on Orders of Chivalry. Prior to the creation of the Order of the Holy Spirit in 1578 by Henri III and this order had originally been created to rival the Burgundian Order of the Golden Fleece, and to help ensure that leading French nobles remained loyal to the Crown. This Order was dedicated to the Holy Spirit to commemorate the fact that Henry was elected King of Poland, following the Restoration, the order was officially revived, only to be abolished again by the Orleanist Louis-Philippe following the July Revolution in 1830. The King of France was the Sovereign and Grand Master, and this was later relaxed so that all eight had to be either cardinals, archbishops or prelates. Members of the order had to be Roman Catholic, and had to be able to demonstrate three degrees of nobility. The minimum age for members was 35, although there were exceptions, Children of the king were members from birth. As such, they were known as Chevalier des Ordres du Roi. The order had its own officers and they were responsible for the ceremonies and the administration of the order. Officers of the order were as follows, Chancellor Provost and Master of Ceremonies Treasurer Clerk The symbol of the order is known as the Cross of the Holy Spirit. At the periphery, the eight points of the cross are rounded, imposed on the centre of the cross is a dove. The eight rounded corners represent the Beatitudes, the four fleur-de-lis represent the Gospels, the twelve petals represent the Apostles, the Cross of the Holy Spirit was worn hung from a blue riband. Due to the blue riband from which the Cross of the Holy Spirit was hung, over time, this expression was extended to refer to other distinctions of the highest class – for example, Cordon Bleu cooking and Blue Riband sporting events. The badge of the Order is a gold Maltese cross with white borders, each of the eight points ending in a gold ball, at the center of the cross, was set a white dove descending surrounded by green flames. The back of this cross worn by the knights was the same as the front except with the medallion of the Order of Saint Michael at the rather than the dove. Each of these links was surrounded with red enamel flames forming a square around it, more generally, the cross was suspended from a large ribbon of color moirée blue sky, hence the nickname cordon bleu the knights wore. Both the mantle proper and the cape were lined with a yellowish orange satin
13.
John Law (economist)
–
John Law was a Scottish economist who believed that money was only a means of exchange that did not constitute wealth in itself and that national wealth depended on trade. He was appointed Controller General of Finances of France under the Duke of Orleans, regent for the youthful king and he was responsible for the Mississippi Company bubble and a chaotic economic collapse in France, which has been compared to the early-17th century tulip mania in Holland. The Mississippi Bubble was contemporaneous with the South Sea Company bubble of England, Law was a gambler and a brilliant mental calculator. He was known to win games by mentally calculating the odds. He originated economic ideas such as The Scarcity Theory of Value, Laws views held that money creation will stimulate the economy, that paper money is preferable to metallic money, and that shares are a superior form of money since they pay dividends. Law was born into a family of bankers and goldsmiths from Fife, his father had purchased Lauriston Castle, Law joined the family business at age fourteen and studied the banking business until his father died in 1688. Law subsequently neglected the firm in favour of more extravagant pursuits and he subsequently lost large sums of money in gambling. On 9 April 1694, John Law fought a duel with another British Dandy, Wilson had challenged Law over the affections of Elizabeth Villiers. Law killed Wilson with a pass and thrust of his sword. He was arrested, charged with murder and stood trial at the Old Bailey and he appeared before the infamously sadistic hanging-judge, Salathiel Lovell and was found guilty of murder, and sentenced to death. He was initially incarcerated in Newgate Prison to await execution and his sentence was later commuted to a fine, upon the ground that the offence only amounted to manslaughter. Wilsons brother appealed and had Law imprisoned, but he managed to escape to Amsterdam, Law urged the establishment of a national bank to create and increase instruments of credit and the issue of banknotes backed by land, gold, or silver. The first manifestation of Laws system came when he had returned to Scotland and he published a text entitled Money and Trade Considered, with a Proposal for Supplying the Nation with Money. Laws propositions of creating a bank in Scotland were ultimately rejected. He spent ten years moving between France and the Netherlands, dealing in financial speculations, problems with the French economy presented the opportunity to put his system into practice. He had the idea of abolishing minor monopolies and private farming of taxes and he would create a bank for national finance and a state company for commerce, ultimately to exclude all private revenue. This would create a monopoly of finance and trade run by the state. The council called to consider Laws proposal, including such as Samuel Bernard
14.
