1.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
2.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
3.
Green-Wood Cemetery
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Green-Wood Cemetery was founded in 1838 as a rural cemetery in Kings County, New York. Like other early rural cemeteries, Green-Wood was founded in a time of rapid urbanization when churchyards in New York City were becoming overcrowded. Located in Greenwood Heights, Brooklyn, the cemetery lies several blocks southwest of Prospect Park, the gates of the cemetery were designated a New York City landmark in 1966, and the Weir Greenhouse, used as a visitors center, in 1982. The cemetery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997 and was granted National Historic Landmark status in 2006 by the U. S. Department of the Interior. The Fort Hamilton Parkway Gate and the chapel were designated as landmarks by New York City in 2016. The popularity of Green-Wood Cemetery inspired a competition to design a Central Park for NYC, the winners were Calvert Vaux and Frederick Law Olmsted. It essentially inspired the creation of Central Park and Prospect Park, Battle Hill, the highest point in Brooklyn, is on cemetery grounds, rising approximately 200 feet above sea level. It was the site of an important action during the Battle of Long Island on August 27,1776, a Revolutionary War monument by Frederick Ruckstull, Altar to Liberty, Minerva, was erected there in 1920. From this height, the bronze Minerva statue gazes towards the Statue of Liberty across New York Harbor, the cemetery was the idea of Henry Evelyn Pierrepont, a Brooklyn social leader. The Pierrepont papers deposited at the Brooklyn Historical Society contain material about the organizing of Green-Wood Cemetery and it was a popular tourist attraction in the 1850s and by early 1860s, it became the popular tourist place 2nd to Niagara Falls. It was the place most famous New Yorkers who died during the half of the nineteenth century were buried. Green-Wood Cemetery is still operating with approximately 600,000 graves and 7000 trees spread out over 478 acres, the rolling hills and dales, several ponds and an on-site chapel provide an environment that still draws visitors. This incorporates a sculpture of the ship, half-submerged by the waves, as well as a Civil War Memorial, during the Civil War, Green-Wood Cemetery created the Soldiers Lot for free veterans burials. The gates were designed by Richard Upjohn in Gothic Revival style, the main entrance to the cemetery was built in 1861-65 of Belleville, New Jersey brownstone. A Designated Landmarks of New York plaque was erected on it in 1958 by the New York Community Trust, several wooden shelters were also built, including one in a Gothic Revival style, one resembling an Italian villa, and another resembling a Swiss chalet. A descendent colony of parakeets that are believed to have escaped their containers while in transit now nests in the spires of the gate. On December 5,1876, the Brooklyn Theater Fire claimed the lives of at least 278 individuals, out of that total,103 unidentified victims were interred in a common grave at Green-Wood Cemetery. An obelisk near the entrance at Fifth Avenue and 25th Street marks the burial site
4.
Widener University
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Widener University is a private, coeducational university located in Chester, Pennsylvania. Its main campus sits on 108 acres, just 14 miles southwest of Philadelphia, the university has three other campuses, two in Pennsylvania and one in Wilmington, Delaware. Founded as The Bullock School for Boys in 1821, the school was established in Wilmington and it became the The Alsop School for Boys from 1846–1853, and then Hyatts Select School for Boys from 1853-1859. Military instruction was introduced in 1858 and in 1859 the school changed its name to Delaware Military Academy and it moved to Pennsylvania in 1862 and became Pennsylvania Military Academy. It was known as Pennsylvania Military College after 1892 and adopted the Widener name in 1972, about 3,300 undergraduates and 3,300 graduate students attend Widener in eight degree-granting schools. The university offers associates, baccalaureate, master’s, and doctoral degrees in areas ranging from liberal arts to professional programs. The Carnegie Foundation classifies Widener as a Doctoral/Research University and a Community Engagement Institution, Widener was ranked #181 in the National Universities category by US News & World Report for 2012. It was known from 1892 to 1972 as Pennsylvania Military College, though it had officially become PMC Colleges in 1966 when a nonmilitary, Graduate programs were also introduced in 1966. In 1972 the name Widener College was adopted after the prominent Widener family of Philadelphia, the School of Law was acquired in 1975, which was split in 2015 to become two separate law schools one on the universitys Delaware campus and another in Harrisburg. In recognition of its offerings, Widener College became Widener University in 1979. Today, Widener is a university offering more than 80 programs of study. The Old Main and Chemistry Building were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978, throughout its long history, the university has undergone several name changes. The following table details the various names Widener has held over the years as well as any significant organizational changes that occurred during each period. Widener consists of four campuses, the Main Campus in Chester, Pennsylvania, plus campuses in Wilmington, Delaware, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, Wideners graduate programs include business, education, engineering, nursing, social work, physical therapy, and clinical psychology. The School of Law, opening in 1976 on the Delaware Campus and it contains the School of Law as well as the Legal Education Institute. Some classes for Continuing Studies students and graduate students are also held here. The 21-acre Harrisburg Campus, opening in 1989, contains the School of Law and has programs in nursing. Starting in 2004, the Exton Campus was added to Wideners growing institution and it is located in a business park 25 miles from the Main Campus
5.
Eagleswood Military Academy
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The Eagleswood Military Academy was a private military academy in Perth Amboy, in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States, which served antebellum educational needs. The Eagleswood Military Academy was started by Rebecca Spring and Marcus Spring in 1861 in the vicinity of the Route 35/Smith Street intersection, the Springs initially started the Raritan Bay Union, as a utopian community in 1853, but the Union closed in 1860. Rebecca had the bodies of A. D. Stevens and A. E. Hazlett, from John Browns raid on Harpers Ferry, the grounds, approximately 260 acres, were recorded in the largest survey conducted by Henry David Thoreau. The Eagleswood Mansion was located on the grounds, the house was listed on the New Jersey Register of Historic Places and the National Register of Historic Places as the George Inness House and was demolished in 1993. George Inness, the American painter, stayed at the home in the 1860s, edward L. Kemeys was another artist who spent time in residence at Eagleswood. The start of the American Civil War caused many of the Academys teachers to join the war effort, several years later, the site became the Eagleswood Park Hotel until 1888, when the Eagleswood estate was sold by the Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company to Calvin Pardee. He built a ceramic tile company on the site
6.
Favrile glass
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Favrile glass is a type of iridescent art glass designed by Louis Comfort Tiffany. It was patented in 1894 and first produced in 1896 and it differs from most iridescent glasses because the color is ingrained in the glass itself, as well as having distinctive coloring. Favrile glass was used in Tiffanys stained-glass windows, Tiffany founded his first glassmaking firm in 1892, which he called the Tiffany Glass and Decorating Company. The factory, Tiffany Furnaces, was located in Corona, Queens, New York and it was here that Tiffany established his unique method of glassmaking, treating molten glass with metallic oxides that absorbed into the glass and created a luxurious iridescent surface effect. Tiffany received the patent for Favrile glass in 1894, the first Favrile objects were made in 1896. He admired the coloration of glass and was convinced that the quality of contemporary glass could be improved upon. At the 1900 Paris Exposition, Favrile glass won the prize in the exposition. Favrile is different from other iridescent glasses because its color is not just on the surface, the original trade name Fabrile was derived from an Old English word, fabrile, meaning hand-wrought or handcrafted. Tiffany later changed the word to Favrile since this sounded better, some of the distinguishing colors in Favrile glass include Gold Lustre, Samian Red, Mazarin Blue, Tel-al-amana, and Aquamarine. Favrile was the first art glass to be used in windows, as Tiffany first thought of the idea of making patterns in windows based shapes. Favrile glass also backs a large clock in Detroits Guardian Building. Louis Comfort Tiffany and Laurelton Hall, a country estate, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
7.
Tiffany lamp
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A Tiffany lamp is a type of lamp with a glass shade made with glass designed by Louis Comfort Tiffany and his design studio. The most famous was the stained leaded glass lamp, Tiffany lamps are considered part of the Art Nouveau movement. The first Tiffany lamp was created around 1895, each lamp was handmade by skilled craftsmen, not mass- or machine-produced. Tiffanys first business venture was a design firm in New York City. Tiffany lamps gained popularity after the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893 and his presentation caught the eye of many people, most notably Wilhelm Bode and Julius Lessing, directors of state museums in Berlin. Lessing purchased a few pieces to display in the Museum of Decorative Arts, though Tiffanys work was popular in Germany, other countries, such as France, were not as taken by it because of its relation to American crafts. Tiffany was only able to break into the French market by having the production of his works taken over by Siegfried Bing, without Bing’s access and contacts in Europe, Tiffany would not have had as much success selling his works to a European audience. After the partnership between Tiffany and Bing ended, interest in Tiffany products began to decline in Europe. The Favrile category, which means handcrafted, identifies the first lamps Tiffany made with this label and his initials LCT, later replaced the Favrile stamp. The Geometric category, done primarily by the craftsman, speaks for itself. The Tiffany craftsman used geometric shapes such as triangles, squares, rectangles, next is the Transition to Flowers group, which is subdivided into the Flowered Cone and Globe lamps. All of these follow a nature, or botanical, design using flowers, dragonflies, spiders with webs, butterflies. The difference within these two categories is the difference in the lamp shapes, basically a cone and a globe. Every lamp is prepared by using the copper foil method, first a pattern for the lamp is drawn out on a heavy piece of cardboard. Next a number and glass color is written on the pattern piece, after the pattern is drawn and labeled, the glass is laid over it and traced. Once the pattern is traced onto the glass, the pieces can be cut, next the pieces need to be cleaned so the copper foil can be applied to the edges. The copper foil solution allows the pieces to adhere together, after the lamp has been placed accordingly and it is fully bonded, the edges need to be soldered together for a firm hold. Finally after the lamp has been soldered it is cleaned to bring out its beauty, nSociety, Central Park West at West 77th Street –132 lamps in the Dr
8.