Louis XV of France
–
Louis XV, known as Louis the Beloved, was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1 September 1715 until his death. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five, Cardinal Fleury was his chief minister from 1726 until the Cardinals death in 1743, at which time the young king took sole control of the kingdom. During his reign, Louis returned the Austrian Netherlands, territory won at the Battle of Fontenoy of 1745, Louis also ceded New France in North America to Spain and Great Britain at the conclusion of the Seven Years War in 1763. He incorporated the territories of Lorraine and Corsica into the kingdom of France and he was succeeded by his grandson Louis XVI in 1774. French culture and influence were at their height in the first half of the eighteenth century, however, many scholars believe that Louis XVs decisions damaged the power of France, weakened the treasury, discredited the absolute monarchy, and made it more vulnerable to distrust and destruction. Evidence for this view is provided by the French Revolution, which broke out 15 years after his death, norman Davies characterized Louis XVs reign as one of debilitating stagnation, characterized by lost wars, endless clashes between the Court and Parliament, and religious feuds. A few scholars defend Louis, arguing that his negative reputation was based on propaganda meant to justify the French Revolution. Jerome Blum described him as a perpetual adolescent called to do a mans job, Louis XV was born in the Palace of Versailles on 15 February 1710 during the reign of Louis XIV. His grandfather, Louis Le Grand Dauphin, had three sons with his wife Marie Anne Victoire of Bavaria, Louis, Duke of Burgundy, Philippe, Duke of Anjou, and Charles, Duke of Berry. Louis XV was the son of the Duke of Burgundy and his wife Marie Adélaïde of Savoy, the eldest daughter of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy. At birth, Louis XV received a title for younger sons of the French royal family. In April 1711, Louis Le Grand Dauphin suddenly died, making Louis XVs father, the Duke of Burgundy, at that time, Burgundy had two living sons, Louis, Duke of Brittany and his youngest son, the future Louis XV. A year later, Marie Adélaïde, Duchess of Burgundy, contracted smallpox and her husband, said to be heartbroken by her death, died the same week, also having contracted smallpox. Within a week of his death, it was clear that the two children had also been infected. The elder son was treated by bloodletting in an unsuccessful effort to save him. Fearing that the Dauphin would die, the Court had both the Dauphin and the Duke of Anjou baptised, the Dauphin died the same day,8 March 1712. His younger brother, the Duke of Anjou, was treated by his governess, Madame de Ventadour. The two year old Dauphin survived the smallpox, on 1 September 1715, Louis XIV died of gangrene, having reigned for 72 years
15.
Pierre Cailleteau
–
Pierre Cailleteau was a French architect, also known as Lassurance. He is not to be confused with his son Jean Cailleteau, biography, He was noticed by Jules Hardouin-Mansartin 1679 on the work-site of the Château de Clagny. In 1684, he started as a designer in the administration of the Bâtiments du Roi, on the testimony of Saint-Simon, Hardouin-Mansart was ignorant in his trade, and of Robert De Cotte his brother-in-law, it was hardly less. They both took an artist that they close and secret to themselves, that was Lassurance. He allowed the panelling to continue to the ceiling, which he decorated with Rinceaux and he introduced arcades in basket handle falling again on consoles, mirror panelling and fireplace surroundings to support height. In 1699, Lassurance studied at the Royal Academy of Architecture and he left the Versailles architect office for the supervision of the Invalid Persons Hotel. He then worked for important Parisian clientele, aristocrats and financers, gaining recognition from François Duret, president of the Grand Conseil, on the other hand, the front elevations were criticized. Lassurance followed the rules of the central avant-corps, placing generally Ionic columns to the ground floor, but some judged the height of this as too low, and caused confusion between the placement of the central window and the pediment sculpture. The side facing the courtyard is almost built in the same manner, the masterpiece of Lassurance was no doubt Château de Petit-Bourg, constructed for the Duke of Antin between 1716 and 1722
16.