Charles Lewis Tiffany
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Charles Lewis Tiffany was a nineteenth century leader in the American jewelry trade and founded New York Citys Tiffany & Co. in 1837. Known for his expertise, Tiffany created the countrys first retail catalog. Born in Killingly, Connecticut on February 15,1812, Tiffany was educated in a school and in an academy in Plainfield. Starting at the age of 15, he helped manage a small general store started by his father, Charles Tiffany later worked at the office of his fathers mill. The Tiffany family descended from the immigrant Humphrey Tiffany, who had lived in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1660, in 1837, with $1,000 borrowed from his father, Tiffany and a school friend, John B. Young, set up a small stationery and gift shop in New York City and their first three days in business brought them only $4.38 in total sales, but two years later they were still in business, selling glassware, porcelain, cutlery, clocks and jewelry. The store expanded in 1841 and changed its name to Tiffany, Young and it established a reputation for selling only the finest goods and specialized in Bohemian glass and porcelain. It also began manufacturing its own jewelry, in the early 1850s, the company was reorganized under the name Tiffany and Company and opened branches in Paris and London. The store also relocated uptown to a Fifth Avenue location in that decade, Tiffany was terribly embarrassed in an 1872 diamond and gemstone hoax perpetrated by Philip Arnold that cost investors more than half a million dollars. One of the achievements in his life was when he teamed up with Thomas Edison and together they created foot lights. As a result of this, Broadway and other became more popular during that time. The firm acquired and sold some of the French crown jewels in 1887, on November 30,1839, he married John B. In addition to his business, Tiffany was a patron of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Tiffany was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1878. Notes Charles Lewis Tiffany at the Fashion Model Directory Charles Lewis Tiffany Biography Charles Lewis Tiffany at Find a Grave
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Stained glass
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The term stained glass can refer to coloured glass as a material or to works created from it. Throughout its thousand-year history, the term has been applied almost exclusively to the windows of churches, mosques, although traditionally made in flat panels and used as windows, the creations of modern stained glass artists also include three-dimensional structures and sculpture. Modern vernacular usage has extended the term stained glass to include domestic leadlight. As a material stained glass is glass that has been coloured by adding metallic salts during its manufacture. The coloured glass is crafted into stained glass windows in which pieces of glass are arranged to form patterns or pictures, held together by strips of lead. Painted details and yellow stain are used to enhance the design. The term stained glass is applied to windows in which the colours have been painted onto the glass. Stained glass, as an art and a craft, requires the artistic skill to conceive an appropriate and workable design, and the engineering skills to assemble the piece. A window must fit snugly into the space for which it is made, must resist wind and rain, Many large windows have withstood the test of time and remained substantially intact since the late Middle Ages. In Western Europe they constitute the form of pictorial art to have survived. In this context, the purpose of a glass window is not to allow those within a building to see the world outside or even primarily to admit light. For this reason stained glass windows have been described as illuminated wall decorations, Stained glass is still popular today, but often referred to as art glass. It is prevalent in luxury homes, commercial buildings, and places of worship, artists and companies are contracted to create beautiful art glass ranging from domes, windows, backsplashes, etc. During the late Medieval period, glass factories were set up there was a ready supply of silica. Silica requires very high heat to become molten, something not all glass factories were able to achieve, such materials as potash, soda, and lead can be added to lower the melting temperature. Other substances, such as lime, are added to rebuild the weakened network, Glass is coloured by adding metallic oxide powders or finely divided metals while it is in a molten state. Copper oxides produce green or bluish green, cobalt makes deep blue, much modern red glass is produced using copper, which is less expensive than gold and gives a brighter, more vermilion shade of red. Glass coloured while in the pot in the furnace is known as pot metal glass
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Art Nouveau
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Art Nouveau is an international style of art, architecture and applied art, especially the decorative arts, that was most popular between 1890 and 1910. A reaction to the art of the 19th century, it was inspired by natural forms and structures, particularly the curved lines of plants. English uses the French name Art Nouveau, according to the philosophy of the style, art should be a way of life. For many well-off Europeans, it was possible to live in an art nouveau-inspired house with art nouveau furniture, silverware, fabrics, ceramics including tableware, jewellery, cigarette cases, artists desired to combine the fine arts and applied arts, even for utilitarian objects. By 1910, Art Nouveau was already out of style and it was replaced as the dominant European architectural and decorative style first by Art Deco and then by Modernism. Art Nouveau took its name from the Maison de lArt Nouveau, in France, Art Nouveau was also sometimes called by the British term Modern Style due to its roots in the Arts and Crafts Movement, Style moderne, or Style 1900. It was also sometimes called Style Jules Verne, Le Style Métro, Art Belle Époque, in Belgium, where the architectural movement began, it was sometimes termed Style nouille or Style coup de fouet. In Britain, it was known as the Modern Style, or, because of the arts and crafts movement led by Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, as the Glasgow style. In Italy, because of the popularity in Italy of designs from Londons Liberty & Co department store, in the United States, due to its association with Louis Comfort Tiffany, it was often called the Tiffany style. In Germany and Scandinavia, a style emerged at about the same time, it was called Jugendstil. In Catalonia the related style was known as Modernisme, in Spain as Modernismo, Arte joven, in Russia, it was called Modern, and Jugendstil, and Nieuwe Kunst in the Netherlands. Some names refer specifically to the forms that were popular with the Art Nouveau artists, Stile Floreal in France, Paling Stijl in the Netherlands. The new art movement had its roots in Britain, in the designs of William Morris. Early prototypes of the include the Red House of Morris. In France, the style combined several different tendencies, in architecture, it was influenced by the architectural theorist and historian Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, a declared enemy of the historical Beaux-Arts architectural style. For each function its material, for each material its form and this book influenced a generation of architects, including Louis Sullivan, Victor Horta, Hector Guimard, and Antoni Gaudí. The French painters Maurice Denis, Pierre Bonnard and Édouard Vuillard played an important part in integrating fine arts painting with decoration, I believe that before everything a painting must decorate, Denis wrote in 1891. The choice of subjects or scenes is nothing and it is by the value of tones, the colored surface and the harmony of lines that I can reach the spirit and wake up the emotions
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Aestheticism
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Aestheticism is an intellectual and art movement supporting the emphasis of aesthetic values more than social-political themes for literature, fine art, music and other arts. This meant that Art from this movement focused more on being beautiful rather than having a deeper meaning - Art for Arts sake. His text Studies in the History of the Renaissance was very well regarded by art-oriented young men of the late 19th century, writers of the Decadent movement used the slogan Art for Arts Sake, the origin of which is debated. It is generally accepted to have been promoted by Théophile Gautier in France, the artists and writers of Aesthetic style tended to profess that the Arts should provide refined sensuous pleasure, rather than convey moral or sentimental messages. As a consequence, they did not accept John Ruskin, Matthew Arnold, instead, they believed that Art did not have any didactic purpose, it only needed to be beautiful. The Aesthetes developed a cult of beauty, which considered the basic factor of art. Life should copy Art, they asserted and they considered nature as crude and lacking in design when compared to art. Music was used to establish mood, predecessors of the Aesthetics included John Keats and Percy Bysshe Shelley, and some of the Pre-Raphaelites. In Britain the best representatives were Oscar Wilde and Algernon Charles Swinburne, the style and these poets were satirised by Gilbert and Sullivans comic opera Patience and other works, such as F. C. Burnands drama The Colonel, and in magazines such as Punch. Compton Mackenzies novel Sinister Street makes use of the type as a phase through which the protagonist passes as he is influenced by older, decadent individuals. The novels of Evelyn Waugh, who was a participant of aesthete society at Oxford, describe the aesthetes mostly satirically. Some names associated with this assemblage are Robert Byron, Evelyn Waugh, Harold Acton, Nancy Mitford, A. E. Housman, artists associated with the Aesthetic style include James McNeill Whistler, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and Aubrey Beardsley. The primary element of Decorative Art is utility, the maxim Art for Arts Sake, identifying art or beauty as the primary element in other branches of the Aesthetic Movement, especially Fine Art, cannot apply in this context. Decorative art must first have utility but may also be beautiful, Decorative art is dissociated from Fine Art. Important elements of the Aesthetic Movement have been identified as Reform, the Government Schools of Design were founded from 1837 onwards in order to improve the design of British goods. Following the Great Exhibition of 1851 efforts were intensified and Oriental objects purchased for the schools teaching collections, production of Aesthetic style furniture was limited to approximately the late 19th century. Aesthetic style furniture is characterized by common themes, Ebonized wood with gilt highlights
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Lockwood de Forest
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Lockwood de Forest was an American painter, interior designer and furniture designer. A key figure in the Aesthetic Movement, he introduced the East Indian craft revival to Gilded Age America, as a young man, de Forest first worked as a painter, taking the lessons of his Hudson River School contemporaries. In 1879, de Forest began his career in the arts working at Associated Artists along with Louis Comfort Tiffany. Upon his retirement, de Forest moved to Santa Barbara where he returned to his love of painting while still taking commissions from local patrons. Lockwood de Forest was born in New York City in 1850 to a prominent family that had made its money in South American and Caribbean shipping and he grew up in Greenwich Village and on Long Island at the family summer estate. During a visit to Rome in 1868, nineteen-year-old de Forest first began to study art seriously, on the same trip, Lockwood met the American painter Frederic Edwin Church who became his mentor. De Forest accompanied Church on sketching trips around Italy and continued this practice when they returned to America in 1869. In 1872, de Forest took a studio at the Tenth Street Studio Building in New York, during these formative years, de Forest counted among his friends artists such as Sanford Robinson Gifford, John Frederick Kensett, Jervis McEntee, and Walter Launt Palmer. Over the next decade, de Forest experienced moderate success as a painter, de Forests works from the 1870s are generally modest-sized canvases depicting low-key views in an evocative painterly style. In his mid-twenties, de Forest became interested in decoration and architecture after browsing Church’s extensive library at his Persian-style home, Olana, de Forest’s first major interior design project was to remodel his parents New York townhouse in 1876. In 1879, de Forest became a partner of the design firm Associated Artists, with Louis Comfort Tiffany, Samuel Colman, the same year he joined Associated Artists de Forest married Meta Kemble and the newlyweds visited British India on their honeymoon. In Ahmadabad de Forest met Muggunbhai Hutheesing, a philanthropist with an interest in the arts and this studio became crucial to supplying Associated Artists with carved architectural elements and furniture. While in India de Forest also became friends with John Lockwood Kipling. Together, the two men organized a display of works by the Ahmadabad Woodcarving Company at the Lahore Museum in 1881, after Associated Artists closed in 1882, de Forest opened his own design business in New York with a lavish showroom at 9 East 17th Street. In addition to managing the design, production and import of Indian goods, de Forest continued to design his own furnishings and his work was exhibited at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London in 1886 and at the Worlds Columbian Exposition seven years later. In 1887, de Forest bought 7 East 10th Street and he had the architect Van Campen Taylor design a plain, basic house that he then proceeded to decorate with intricately carved teak elements made in India. Today, this home is the Bronfman Center for Jewish Student Life at New York University, while working in the decorating business, de Forest had continued to paint at home and he exhibited his work frequently at the Century Association and the National Academy of Design. In 1898, de Forest was made a member of the Academy and it was around this time, with a declining market for exotic interiors
13.
Samuel Colman
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Samuel Colman was an American painter, interior designer, and writer, probably best remembered for his paintings of the Hudson River. Born in Portland, Maine, Colman moved to New York City with his family as a child and his father opened a bookstore, attracting a literate clientele that may have influenced Colmans artistic development. He is believed to have studied briefly under the Hudson River school painter Asher Durand, by 1854 he had opened his own New York City studio. The following year he was elected a member of the National Academy. He was also able to paint in a style, which had become more fashionable after the Civil War. One of his works, and one of the iconic images of Hudson River School art, is his Storm King on the Hudson, now in the collection of the Smithsonian American Art Museum in Washington. Colman was a traveler, and many of his works depict scenes from foreign cities. He made his first trip abroad to France and Spain in 1860–1861, Colman often depicted the architectural features he encountered on his travels, cityscapes, castles, bridges, arches, and aqueducts feature prominently in his paintings of foreign scenes. In 1870 and again in the 1880s he journeyed to the western United States, painting western landscapes comparable in scope, in the aftermath of the Civil War, watercolor painting became more popular. In 1866, Colman was one of the founders of the American Watercolor Society, Colman also became skilled at the medium of etching. He was an member of the New York Etching Club. Colmans artistic activities became more diverse late in life. He also became a collector of Asian decorative objects. Colman died in New York City in 1920, list of Hudson River School artists American Watercolor Societys history. Gifford, a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art
14.
Tiffany & Co.
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Tiffany & Company is an American luxury jewelry and specialty retailer, headquartered in New York City. Tiffany sells jewelry, sterling silver, china, crystal, stationery, fragrances, water bottles, watches, personal accessories, many of these goods are sold at Tiffany stores, as well as through direct-mail and corporate merchandising. Tiffany is renowned for its goods and is particularly known for its diamond jewelry. Tiffany markets itself as an arbiter of taste and style, and was once a purveyor to the Russian imperial family, founded by Charles Lewis Tiffany and John B. The name was shortened to Tiffany & Company in 1853 when Charles Tiffany took control, Tiffany & Company has since opened stores in major cities all over the world. Unlike other stores at the time in the 1830s, Tiffany clearly marked the prices on its goods to forestall any haggling over prices, in addition, against the social norm at the time, Tiffany only accepted cash payments, and did not accept payments on credit. Such practices, fixed prices for ready money, were first introduced by Palmers of London Bridge in 1750, who employed the young Robert Owen, the later social reformer. The first Tiffanys mail order catalog, known as the Blue Book, was published in 1845 in the United States, in 1862, Tiffany & Company supplied the Union Army with swords, flags and surgical implements. In 1867, Tiffany & Co. was the first US firm to win an award for the excellence in silverware at the Exposition Universelle in Paris. In 1870, the built an new store building at 15 Union Square West, Manhattan, designed by John Kellum. It was described by The New York Times as a palace of jewels, Tiffany stayed at this site until 1906. In 1877, an insignia that would become the famous New York Yankees NY logo was struck on a medal of honor by Tiffany & Company. In 1878, Tiffany won the medal for jewelry and a grand prize for silverware at the Paris Exposition. In 1887, Tiffany bought the French Crown Jewels, which attracted publicity, the company revised the Great Seal of the United States in 1885. In 1902, after the death of Charles Lewis Tiffany, his son, Louis Comfort Tiffany, in 1919, the company made a revision to the Medal of Honor on behalf of the United States Department of the Navy. This Tiffany Cross version was rare because it was awarded only for combat, in 1942 the Navy established the Tiffany version for non-combat heroism, but in August 1942 the Navy eliminated the Tiffany Cross and the two-medal system. In 1956, legendary designer Jean Schlumberger joined Tiffany, and Andy Warhol collaborated with Tiffany to create Tiffany Holiday Cards. In 1968 Lady Bird Johnson, First Lady of the U. S. at the time, in November 1978, Tiffany & Co. was sold to Avon Products Inc. for about US$104 million in stock
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Tangier
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Tangier is a major city in northwestern Morocco. It is located on the Maghreb coast at the entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar. It is the capital of the Tanger-Tetouan-Al Hoceima region, as well as the Tangier-Assilah prefecture of Morocco, the history of Tangier is very rich, due to the historical presence of many civilisations and cultures starting from before the 5th century BC. Between the period of being a strategic Berber town and then a Phoenician trading centre to the era around the 1950s. In 1923, it was considered as having international status by foreign colonial powers, the city is currently undergoing rapid development and modernisation. Projects include new tourism projects along the bay, a business district called Tangier City Center, a new airport terminal. Tangiers economy is set to benefit greatly from the new Tanger-Med port. The citys name is said to come from Tingis, the daughter of Atlas, however, it more likely derives from the Semitic word tigisis, meaning harbour. Tangier is also referred to as Boughaz or nicknamed as the bride of the north by the Moroccans, Tangier was founded in the early 5th century BC by Carthaginian colonists, who were probably the first ones to settle around the coast. The Greeks ascribed the citys establishment to the giant Antaios, whose tomb and skeleton are pointed out in the vicinity, the cave of Hercules, a few miles from the city, is a major tourist attraction. It is believed that Hercules slept there before attempting one of his twelve labours, the commercial town of Tingi came under Roman rule during the 2nd century BC. It was initially autonomous, and then, under Augustus, became a colony and it was the scene of the martyrdoms of Saint Marcellus of Tangier. Tingis was the main Roman city of Mauretania Tingitana in the 4th century and enjoyed huge development, in the 5th century, Vandals conquered and occupied Tingi and from here swept across the Maghreb. A century later, Tangier fell to the Byzantine Empire, before coming under the control of the Umayyad Caliphate in 702, due to its Christian past, it is still a titular see of the Roman Catholic Church. When the Portuguese, driven in part by religious fervour, started their colonial expansion by taking Ceuta in 1415. They failed to capture the city in 1437 but finally occupied it in 1471, a partial plan of the original kasbah was found in 2009–12, in a Portuguese document now preserved in the Military Archives of Sweden in Stockholm. The Portuguese rule lasted until 1662, when it was given to Englands King Charles II as part of the dowry from the Portuguese Infanta Catherine of Braganza, the English gave the city a garrison and a charter which made it equal to English towns. The English planned to improve the harbour by building a mole, with an improved harbour the town would have played the same role that Gibraltar later played in British naval strategy
16.
West Chester, Pennsylvania
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West Chester is a borough and the county seat of Chester County, Pennsylvania in the U. S. state of Pennsylvania. The population was 18,461 at the 2010 census, West Chester University of Pennsylvania and the Chester County government are located within the borough. The center of town is located at the intersection of Market, the area was originally known as Turks Head — after the inn of the same name located in what is now the center of the borough. West Chester has been the seat of government in Chester County since 1786 when the seat was moved from nearby Chester in what is now Delaware County, the borough was incorporated in 1799. In the heart of town is its courthouse, a classical building designed in the 1840s by Thomas U. Walter, one of the architects for the Capitol in Washington, in the 18th century West Chester was a center of clockmaking. In the late 19th century the Hoopes, Bro. and Darlington company became a major wheelworks, first for wagons, in the early 20th century, an important industry was the Sharples cream separator company. In the late 20th century, Commodore International, one of the pioneers of home computers, the West Chester Downtown Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985. West Goshen Township borders West Chester to the north, south, the borough straddles the Brandywine Creek and Chester Creek watersheds. It is located 25 miles west of Philadelphia and 17 miles north of Wilmington, according to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has a total area of 1.8 square miles, all of it land. Summers are hot and humid and winters are cold but variable. Annual high temperatures average between 39.0 °F and 85.4 °F, annual low temperatures average between 22.2 °F and 64.4 °F, with the high being 105 °F. Annual precipitation averages 46.7 inches, and annual snowfall averages 27.7 inches. At the 2010 census, the borough was 72. 1% non-Hispanic White,12. 1% Black or African American,0. 2% Native American,1. 4% Asian,13. 4% of the population were of Hispanic or Latino ancestry. As of the census of 2000, there were 17,861 people,6,265 households, the population density was 9,703.3 people per square mile. There were 6,541 housing units at a density of 3,553.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 75. 44% White,17. 08% Black,3. 64% from other races,1. 46% Asian,0. 31% Native American,0. 07% Pacific Islander, Hispanic or Latino of any race was 8. 94%. 35. 3% of all households were made up of individuals, the average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 2.95
17.