Jacques V Gabriel
–
Jacques Gabriel was a French architect, the father of the famous Ange-Jacques Gabriel. The younger Jacques Gabriel was appointed one of the controlleurs généraux at the Bâtiments du Roi in 1688 and he was made a member of the Académie at Mansarts reorganization of that body in 1699. Gabriels work in Paris has been much remodelled, mariettes Architecture françoise offers plates illustrating several hôtels particuliers by Gabriel. He completed the Hôtel de Lassay nearby and he was responsible for the Hôtel Peyrenc de Moras, 1728-31. Period Rooms in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a fully digitized text from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
17.
Armand de Vignerot du Plessis
–
Louis François Armand de Vignerot du Plessis, 3rd Duke of Richelieu, was a French soldier, diplomat and statesman. Joining the army, he participated in three wars and eventually rose to the rank of Marshal of France. Louis François Armand de Vignerot du Plessis was born in Paris, apart from his reputation as a man of exceptionally loose morals, he attained, in spite of a deplorably defective education, distinction as a diplomat and general. He was the French ambassador to the court of the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles VI, in 1733-1734, he served in a Rhine campaign during the War of the Polish Succession. In 1756 during the Siege of Minorca he expelled the British from Minorca by the capture of the stronghold of San Felipe, on his return to France he was hailed by Madame Pompadour who told him your star has risen and it shall never be dimmed. While waiting for employment, the Duc took command of the French forces on the southern coast around Toulon. In 1757 following Frederick the Greats sudden invasion of Bohemia, he was given command of a force that was to relieve the Siege of Prague. However this was cancelled when an Austrian army defeated Frederick at Kolin forcing him to break off the siege, the French ministers were deeply unhappy with dEstrees the commander of the Army of Westphalia which had orders to invade Hanover but was moving extremely slowly. It was decided to replace him with Richelieu, arriving shortly after the Battle of Hastenbeck with the Anglo-German Army of Observation retreating rapidly from him, the Duc lead his army in pursuit. His army now occupied most of Hanover, capturing the capital in the autumn and his orders were to smash the Army of Observation and occupy all of Hanover, before turning east and launching an attack on the Prussian fortress of Magdeburg. Instead Richelieu, fearing that his army was not in a condition to face battle and he was heavily criticised for this in Paris, where the terms were considered far too lenient. The Duc then led his army into winter quarters at Halberstadt postponing the attack on Magdeburg, early in the new year he suddenly resigned his command, and retired to France - handing over to the Comte dClermont. He was widely accused of corruption during his six months as commander in Hanover and he and his officers were suspected of having stolen three quarters of the money he was supposed to raise in taxes from the occupied territories, as well as stealing the pay of his soldiers. His pillaging campaigns in Hanover procured him the sobriquet of the petit père de la maraude and his real public career began ten years after his service in the Rhine campaign. After the wars, he plunged again into court intrigue, initially, he was the best friend of King Louis XV of France, whom he had known since the King was a child. The relationship later cooled a little, however, when he opposed Louiss mistress, after de Pompadours death in 1764, his position in court was restored and he developed an amiable friendship with the Kings last mistress, Madame du Barry. However, he was not welcome at court when Louis grandson, Louis XVI. This was because the new Queen, Marie Antoinette, disliked both Madame du Barry and Richelieus nephew, the overly ambitious Duke of Aiguillon, the duke was such a renowned womaniser that it is said Choderlos de Laclos based the character Valmont in Les Liaisons dangereuses on him
18.
Marie Victoire de Noailles
–
Marie Victoire Sophie de Noailles, Countess of Toulouse, was the daughter of Anne Jules de Noailles, the 2nd Duke of Noailles, and his wife, Marie-Françoise de Bournonville. Her second husband was Louis Alexandre de Bourbon, Count of Toulouse, Marie Victoire was born at Versailles on 6 May 1688. She was one of twenty children, many of her sisters married into important noble families in France. Her sister Marie Christine married Antoine de Gramont, duc de Guiche in 1687, another sister, Lucie Félicité, married the Maréchal dEstrées, great-nephew of King Henri IVs famous mistress, Gabrielle dEstrées. Yet another sister married Charles de Baume Le Blanc, the nephew of Louise de La Vallière, on 2 February 1723, Marie Victoire married, in a secret ceremony, the comte de Toulouse, the legitimised younger son of Louis XIV and Madame de Montespan. The marriage was announced only after the death of the Régent in December of the same year, the comte and comtesse de Toulouse had official rooms at Versailles. The comte de Toulouse died in December 1737, in 1744, Marie Victoire helped to arrange the marriage of her son. The chosen bride was an Italian princess, Marie Thérèse Félicité dEste, the bride was the granddaughter of Françoise-Marie de Bourbon, sister of the comte de Toulouse, who had married the duc dOrléans, Régent of France during the minority of King Louis XV. Marie Victoire had a good relationship with the young Louis XV. According to Nancy Mitfords book on Madame de Pompadour, she was the woman who was allowed to see the young king without an official appointment. She also had access to all of his papers of state. After his mother died when he was two years old, Marie Victoire became the nearest female family member to the motherless child. On 30 September 1766, the Marie Victoire died at the Hôtel de Toulouse, through the House of Orléans, she is also an ancestor of the modern Belgian, Brazilian, Bulgarian royal families
19.
Roman Catholic Diocese of Langres
–
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Langres is a Roman Catholic diocese comprising the département of Haute-Marne in France. The diocese is now a suffragan in ecclesiastical province of the Archdiocese of Reims, the current Archbishop is Philippe Jean Marie Joseph Gueneley, appointed in 1999. The diocese covers a territory of 6,250 km2 and its estimated population is 140,000. Louis Duchesne considers Senator, Justus and St. Desiderius, who was martyred during the invasion of the Vandals, the See, therefore, must have been founded about the middle of the fourth century. In 1179, Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy gave the city of Langres to his uncle, Gautier of Burgundy, then bishop, making him a prince-bishop. Later, Langres was made a duchy, which gave the Duke-Bishop of Langres the right of precedence over his Metropolitan. The chief patron saint of the diocese is the martyr Saint Mammes of Caesarea, to whom the cathedral, the diocese of Langres honors as saints a number of martyrs who, according to St. Benignus legend, died in the persecution of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius. They are the triplets Saints Speusippus, Eleusippus, and Melapsippus, St. Neo, the author of their Acts, St. Leonilla, their grandmother, the latter three were natives of the diocese and celebrated for their apostolic labors in Canada. Louis and of the work La dévotion aisée, and of the philosopher Diderot. The historian Raoul Glaber, monk of Cluny Abbey who died in 1050, was at the priory of St. Léger in this diocese when he was touched by Divine grace on the occasion of an apparition, the Benedictine Poulangy Abbey was founded in the eleventh century. Morimond Abbey, the foundation of Cîteaux, was established in 1125 by Odolric, lord of Aigremont. The Augustinian priory of the Val des Ecoliers was founded in 1212 at Luzy, near Chaumont, blessed Otho, son of Leopold of Austria and Abbot of Morimond, became Bishop of Freising in Bavaria and returned in 1154 to die a simple monk in Morimond. The Scourging of the Alleluia, now no longer observed, was celebrated in this diocese in the Middle Ages. The Pardon of Chaumont is very celebrated, such was the origin of the great Pardon of Chaumont, celebrated sixty-one times between 1476 and 1905. At the end of the Middle Ages, this Pardon gave rise to certain curious festivities, fifteen mysteries of the life of St. John the Baptist were represented on stages erected throughout the town on the Sunday preceding the Pardon. The display drew multitudes to the festivities, which were called the deviltries of Chaumont. In the course of the century the Pardon became a purely religious ceremony. In the Diocese of Langres is Vassy, where, in 1562, numerous diocesan synods were held at Langres
20.