Perth Amboy, New Jersey
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Perth Amboy is a city in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States. The City of Perth Amboy is part of the New York metropolitan area, Perth Amboy is known as the City by the Bay, referring to Raritan Bay. The Lenape Native Americans called the point on which the city is built Ompoge meaning level ground, when settled in 1684 the new city was dubbed New Perth in honor of James Drummond, Earl of Perth, one of the associates of a company of Scottish proprietaries. The Algonquian language name persisted, corrupted to Ambo, or Point Amboy, Perth Amboy Township was formed on October 31,1693, and was enlarged during the 1720s to encompass Perth Amboy city. Perth Amboy Township was incorporated as one of New Jerseys initial 104 townships through the Township Act of 1798 on February 21,1798, the township was replaced by Perth Amboy city on April 8,1844. Perth Amboy served as a capital of the Province of New Jersey from 1686 until 1776. In 1684, Perth Amboy became the capital of East Jersey and remained the capital until the union of East and West Jersey in 1702, a few of the buildings from this early period can still be seen today. Most notably, the Proprietary House, the home of William Franklin, St. Peters Church was founded in 1718 by the first Episcopal congregation in the state. Perth Amboy City Hall, first built as a courthouse in 1714, the Kearny Cottage, moved from its original location, is a remaining example of 18th Century vernacular architecture. This ferry became less important when the Outerbridge Crossing opened in 1928, in 1998, the Perth Amboy Ferry Slip was restored to its 1904 appearance. A replica of the office has been constructed and is used as a small museum. By the middle of the 19th century, immigration and industrialization transformed Perth Amboy, factories such as A. Hall and Sons Terra Cotta, Guggenheim and Sons and the Copper Works Smelting Company fueled a thriving downtown and employed many area residents. Growth was further stimulated by becoming the terminal for the Lehigh Valley Railroad. Perth Amboy developed tightly knit and insular ethnic neighborhoods such as Budapest, Dublin, immigrants from Denmark, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Italy, Russia, and Austria quickly dominated the factory jobs. In 1903, the Perth Amboy Public Library became the first Carnegie library in the state, made possible through grants from Andrew Carnegie, in 1914, Perth Amboy had a baseball team called the Pacers, they only played for one season. In late August 1923 a violent riot by an estimated 6,000 persons shook Perth Amboy when the Ku Klux Klan attempted to organize a meeting in the city. The city was also a town in the 19th century and early 20th century. Since the early 1990s Perth Amboy has seen redevelopment, small businesses have started to open up, helped by the citys designation as an Urban Enterprise Zone
18.
George Inness
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George Inness was a prominent American landscape painter and georgist activist. Neither pure realist nor impressionist, Inness was a figure who intended for his works to combine both the earthly and the ethereal in order to capture the complete essence of a locale. In Inness’s words, he attempted through his art to demonstrate the reality of the unseen”, within his own lifetime, art critics hailed Inness as one of Americas greatest artists. George Inness was born in Newburgh, New York and he was the fifth of thirteen children born to John William Inness, a farmer, and his wife, Clarissa Baldwin. His family moved to Newark, New Jersey when he was five years of age. In 1839 he studied for months with an itinerant painter. In his teens, Inness worked as a map engraver in New York City, during this time he attracted the attention of French landscape painter Régis François Gignoux, with whom he subsequently studied. He debuted his work at the National Academy in 1844, Inness opened his first studio in New York in 1848. In 1849, he married Delia Miller, who died a few months later, the next year he married Elizabeth Abigail Hart, with whom he would have six children. In 1851 a patron named Ogden Haggerty sponsored Inness first trip to Europe to paint, Inness spent fifteen months in Rome, where he studied landscapes by Claude Lorrain and Nicolas Poussin. He also rented a studio there above that of painter William Page, in 1853 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member and became a full Academician in 1868. During trips to Paris in the early 1850s, Inness came under the influence of working in the Barbizon school of France. Barbizon landscapes were noted for their looser brushwork, darker palette, Inness quickly became the leading American exponent of Barbizon-style painting, which he developed into a highly personal style. In 1854 his son George Inness, Jr. who also became a painter of note, was born in Paris. In the mid-1850s, Inness was commissioned by the Delaware, Lackawanna, Inness moved from New York City to Medfield, Massachusetts in 1860, where he converted a barn into a studio. In 1862-63, he was an art teacher to Charles Dormon Robinson and he then to Eagleswood, New Jersey in 1864. He returned to Europe in the spring of 1870, living in Rome and touring Tivoli, Lake Albano, in 1878, he returned to New York, taking a studio in the New York University Building. The same year, he participated in the Universal Exposition in Paris
19.
Eagleswood, New Jersey
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Eagleswood Township is a township in Ocean County, New Jersey, United States. The 2010 population was the highest recorded in any decennial census, Eagleswood Township was incorporated as a township by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on March 17,1874, from portions of Stafford Township. Portions of the township were taken to form Beach Haven and Long Beach Township. According to the United States Census Bureau, the township had an area of 18.858 square miles. The township borders the Ocean County municipalities of Little Egg Harbor Township, Long Beach Township, as of the census of 2010, there were 1,603 people,621 households, and 454 families residing in the township. The population density was 99.8 per square mile, there were 760 housing units at an average density of 47.3 per square mile. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 37% of the population,22. 7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.58 and the family size was 3.00. In the township, the population was out with 21. 7% under the age of 18,8. 3% from 18 to 24,23. 1% from 25 to 44,33. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 43.1 years, for every 100 females there were 107.6 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and old there were 102.4 males, the Census Bureaus 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that median household income was $60,221 and the median family income was $70,313. Males had an income of $49,875 versus $38,036 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $28,135, about 4. 8% of families and 6. 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5. 5% of those under age 18 and 1. 4% of those age 65 or over. As of the 2000 United States Census there were 1,441 people,546 households, the population density was 88.0 people per square mile. There were 693 housing units at a density of 42.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the township was 98. 96% White,0. 07% African American,0. 28% Native American,0. 21% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 11% of the population. 22. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.64 and the average family size was 3.11. In the township the population was out with 24. 7% under the age of 18,6. 7% from 18 to 24,29. 5% from 25 to 44,24. 7% from 45 to 64
20.
Irvington, New York
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Irvington, sometimes known as Irvington-on-Hudson, is an affluent suburban village in the town of Greenburgh in Westchester County, New York, United States. It is located on the bank of the Hudson River,20 miles north of midtown Manhattan in New York City. To the north of Irvington is the village of Tarrytown, to the south the village of Dobbs Ferry, the population of Irvington at the 2010 census was 6,420. The villages Main Street area has designated an historic district by New York State. In 2010, Westchester Magazine ranked Irvington as the Best Place to Live in Westchester, the Wickquasgeck still lived in the area as late as 1775. At first it was settled by tenant farmers, and but by the 1700s, the Kings Highway, which connected New York City with Albany, was built through the settlement by the 1720s, which created a need for inns and taverns. This is presumably how part of it came to be the farm of William Dutcher, Dutcher sold half of his farm to Justus Dearman in 1817, who then sold it to Gustavo F. Sacchi in 1848 for $26,000. The organization of the streets into a grid pattern was criticized by Andrew Jackson Downing. Wolfert Eckers house, then owned by Jacob van Tassel, was burned by the British in the Revolutionary War because it had become a notorious hang-out for American patriots. Washington Irving later wrote about it under the name of Wolferts Roost, Jan Harnse, and the Harnse-Conklin-Odell Tavern on Broadway was built in 1693 and became an inn in 1743. No major battles of the Revolutionary War were fought in the area, on the high road where heretofore was a continuous stream of travelers and vehicles, not a single traveler was seen from week to week, month to month. The very tracks of the carriages were grown over with grass or weeds, the villages are abandoned, the residents having fled to the north, leaving their homes, where possible, in charge of elder persons and servants. Eventually, the area recovered and continued to develop and it was thus under the name of Irvington that the village incorporated on April 16,1872. By the census of 1860, the population of the village was 599, a few years later, in 1863, Irvington was touched by the New York Draft Riots. Fearing that the violence in the city, which had to be put down by Federal troops, would spread to Westchester, special police were brought in and quartered in a schoolhouse on Sunnyside Lane. They were commanded by James Hamilton – the third son of Alexander Hamilton – whose estate, the presence of this special force deterred any violence a group of draft protestors which passed through Greenburgh on their way to Tarrytown may have intended. This was the instance in which Civil War-related activity directly affected Irvington. Still, the continued to expand, with various commercial enterprises opening along the waterfront
21.
National Academy Museum and School
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Durand, Thomas Cole, Martin E. Thompson, and others to promote the fine arts in America through instruction and exhibition. The Academy is an honorary organization, a school. The school offers instruction, master classes, intensive critiques, various workshops. The museum houses a collection of over 7,000 works of American art from the 19th, 20th. The Academy has been located at several locations over the years, notable among them was a building built during 1863-1865, designed by architect P. B. Wight in Venetian Gothic style, which was modeled on the Doges Palace in Venice, another locale was at West 109th Street and Amsterdam Avenue in Manhattan. Since 1942 the academy has occupied a mansion that was the home of sculptor Anna Hyatt Huntington and Archer Milton Huntington at Fifth Avenue. The original founders of the National Academy of Design were students of the American Academy of the Fine Arts, samuel F. B. Morse and other students set about forming the drawing association to meet several times each week for the study the art of design. Still, the association was viewed as a dependent organization of the American Academy, an attempt was made to reconcile the difference and maintain a single academy by appointing six of the artists from the association as directors of the American Academy. When four of the nominees were not elected, however, the frustrated artists resolved to form a new academy, among the teaching staff were numerous artists, including Will Hicok Low, who taught from 1889 to 1892. The famous American poet William Cullen Bryant also gave lectures, architect Alexander Jackson Davis taught at the Academy. Painter Lemuel Wilmarth was the first full-time instructor Gulian C, verplanck, a Congressman and a man of letters, gave an address at the school in 1824. and Silas Dustin was a curator
22.
Glass
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Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are silicate glasses based on the chemical compound silica, the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material. Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, giving rise to their use as window panes. Glass can be coloured by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels and these qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures, because glass can be formed or moulded into any shape, it has been traditionally used for vessels, bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms it has also used for paperweights, marbles. Some objects historically were so commonly made of glass that they are simply called by the name of the material, such as drinking glasses. Porcelains and many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are glasses and these sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials than silica, metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses are a lighter alternative than traditional glass, silica is a common fundamental constituent of glass. In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure SiO2. It has excellent resistance to shock, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting-temperature and viscosity make it difficult to work with, normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate, which lowers the transition temperature. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is undesirable, so lime, some magnesium oxide. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass, soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass. Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties, lead glass or flint glass is more brilliant because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index, iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for example in heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths
23.