Duke of Mouchy
–
The title of duke of Mouchy was a French peerage held by members of a cadet branch of the Noailles family. He was part of the committee in his childhood and grew up with his group the Wesh Alors. The expression je mouchy dessus comes from this man, the founder of the branch, Philippe de Noailles, comte de Noailles, afterwards duc de Mouchy, was a younger brother of Louis, 4th duc de Noailles, and a more distinguished soldier than his brother. He served at Minden and in campaigns, and was made a marshal of France on the same day as his brother. He was long in favour at court, and his wife was first lady of honour to Marie Antoinette. This court favour brought down punishment in the days of the Revolution, in 1767 he received the additional French non hereditary title of duke of Poix on the death of his older brother. He left the country for some time, but returned to France and he was for a time a member of the Constituent Assembly. He was, however, forced to quit the country once more to evade the fate of his father and mother, returning to France in 1800, he lived quietly at his residence at Mouchy during the First French Empire. At the Bourbon Restoration he was brought again into favour and became a peer of France in 1817, from that point, the head of the male line has been duc de Mouchy and prince-duc de Poix. He died in Paris on 17 February 1819, as a male-line descendant of the 3rd Duke of Noailles, the Duke of Mouchy is also in remainder to this peerage and to the title of Duke of Ayen. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Héraldique européenne, Maison de Noailles Armory of the French Hereditary Peerage
21.
Gabriel de Rochechouart de Mortemart
–
Gabriel de Rochechouart de Mortemart, Duke of Mortemart was a French nobleman and father of the Marquise de Montespan. He was a friend of the French King Louis XIII, through Madame de Montespan, he is an ancestor of Philippe Égalité, Louis-Philippe I, and Prince Henri, Count of Paris, the present Orléanist pretender to the French throne. He is also an ancestor of Juan Carlos I of Spain, Albert II, King of the Belgians, Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg and Vittorio Emanuele, Prince of Naples, the pretender to the Italian throne. Gabriel de Rochechouart de Mortemart, was the son of Gaspard de Rochechouart de Mortemart, Marquis of Mortemart and his younger brother, Louis de Rochechouart de Mortemart, died without children in 1669. He spent a part of his childhood with the future king of France Louis XIII, until the assassination of the latters father, Henry IV. In 1630, he was named the First Gentleman of the Chamber to Louis XIII and he also maintained the confidence of the powerful Cardinal Richelieu and was an intimate of the Spanish-born queen, Anne of Austria. He and his some of his descendants cultivated what became known as the esprit Mortemart, in 1632, he married Diane de Grandseigne, the daughter of Jean de Grandseigne, Marquis de Marsillac, and of Catherine de La Béraudière, dame de Villenon. A year after his marriage, he was created a Knight of the Orders of the King, during his infancy, till he succeeded his father, he was known as the Marquis de Vivonne, a subsidiary title which was raised to a duchy in 1668. When his father died in 1643, he took the title of Marquis de Mortemart, on 23 December 1663, Louis XIV raised the Marquisate of Mortemart, to a duchy. In 1669, he was named Governor of Paris, gabriel de Rochechouart de Mortemart died in Paris on 26 December 1675. Peer of France, Prince of Tonnay-Charente, Viscount of Rochechouart, Marquis of Montpipeau, Count of Limoges, Duke of Vivonne. Lordships and parishes of Montrol, Nouic, Blond, Vaulry, Beuilaufa, Le Fraisse, Javerdat, Saint-Victurnien, Oradour-sur-Glane along with the Baronies of Châtellenies of Lussac, Verrières and Dienné. 1600 –25 July 1643 the Marquis of Vivonne 25 July 1643 –23 December 1663 the Marquis of Mortemart 23 December 1663 –26 December 1675 the Duke of Mortemart
22.
French nobility
–
The French nobility was a privileged social class in France during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period to the revolution in 1790. The nobility was revived in 1805 with limited rights as an elite class from the First Empire to the fall of the July Monarchy in 1848. Hereditary titles, without privileges, continued to be granted until the Second Empire fell in 1870 and they survive among their descendants as a social convention and as part of the legal name of the corresponding individuals. In the political system of pre-Revolutionary France, the nobility made up the Second Estate of the Estates General, although membership in the noble class was mainly inherited, it was not a fully closed order. New individuals were appointed to the nobility by the monarchy, or they could purchase rights and titles, sources differ about the actual number of nobles in France, however, proportionally, it was among the smallest noble classes in Europe. For the year 1789, French historian François Bluche gives a figure of 140,000 nobles and states that about 5% of nobles could claim descent from feudal nobility before the 15th century, with a total population of 28 million, this would represent merely 0. 5%. Historian Gordon Wright gives a figure of 300,000 nobles, in terms of land holdings, at the time of the revolution, noble estates comprised about one-fifth of the land. The French nobility had specific legal and financial rights and prerogatives, the first official list of these prerogatives was established relatively late, under Louis XI after 1440, and included the right to hunt, to wear a sword and, in principle, to possess a seigneurie. Nobles were also granted an exemption from paying the taille, except for lands they might possess in some regions of France. Furthermore, certain ecclesiastic, civic, and military positions were reserved for nobles and these feudal privileges are often termed droits de féodalité dominante. With the exception of a few isolated cases, serfdom had ceased to exist in France by the 15th century, in early modern France, nobles nevertheless maintained a great number of seigneurial privileges over the free peasants that worked lands under their control. They could, for example, levy the tax, an annual tax on lands leased or held by vassals. Nobles could also charge banalités for the right to use the lords mills, ovens, alternatively, a noble could demand a portion of vassals harvests in return for permission to farm land he owned. In the 17th century this system was established in Frances North American possessions. However, the also had responsibilities. Nobles were required to honor, serve, and counsel their king and they were often required to render military service. The rank of noble was forfeitable, certain activities could cause dérogeance, most commercial and manual activities were strictly prohibited, although nobles could profit from their lands by operating mines and forges. The nobility in France was never a closed class
23.
Jules Hardouin-Mansart
–
Jules Hardouin-Mansart was a French architect whose work is generally considered to be the apex of French Baroque architecture, representing the power and grandeur of Louis XIV. Hardouin-Mansart was one of the most important European architects of the seventeenth century and he also learned from Libéral Bruant, architect of the royal veterans hospital in Paris known as Les Invalides. Hardouin-Mansart served as Louis XIVs chief architect, first enlarging the royal château of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and he became the surintendant des Bâtiments du Roi. Outside the château proper, he built the Grand Trianon and the Orangerie, as well as subsidiary royal dwellings not far away, most of these works still set their stamp on the character of Paris and can be seen by a modern-day tourist. A traditional French touch is the modest pedimented entrance flanked by projecting pavilions. Behind, the axis is extended between the former parterres, now grass. The park with formally shaped water was out by André Le Nôtre. The small scale makes it easier to compare to the approximately contemporary Het Loo and he died at Marly-le-Roi in 1708. 17th-century French art Herbermann, Charles, ed. Jules Mansard
24.
Philibert Orry
–
Philibert Orry, count of Vignory and lord of La Chapelle-Godefroy, was a French statesman. He was an intendant in Lille, Soissons, and Roussillon, Orry was named Controller-General of Finances in 1730 and combined this function with being director general of the Bâtiments du Roi in 1736, after the death of the duc dAntin. Orry remained Controller-General until 1745, making him the longest continuously-serving holder of the office in the eighteenth-century, an able economist, Orry had to restore the dixième tax and declared the venality of municipal officials, successfully balancing the budget in 1739-40. Applying the principles of Colbert, he sought to develop the manufacture of textiles and paper. He supported trade with Canada and the Indies by reforming the statutes of the Compagnie des Indes, as director general of buildings, he established the bi-annual public Paris Salon, and became the vice-protecteur of the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture in April 1737. His directorship has, generally, been harshly judged, the marquis dArgenson spoke with contempt of the bad, bourgeois taste of Monsieur Orry. As director general of Ponts et Chaussées, Orry finished the Crozat canal, the corvée made Frances major road network the finest in Europe, and before the Revolution, a great part of the public roads existed thanks to this institution. This policy of improved communications also led to the completion of the Cassini map in 1744, facing opposition from Madame de Pompadour, Orry resigned in 1745. He was the Treasurer of the Order of the Holy Spirit from February 1743 to his death in 1747, Orry owned the château de La Chapelle-Godefroy in Saint-Aubin near Nogent-sur-Seine, inherited from his father in 1719. He transformed and expanded considerably the seigneurial estate and he owned two paintings by Jean-Antoine Watteau, the Enchanteur and the Aventurière, which today are in the musée des Beaux-Arts in Troyes. Orry also possessed an estate, Petit Bercy, in Paris
25.
Virtual International Authority File
–
The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
.jpg)