White House
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The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States, located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D. C. It has been the residence of every U. S. president since John Adams in 1800, the term White House is often used to refer to actions of the president and his advisers, as in The White House announced that. The residence was designed by Irish-born architect James Hoban in the Neoclassical style, construction took place between 1792 and 1800 using Aquia Creek sandstone painted white. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he added low colonnades on each wing that concealed stables and storage. In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior, reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed Executive Residence in October 1817. Exterior construction continued with the addition of the semi-circular South portico in 1824, because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices relocated to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901. Eight years later in 1909, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office, in the main mansion, the third-floor attic was converted to living quarters in 1927 by augmenting the existing hip roof with long shed dormers. A newly constructed East Wing was used as an area for social events. East Wing alterations were completed in 1946, creating additional office space, by 1948, the houses load-bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the rooms were completely dismantled. Once this work was completed, the rooms were rebuilt. The Executive Residence is made up of six stories—the Ground Floor, State Floor, Second Floor, the property is a National Heritage Site owned by the National Park Service and is part of the Presidents Park. In 2007, it was ranked second on the American Institute of Architects list of Americas Favorite Architecture, in May 1790, New York began construction of Government House for his official residence, but he never occupied it. The national capital moved to Philadelphia in December 1790, the July 1790 Residence Act named Philadelphia, Pennsylvania the temporary national capital for a 10-year period while the Federal City was under construction. The City of Philadelphia rented Robert Morriss city house at 190 High Street for Washingtons presidential residence, the first president occupied the Market Street mansion from November 1790 to March 1797, and altered it in ways that may have influenced the design of the White House. As part of an effort to have Philadelphia named the permanent national capital, Pennsylvania built a much grander presidential mansion several blocks away. President John Adams also occupied the Market Street mansion from March 1797 to May 1800, on Saturday, November 1,1800, he became the first president to occupy the White House. The Presidents House in Philadelphia became a hotel and was demolished in 1832, the Presidents House was a major feature of Pierre Charles LEnfants plan for the newly established federal city, Washington, D. C
24.
Mark Twain House
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The Mark Twain House and Museum in Hartford, Connecticut, was the home of Samuel Langhorne Clemens and his family from 1874 to 1891. It was designed by Edward Tuckerman Potter and built in the American High Gothic style, Clemens biographer Justin Kaplan has called it part steamboat, part medieval fortress and part cuckoo clock. Poor financial investments prompted the Clemens family to move to Europe in 1891 and he recounted the trip in Following the Equator. Their other two daughters, Susy and Jean, had stayed behind during this time, and Susy died at home on August 18,1896 of spinal meningitis before the family could be reunited. They could not bring themselves to reside in the house after this tragedy and they sold the house in 1903. The building later functioned as a school, an apartment building, in 1929, it was rescued from possible demolition and put under the care of the newly formed non-profit group Mark Twain Memorial. The building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1962, a restoration effort led to its being opened as a house museum in 1974. In 2003, a multimillion-dollar, LEED-certified visitors center was built that included a dedicated to showcasing Twains life. The museum claimed record-setting attendance levels in 2012 and it has featured events such as celebrity appearances by Stephen King, Judy Blume, John Grisham, and others, it has also sponsored writing programs and awards. Also in 2012, the Mark Twain House was named one of the Ten Best Historic Homes in the world in The Ten Best of Everything, a National Geographic Books publication. Mark Twain first came to Hartford in 1868 while writing The Innocents Abroad in order to work with publisher Elisha Bliss, Hartford was a publishing center at the time, with twelve publishers. The family first rented a house at what was called Nook Farm in 1871 before buying land there, Twain said of Hartford, Of all the beautiful towns it has been my fortune to see, this is the chief…. You do not know what beauty is if you have not been here and he was attracted to the town which had the highest per-capita income of any city in the United States at that time. The house was designed by Edward Tuckerman Potter, an architect from New York City, the cost of the house was paid out of Mrs. Clemens inheritance. The home is in the style of Victorian Gothic Revival architecture, including the typical steeply-pitched roof, legend says the home was designed to look like a riverboat. In 1881, a strip of land was purchased, the grounds re-landscaped. The driveway was redrawn, the rebuilt and its size doubled. The family also installed new plumbing and heating and a burglar alarm, after its renovations, the total cost of the home amounted to $70,000, $22,000 were spent on furnishings, and the initial purchase of land cost $31,000
25.
Hartford, Connecticut
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Hartford is the capital of the U. S. state of Connecticut. It was the seat of Hartford County until Connecticut disbanded county government in 1960, as of the 2010 Census, Hartfords population was 124,775, making it Connecticuts third-largest city after the coastal cities of Bridgeport and New Haven. Census Bureau estimates since then have indicated Hartfords subsequent fall to fourth place statewide as a result of sustained growth in the coastal city of Stamford. Nicknamed the Insurance Capital of the World, Hartford houses many insurance company headquarters, founded in 1635, Hartford is among the oldest cities in the United States. In 1868, resident Mark Twain wrote, Of all the towns it has been my fortune to see this is the chief. Following the American Civil War, Hartford was the richest city in the United States for several decades, today, Hartford is one of the poorest cities in the nation with 3 out of every 10 families living below the poverty line. In sharp contrast, the Hartford metropolitan area is ranked 32nd of 318 metropolitan areas in total economic production, various tribes, all part of the loose Algonquin confederation, lived in or around present-day Hartford. The area was referred to as Suckiaug, meaning Black Fertile River-Enhanced Earth, the first Europeans known to have explored the area were the Dutch, under Adriaen Block, who sailed up the Connecticut in 1614. Dutch fur traders from New Amsterdam returned in 1623 with a mission to establish a trading post, the original site was located on the south bank of the Park River in the present-day Sheldon/Charter Oak neighborhood. This fort was called Fort Hoop, or the House of Hope, in 1633, Jacob Van Curler formally bought the land around Fort Hoop from the Pequot chief for a small sum. It was home to perhaps a couple families and a few dozen soldiers, the area today is known as Dutch Point, and the name of the Dutch fort, House of Hope, is reflected in the name of Huyshope Avenue. The fort was abandoned by 1654, but its neighborhood in Hartford is still known as Dutch Point, the Dutch outpost, and the tiny contingent of Dutch soldiers that were stationed there, did little to check the English migration. The Dutch soon realized they were vastly outnumbered, the House of Hope remained an outpost, but it was steadily swallowed up by waves of English settlers. The English began to arrive 1637, settling upstream from Fort Hoop near the present-day Downtown, the settlement was originally called Newtown, but was changed to Hartford in 1637 in honor of Stones hometown of Hertford, England. Hooker also created the town of Windsor. The etymology of Hartford is the ford where harts cross, the Seal of the City of Hartford features a male deer, which in full maturity was referred to by the medieval hunting term hart. The fledgling colony along the Connecticut River had issues with the authority by which it was to be governed because it was outside of the jurisdiction of the Massachusetts Bay Colonys charter. Historians suggest that Hookers conception of self-rule embodied in the Fundamental Orders went on to inspire the Connecticut Constitution, today, one of Connecticuts nicknames is the Constitution State
26.
Chester A. Arthur
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Chester Alan Arthur was an American attorney and politician who served as the 21st President of the United States, he succeeded James A. Garfield upon the latters assassination. At the outset, Arthur struggled to overcome a slightly negative reputation and he succeeded by embracing the cause of civil service reform. His advocacy for, and subsequent enforcement of, the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act was the centerpiece of his administration, Arthur was born in Fairfield, Vermont, grew up in upstate New York, and practiced law in New York City. He served as general in the New York Militia during the American Civil War. Following the war, he devoted time to Republican politics. In 1878, the new president, Rutherford B, Hayes, fired Arthur as part of a plan to reform the federal patronage system in New York. When Garfield won the Republican nomination for president in 1880, Arthur, after just half a year as vice president, Arthur found himself in the executive mansion due to the assassination of his predecessor. To the surprise of reformers, Arthur took up the cause of reform and he signed the Pendleton Act into law and strongly enforced its provisions. He gained praise for his veto of a Rivers and Harbors Act that would have appropriated federal funds in a manner he thought excessive. He presided over the rebirth of the United States Navy, but was criticized for failing to alleviate the federal budget surplus, suffering from poor health, Arthur made only a limited effort to secure the Republican Partys nomination in 1884, he retired at the close of his term. Journalist Alexander McClure later wrote, No man ever entered the Presidency so profoundly and widely distrusted as Chester Alan Arthur, more generally respected, alike by political friend and foe. The New York World summed up Arthurs presidency at his death in 1886, No duty was neglected in his administration, mark Twain wrote of him, t would be hard indeed to better President Arthurs administration. Over the 20th and 21st centuries, however, Arthurs reputation mostly faded among the public, Chester Alan Arthur was born October 5,1829, in Fairfield, Vermont. Arthurs mother, Malvina Stone, was born in Vermont, the daughter of George Washington Stone, malvinas family was primarily of English and Welsh descent, and her grandfather, Uriah Stone, fought in the Continental Army during the American Revolution. His father, William Arthur, was born in Dreen, Cullybackey, County Antrim, Ireland, he graduated college in Belfast. Arthurs mother met his father while William Arthur was teaching at a school in Dunham, Quebec, the two married in Dunham on April 12,1821, soon after meeting. After their first child, Regina, was born, the Arthurs moved to Vermont and they quickly moved from Burlington to Jericho, and finally to Waterville, as William received positions teaching at different schools. William Arthur became an outspoken abolitionist, which made him unpopular with members of his congregations
27.
Interior design
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An interior designer is someone who plans, researches, coordinates, and manages such projects. Interior design is the process of shaping the experience of interior space, in the past, interiors were put together instinctively as a part of the process of building. The profession of design has been a consequence of the development of society. The pursuit of effective use of space, user well-being and functional design has contributed to the development of the interior design profession. The profession of design is separate and distinct from the role of Interior Decorator. The term is common in the UK where the profession of interior design is still unregulated and therefore, strictly speaking. In ancient India, architects used to work as interior designers and this can be seen from the references of Vishwakarma the architect - one of the gods in Indian mythology. Additionally, the sculptures depicting ancient texts and events are seen in palaces built in 17th century India, in ancient Egypt, soul houses or models of houses were placed in tombs as receptacles for food offerings. Architects would also employ craftsmen or artisans to complete design for their buildings. Large furniture firms began to branch out into general interior design and management and this business model flourished from the mid-century to 1914, when this role was increasingly usurped by independent, often amateur, designers. This paved the way for the emergence of the interior design in the mid-20th century. In the 1950s and 1960s, upholsterers began to expand their business remits and they framed their business more broadly and in artistic terms and began to advertise their furnishings to the public. Firms began to publish and circulate catalogs with prints for different lavish styles to attract the attention of expanding middle classes, as department stores increased in number and size, retail spaces within shops were furnished in different styles as examples for customers. One particularly effective advertising tool was to set up rooms at national and international exhibitions in showrooms for the public to see. Some of the firms in this regard were Waring & Gillow, James Shoolbred, Mintons. This type of firm emerged in America after the Civil War, the Herter Brothers, founded by two German emigre brothers, began as an upholstery warehouse and became one of the first firms of furniture makers and interior decorators. A pivotal figure in popularizing theories of interior design to the class was the architect Owen Jones. His most significant publication was The Grammar of Ornament, in which Jones formulated 37 key principles of interior design, in 1882, the London Directory of the Post Office listed 80 interior decorators
28.
East Room
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The East Room is an event and reception room in the White House, the home of the President of the United States. The East Room is the largest room in the Executive Mansion, it is used for dances, receptions, press conferences, ceremonies, concerts, and banquets. The East Room was one of the last rooms to be finished and decorated, the White House was designed by architect James Hoban. Leinster House in Ireland was the inspiration for the White House. But the newly added Large Dining Room at Mount Vernon may also have been a source for the design of the East Room, as his drawings of the second and third floor do not exist, it is unclear what use Hoban intended for the room. It is possible that Hoban intended it for use as a gallery for the family. It was the largest room in the White House, however, the middle window in the north wall was designed to provide access to a terrace. The East Room was first assigned a purpose in 1807, architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe had been brought to the capital by Thomas Jefferson, who made him commissioner of public buildings. Latrobe surveyed the White House in 1803, and architectural drawings of the building are the earliest extant plans now known, on his sketches, Latrobe comments Public Audience chamber entirely unfinished, the ceiling has given way. Latrobe also proposed sealing the windows on the east side of the based on an architectural theory about natural light. But this change was not made, the East Room was among the last rooms on the State Floor to be completed and used. The White House was unfinished when President John Adams occupied it between 1797 and 1801 and his wife, Abigail Adams, hung laundry in the bare East Room to dry. Although much of the White House was finished and decorated during Adams administration, the rooms lone artwork was a copy of the Lansdowne portrait depicting George Washington, painted by Gilbert Stuart in 1797. It was purchased by the White House in 1800, and hung in the East Room, during the Jefferson administration,38 gold-and-black painted chairs were purchased and placed in the room, but little else is known of the rooms furnishings prior to 1814. Jefferson also had the East Room partitioned and the end used for a bedroom. Jeffersons successor, James Madison, sought to make the permanent and asked Latrobe to design bedrooms. But these changes were not made, either, Madison did use a portion of the East Room, however, for Cabinet meetings. The East Room, along with the rest of the White House, was burned in 1814 during the Burning of Washington in the War of 1812, the interior was gutted, and most of the exterior sandstone walls remained standing
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Blue Room (White House)
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The Blue Room is one of three state parlors on the first floor in the White House, the residence of the President of the United States. It is distinct for its oval shape, the room is used for receptions and receiving lines, and is occasionally set for small dinners. President Grover Cleveland married Frances Folsom in the room on June 2,1886, the room is traditionally decorated in shades of blue. With the Yellow Oval Room above it and the Diplomatic Reception Room below it, the room is approximately 30 by 40 feet. It has six doors, which open into the Cross Hall, Green Room, Red Room, the three windows look out upon the South Lawn. The Blue Room is furnished in the French Empire style, a series of redecoratings through the 19th century caused most of the original pieces to be sold or lost. Today much of the furniture is original to the room, eight pieces of gilded European beech furniture purchased during the administration of James Monroe furnish the room, including a bergère and several fauteuils. A marble-top center table has been in the White House since it was purchased by Monroe in 1817, a c.1817 ormolu French Empire mantel clock with a figure of Hannibal, by Denière et Matelin, sits on the mantel. The early 19th-century French chandelier is made of gilded-wood and cut glass, acquired during the Kennedy Administration, it previously hung in the Presidents Dining Room on the second floor. George Peter Alexander Healys 1859 portrait of John Tyler hangs on the west wall above the Monroe sofa, the sapphire-blue silk fabric used for the draperies and furniture upholstery was chosen by Mrs. Clinton. The silk lampas upholstery fabric retains the gold medallion on the chair backs which was adapted from the depiction of one of the Monroe-era chairs in a portrait of James Monroe. The painting however depicts the chair upholstered in crimson, not blue, design of the blue satin draperies is derived from early 19th-century French patterns. The present drapery design is similar to those installed during the administration of Richard Nixon, the walls are hung with a chamois-colored wallpaper imprinted with medallions of burnished gold. It is adapted from an early 19th-century American Empire wallpaper having French influences, the upper border is a faux printed blue fabric drapery swag. The faux fabric border is similar in effect to an actual fabric border installed during the administration of John F. Kennedy, the printed dado border along the chair rail is blue and gold with rosettes. Installation of a new carpet, based on early 19th-century designs. The design was adapted from a design for a neoclassical English carpet from about 1815. During the administration of John Adams, the Blue Room served as the entrance hall
30.
Red Room (White House)
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The Red Room is one of three state parlors on the State Floor in the White House, the home of the President of the United States in Washington, D. C. in the United States. The room has served as a parlor and music room, and it has been traditionally decorated in shades of red. The room is approximately 28 by 22.5 feet and it has six doors, which open into the Cross Hall, Blue Room, South Portico, and State Dining Room. During the administration of John Adams, it served as a breakfast room, jefferson kept a caged magpie in the room. During the James Madison administration, the became the Yellow Drawing Room. Dolley ordered a piano she particularly wanted, along with red velvet curtains for the room, the White House was gutted in 1814 when the British set fire to the structure during the Burning of Washington. It was largely reconstructed during the administration of President James Monroe, Monroe purchased furnishings for the Red Room in the Empire style, as he had for the Blue Room, to furnish the rebuilt White House. Gilbert Stuarts portrait of George Washington originally hung in the Red Room, Stuarts 1804 portrait of Dolley Madison also was hung here. The fireplace mantel was one of two purchased by President James Monroe in 1817. Carved of white marble in France in the Empire style, it, in 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt selected Charles Follen McKim of the New York architectural firm McKim, Mead & White to renovate the White House. McKim fashioned all new mantels for the State Dining Room, the walls were hung with burgundy silk velvet. A late nineteenth century suite of stuffed Turkish-style furniture was upholstered in the same shade, addition of a new attic story during the Coolidge administration placed great strain on the buildings structure. By 1951 the house had become unsound and President Truman directed a major reconstruction, the buildings interior was largely dismantled, with some of the architectural elements being numbered and stored. After a steel infrastructure was installed, those elements were restored in their original configuration, the Red Room was dismantled and reconstructed during this period. Installation of air conditioning in 1953 and 1954 required the height be reduced by approximately 18. Having nearly no furniture original to the house, Truman hired the New York department store B, altmans design department to oversee the refurnishing of the house. In the Red Room, a red silk damask in the pattern as before the reconstruction was installed on the walls. The Louis XVI style mantel clock is French, c, 1780–85, and was a gift to the American nation in 1954 from President Vincent Auriol of France following completion of the Truman reconstruction of the house
31.
State Dining Room of the White House
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The State Dining Room is the larger of two dining rooms on the State Floor of the Executive Residence of the White House, the home of the President of the United States in Washington, D. C. It is used for receptions, luncheons, larger formal dinners, the room seats 140 and measures approximately 48 by 36 feet. Originally office space, the State Dining Room received its name during the presidency of James Monroe, the room was refurbished during several administrations in the early to mid 1800s, and gasified in 1853. Doors were cut through the west wall in 1877, the room stayed in this form until the White Houses complete reconstruction in 1952. The 1952 rebuilding of the White House retained much of the 1902 renovation, although much of the furnishings were removed. Another major refurbishment from 1961 to 1963 changed the room even further, incremental changes to the room were made throughout the 1970s and 1980s, with major refurbishments of the furnishings in 1998 and 2015. The northern third of what is now the State Dining Room was originally the part of the Cross Hall. Two flights of stairs led from the State Floor to the Second Floor, a single, central stair then led up to the Third Floor. Not completed when the White House was occupied in 1800, the Grand Stairs were probably finished by architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe in 1803 or shortly thereafter. To the south of the Grand Stair was a small room, President John Adams was the first president to occupy the White House. The White House was far too large for their needs, the State Dining Room was temporarily partitioned in order to make it useable. The southwest corner became a room, where the public could meet and mingle with the president. President Thomas Jefferson used the southwest corner of the State Dining Room as his office from 1801 to 1809. The room was furnished at this time, with only a desk. He also kept his gardening tools and an assortment of potted plants in the room, the floor was covered with canvas, painted green. For seating, Jefferson moved 12 of the black-and-gold painted mahogany chairs from the room to the office. Jeffersons successor, James Madison, wanted the room to be a dining room, a large dining table, capable of seating at least 40, was placed in the room, surrounded by simple rush-bottomed chairs. A silver service and a china service purchased from the Lowestoft Porcelain Factory in England were used for dining
32.
Tiffany glass
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In 1865, Tiffany traveled to Europe, and in London he visited the Victoria and Albert Museum, whose extensive collection of Roman and Syrian glass made a deep impression on him. He admired the coloration of glass and was convinced that the quality of contemporary glass could be improved upon. His inventiveness both as a designer of windows and as a producer of the material with which to them was to become renowned. Tiffany wanted the glass itself to transmit texture and rich colors, the glass was manufactured at the Tiffany factory located at 96-18 43rd Avenue in the Corona section of Queens from 1901 to 1932. Some opalescent glass was used by several stained glass studios in England from the 1860s and 1870s onwards, notably Heaton, Butler, opalescent glass is the basis for the range of glasses created by Tiffany. Tiffany patented Favrile glass in 1892, Favrile glass often has a distinctive characteristic that is common in some glass from Classical antiquity, it possesses a superficial iridescence. This iridescence causes the surface to shimmer, but also causes a degree of opacity and this iridescent effect of the glass was obtained by mixing different colors of glass together while hot. Streamer glass refers to a sheet of glass with a pattern of glass strings affixed to its surface, Tiffany made use of such textured glass to represent, for example, twigs, branches and grass. Streamers are prepared from very hot glass, gathered at the end of a punty that is rapidly swung back and forth and stretched into long, thin strings that rapidly cool. These hand-stretched streamers are pressed on the surface of sheet glass during the rolling process. Fracture glass refers to a sheet of glass with a pattern of irregularly shaped, Tiffany made use of such textured glass to represent, for example, foliage seen from a distance. The irregular glass wafers, called fractures, are prepared from very hot, colored molten glass, a large bubble is forcefully blown until the walls of the bubble rapidly stretch, cool and harden. The resulting glass bubble has paper-thin walls and is shattered into shards. These hand blown shards are pressed on the surface of the glass sheet during the rolling process. Fracture-streamer glass refers to a sheet of glass with a pattern of glass strings, Tiffany made use of such textured glass to represent, for example, twigs, branches and grass, and distant foliage. The process is as above except that both streamers and fractures are applied to glass during the rolling process. Ring mottle glass refers to glass with a pronounced mottle created by localized, heat-treated opacification. Ring mottle glass was invented by Tiffany in the early 20th century, tiffanys distinctive style exploited glass containing a variety of motifs such as those found in ring mottle glass, and he relied minimally on painted details
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Opalescence
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Opalescence is a type of dichroism seen in highly dispersed systems with little opacity. The material appears yellowish-red in transmitted light and blue in the scattered light perpendicular to the transmitted light, the phenomenon is named after the appearance of opals and is an example of the Tyndall effect. There are different degrees of opalescent behaviour, one can still see through a slightly opalescent phase. The larger the particles are, the stronger the scattering arising from them, at a certain concentration the scattering is so strong that all light passing through is scattered, so that it is no longer transparent. Examples are the sky in the daytime and the yellowish-red sky at sunset. Another example can be made by adding a few droplets of milk to a glass of water, however, if one looks through the glass at a light source, it becomes yellowish-red. Opalescence is an effect exploited in lustreware pottery
34.
Pittsburgh
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Pittsburgh is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States, and is the county seat of Allegheny County. The city proper has a population of 304,391. The metropolitan population of 2,353,045 is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 26th-largest in the U. S. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclines, a fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in manufacturing of aluminum, glass, shipbuilding, petroleum, foods, sports, transportation, computing, autos, and electronics. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment, Americas 1980s deindustrialization laid off area blue-collar workers and thousands of downtown white-collar workers when the longtime Pittsburgh-based world headquarters moved out. The area has served also as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research. The area is home to 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University, the region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, sustainable energy, and energy extraction. Pittsburgh was named in 1758 by General John Forbes, in honor of British statesman William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The current pronunciation, which is unusual in English speaking countries, is almost certainly a result of a printing error in some copies of the City Charter of March 18,1816. The error was repeated commonly enough throughout the rest of the 19th century that the pronunciation was lost. After a public campaign the original spelling was restored by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1911. The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by the Shawnee, the first known European to enter the region was the French explorer/trader Robert de La Salle from Quebec during his 1669 expedition down the Ohio River. European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century, Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year European fur traders established area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to unite Canada with French Louisiana via the rivers, during 1753–54, the British hastily built Fort Prince George before a larger French force drove them off. The French built Fort Duquesne based on LaSalles 1669 claims, the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British General Edward Braddock was dispatched with Major George Washington as his aide to take Fort Duquesne, the British and colonial force were defeated at Braddocks Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758, Forbes began construction on Fort Pitt, named after William Pitt the Elder while the settlement was named Pittsborough
35.
Arts and Crafts movement
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It stood for traditional craftsmanship using simple forms, and often used medieval, romantic, or folk styles of decoration. It advocated economic and social reform and was essentially anti-industrial and it had a strong influence on the arts in Europe until it was displaced by Modernism in the 1930s, and its influence continued among craft makers, designers, and town planners long afterwards. It was inspired by the ideas of architect Augustus Pugin, writer John Ruskin, the movement developed earliest and most fully in the British Isles, and spread across the British Empire and to the rest of Europe and North America. It was largely a reaction against the perceived impoverished state of the arts at the time. The Arts and Crafts style emerged from the attempt to reform design, but it was as much a movement of social reform as design reform and its leading practitioners did not separate the two. The art historian Nikolaus Pevsner has said that exhibits in the Great Exhibition showed ignorance of basic need in creating patterns. Owen Jones, for example, declared that Ornament, fiona MacCarthy says that unlike later zealots like Gandhi, William Morris had no practical objections to the use of machinery per se so long as the machines produced the quality he needed. Morriss followers also had differing views or changed their minds over time. C. R. Ashbee, for example, a figure in the Arts and Crafts Movement. At the time of his Guild of Handicraft, initiated in 1888, he said, We do not reject the machine, but we would desire to see it mastered. Morris insisted that the artist should be a working by hand and advocated a society of free craftspeople. Because craftsmen took pleasure in their work, he wrote, the Middle Ages was a period of greatness in the art of the common people. The treasures in our museums now are only the common used in households of that age. Medieval art was the model for much Arts and Crafts design and medieval life, before capitalism, the founders of the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society did not insist that the designer should also be the maker. Peter Floud, writing in the 1950s, said that The founders of the Society, never executed their own designs, but invariably turned them over to commercial firms. The Arts and Crafts Movement was associated with socialist ideas in the persons of Morris, T. J. Cobden Sanderson, Walter Crane, Ashbee, in the early 1880s Morris was spending more of his time on socialist propaganda than on designing and making. Ashbee established a community of craftsmen, the Guild of Handicraft, in east London and those adherents who were not socialists, for example, Alfred Hoare Powell, advocated a more humane and personal relationship between employer and employee. Lewis Foreman Day, a successful and influential Arts and Crafts designer, was not a socialist either
36.
William Morris
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William Morris was an English textile designer, poet, novelist, translator, and socialist activist. Associated with the British Arts and Crafts Movement, he was a contributor to the revival of traditional British textile arts. His literary contributions helped to establish the modern fantasy genre, while he played a significant role in propagating the early socialist movement in Britain. Born in Walthamstow, Essex, to a wealthy family, Morris came under the strong influence of medievalism while studying Classics at Oxford University. Webb and Morris designed a home, Red House, then in Kent. In 1861, Morris founded a decorative arts firm with Burne-Jones, Rossetti, Webb, and others, in 1875, Morris assumed total control of the company, which was renamed Morris & Co. Although retaining a main home in London, from 1871 Morris rented the rural retreat of Kelmscott Manor, greatly influenced by visits to Iceland, with Eiríkr Magnússon he produced a series of English-language translations of Icelandic Sagas. In 1877 he founded the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings to campaign against the damage caused by architectural restoration, in 1891 he founded the Kelmscott Press to publish limited-edition, illuminated-style print books, a cause to which he devoted his final years. Morris is recognised as one of the most significant cultural figures of Victorian Britain, though best known in his lifetime as a poet, founded in 1955, the William Morris Society is devoted to his legacy, while multiple biographies and studies of his work have seen publication. Many of the associated with his life are open to visitors, much of his work can be found in art galleries and museums. Morris was born at Elm House in Walthamstow, Essex, on 24 March 1834. Raised into a wealthy family, he was named after his father. His mother was Emma Morris, who came from Woodford Hall in Woodford, Essex and he also took rides through the Essex countryside on his pony, and visited the various churches and cathedrals throughout the country, marveling at their architecture. His father took him on visits outside of the county, for instance to Canterbury Cathedral, the Chiswick Horticultural Gardens, and to the Isle of Wight, where he adored Blackgang Chine. In February 1848 Morris began his studies at Marlborough College in Marlborough, Wiltshire and he despised his time there, being bullied, bored, and homesick. He did use the opportunity to many of the prehistoric sites of Wiltshire, such as Avebury and Silbury Hill. At Christmas 1851, Morris was removed from the school and returned to Water House, guy, Assistant Master at the nearby Forest School. In June 1852 Morris entered Oxford Universitys Exeter College, although since the college was full and he disliked the college and was bored by the manner in which they taught him Classics
37.
John La Farge
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John La Farge was an American painter, muralist, stained glass window maker, decorator, and writer. La Farge was born in New York City to wealthy French parents and was raised bilingually, as a child, he and his interest in art began during his studies at Mount St. Marys University in Maryland and St. Johns College in New York. He initially intended to study law, but this changed after his first visit to Paris, stimulated by the arts in the city, he studied with Thomas Couture and became acquainted with notable literary people. La Farge also studied with the painter William Morris Hunt in Newport, La Farges earliest drawings and landscapes, from his studies in Newport, show marked originality, especially in the handling of color values. Many of La Farges mythological and religious paintings, including Virgil, were executed in an area of Rhode Island known as Paradise and he was a pioneer in the study of Japanese art, the influence of which is seen in his work. During his life, La Farge maintained a studio at 51 West 10th Street in Greenwich Village, between 1859 and 1870, he illustrated Tennysons Enoch Arden and Robert Brownings Men and Women. In the 1870s, La Farge began to do murals, which became popular for public buildings as well as churches and his first mural was done in Trinity Church, Boston, in 1873. Then followed his decorations in the Church of the Ascension and St. Pauls Chapel, for the Minnesota State Capitol at St. Paul, he executed at age 71 four great lunettes representing the history of law. He created a series based on the theme of Justice for the State Supreme Court building at Baltimore. He also took private commission from wealthy patrons and was reputedly worth $150,000 at one point, La Farge made extensive travels in Asia and the South Pacific, which inspired his painting. He visited Japan in 1886, and the South Seas in 1890 and 1891, in spending time. Henry Adams accompanied him on trips as a travel companion. He visited Hawaii in September 1890, where he painted scenic spots on Oahu, in 1892, La Farge was brought on as an instructor with the Metropolitan Museum of Art Schools to provide vocational training to students in New York City. He served as President of the National Society of Mural Painters from 1899 to 1904 and he learned several languages, and was erudite in literature and art, by his cultured personality and reflective conversation, he influenced many other people. Though naturally a questioner, he venerated the traditions of religious art, La Farge died at Butler Hospital, in Providence, Rhode Island in 1910. The interment was at Green-Wood Cemetery, in Brooklyn, New York and his papers, together with some of those of certain children and grandchildren, are held by Yale University Library. La Farge experimented with color problems, especially in the medium of stained glass and his work rivaled the beauty of medieval windows and added new resources by his use of opalescent glass and by his original methods of layering and welding the glass. Opalescent glass had been used for centuries in tableware, but it had never before been formed into sheets for use in stained-glass windows
38.
Exposition Universelle (1889)
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The Exposition Universelle of 1889 was a worlds fair held in Paris, France, from 6 May to 31 October 1889. It was held during the year of the 100th anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, an event considered symbolic of the beginning of the French Revolution. The 1889 Exposition covered an area of 0.96 km2, including the Champ de Mars, the Trocadéro, the quai dOrsay, a part of the Seine. Transport around the Exposition was partly provided by a 3 kilometre 600 millimetre gauge railway by Decauville and it was claimed that the railway carried 6,342,446 visitors in just six months of operation. Some of the used on this line later saw service on the Chemins de Fer du Calvados. The main symbol of the Fair was the Eiffel Tower, which served as the arch to the Fair. The 1889 fair was held on the Champ de Mars in Paris, which had been the site of the earlier Paris Universal Exhibition of 1867, since the lifts had not been completed when the Exposition opened, the first visitors had to walk up to the second floor platform. Workers had worked through the night the day before the exhibition opened to complete the construction needed to safely allow patrons to set foot upon the structure. No one other than construction personnel were allowed higher than the second floor platform, an equally significant building constructed for the fair was the Galerie des machines, designed by architect Ferdinand Dutert and engineer Victor Contamin. It was reused at the exposition of 1900 and then destroyed in 1910, at 111 meters, the Galerie spanned the longest interior space in the world at the time, using a system of hinged arches made of steel or iron. Although often described as being constructed of steel, it was made of iron. There is a description, with illustrations, of the Expositions two famous buildings in the British journal Engineering. A follow-up report appears a late issue with this summation, the exhibition will be famous for four distinctive features, the 28 June issue of Engineering also mentions a remarkable Great Model of the Earth created by Theodore Villard and Charles Cotard. There were unseasonal thunderstorms in Paris during that summer of 1889, causing distress to the canopies and decoration of the exposition. The Exhibition included a building by the Paris architect Pierre-Henri Picq and this was an elaborate iron and glass structure decorated with ceramic tiles in a Byzantine-Egyptian-Romanesque style. After the Exposition the building was shipped to Fort de France and reassembled there, known as the Schoelcher Library, initially it contained the 10,000 books that Victor Schoelcher had donated to the island. Today it houses over 250,000 books and an ethnographic museum, a Negro village where 400 people were displayed constituted the major attraction. At the Exposition, the French composer Claude Debussy first heard Javanese gamelan music and this influenced some of his later compositions
39.
Alphonse Mucha
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Alfons Maria Mucha, known as Alphonse Mucha, was a Czech Art Nouveau painter and decorative artist, known best for his distinct style. He produced many paintings, illustrations, advertisements, postcards, Alphonse Maria Mucha was born in the town of Ivančice, Moravia. In 1871, Mucha became a chorister at the Cathedral of St. Peter and Paul, Brno and it is there that he had his first revelation, in front of the richness of Baroque art. During the four years of studying there, he formed a friendship with Leoš Janáček who would become the greatest Czech composer of his generation and he worked at decorative painting jobs in Moravia, mostly painting theatrical scenery. In 1879, he relocated to Vienna to work for a major Viennese theatrical design company, when a fire destroyed his employers business during 1881 he returned to Moravia, to do freelance decorative and portrait painting. Count Karl Khuen of Mikulov hired Mucha to decorate Hrušovany Emmahof Castle with murals and was impressed enough that he agreed to sponsor Muchas formal training at the Munich Academy of Fine Arts, Mucha moved to Paris in 1887, and continued his studies at Académie Julian and Académie Colarossi. In addition to his studies, he worked at producing magazine, bernhardt was so satisfied with the success of this first poster that she began a six-year contract with Mucha. Muchas works frequently featured beautiful women in flowing, vaguely Neoclassical-looking robes. In contrast with contemporary poster makers he used pale pastel colors, Muchas style was given international exposure by the 1900 Universal Exhibition in Paris, of which Mucha said, I think made some contribution toward bringing aesthetic values into arts and crafts. He decorated the Bosnia and Herzegovina Pavilion and collaborated with decorating the Austrian Pavilion and his Art Nouveau style was often imitated. Mucha married Maruška Chytilová on 10 June 1906, in Prague, the couple visited the U. S. from 1906 to 1910, during which time their daughter, Jaroslava, was born in New York City. They also had a son, Jiří, who became a journalist, writer, screenwriter, author of autobiographical novels. In the U. S. Mucha expected to earn money to fund his projects to demonstrate to Czechs that he had not sold out. He was assisted by millionaire Charles R. Crane, who used his fortune to help promote revolutions and, after meeting Thomas Masaryk, Slavic nationalism. When Czechoslovakia won its independence after World War I, Mucha designed the new stamps, banknotes. Mucha considered his publication Le Pater to be his printed masterpiece, printed on 20 December 1899, Le Pater was Muchas occult examination of the themes of The Lords Prayer and only 510 copies were produced. He had wanted to complete a series such as this, a celebration of Slavic history, from 1963 until 2012 the series was on display in the chateau in Moravský Krumlov in the South Moravian Region in the Czech Republic. Since 2012 the series has been on display at the National Gallerys Veletržní Palace in Prague, the rising tide of fascism during the late 1930s resulted in Muchas works and his Slavic nationalism being denounced in the press as reactionary
40.
Corona, Queens
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Corona is a neighborhood in the borough of Queens in New York City. It is bordered by Flushing to the east, Jackson Heights to the west, Forest Hills and Rego Park to the south, Elmhurst to the southwest, Corona has a multicultural population with a Latino majority, and is the site of historic African American and Italian American communities. After World War II, the majority of the residents were mostly Italian, German, Irish. Corona also has a significant Chinese population, Corona is bordered on the east by Flushing Meadows–Corona Park, one of the largest parks in New York City and the site of the 1939 and 1964 Worlds Fairs. Coronas main thoroughfares include Corona Avenue, Roosevelt Avenue, Northern Boulevard, Junction Boulevard, the neighborhood is part of Queens Community Board 4, while the northernmost part is included in Community Board 3. Corona, with East Elmhurst, are referred to as one combined area. Either way, the name is a translation of the word crown. Corona was a late 19th-century residential development in the corner of the old Town of Newtown. Real estate speculators from New York started the community in 1854 and it was at the Fashion Race Course in 1858 that the first games of baseball to charge admission took place. A trophy baseball from this tournament recently sold for half a million US dollars. During the second half of the 1940s through the 1960s, many legendary African American musicians, civil rights leaders, in the last half of the 20th century, Corona saw dramatic ethnic successions. In the 1950s, what was predominantly an Italian American and African American neighborhood began to give way to an influx of Dominicans, in the late 1990s, Corona saw a new wave of immigrants from Latin America. The area north of Roosevelt Avenue contained the heart of the historic African American community, the intersection of 108th Street and Corona Avenue is the historic center of the Italian American community, sometimes referred to as Corona Heights. The majority Hispanic community now consists of Dominicans, Colombians, Ecuadorians, Salvadorans, Guatemalans, Bolivians, Peruvians, Mexicans, Venezuelans, there are also Asian Americans as well as Italian Americans and African Americans. Corona has several schools including School of the Transfiguration. Public schools include the High School for Arts and Business and P. S, there are many churches representing diverse denominations. Antioch Baptist Church at 103rd Street and Northern Boulevard is a prominent African American congregation dating to 1936 with a membership of 700. Our Lady of Sorrows Roman Catholic Church at 104th Street and 37th Avenue was built in 1899 largely out of red brick with a convent of the same period
41.
World's Columbian Exposition
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The Worlds Columbian Exposition was a worlds fair held in Chicago in 1893 to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbuss arrival in the New World in 1492. The centerpiece of the Fair, the water pool, represented the long voyage Columbus took to the New World. Chicago bested New York City, Washington, D. C. the Exposition was an influential social and cultural event and had a profound effect on architecture, sanitation, the arts, Chicagos self-image, and American industrial optimism. The layout of the Chicago Columbian Exposition was, in part, designed by John Wellborn Root, Daniel Burnham, Frederick Law Olmsted. It was the prototype of what Burnham and his colleagues thought a city should be and it was designed to follow Beaux Arts principles of design, namely French neoclassical architecture principles based on symmetry, balance, and splendor. The color of the generally used to cover the buildings facades gave the fairgrounds its nickname. Many prominent architects designed its 14 great buildings, artists and musicians were featured in exhibits and many also made depictions and works of art inspired by the exposition. The exposition covered more than 600 acres, featuring nearly 200 new buildings of predominantly neoclassical architecture, canals and lagoons, more than 27 million people attended the exposition during its six-month run. Dedication ceremonies for the fair were held on October 21,1892, the fair continued until October 30,1893. On October 9,1893, the day designated as Chicago Day, the debt for the fair was soon paid off with a check for $1.5 million. Chicago has commemorated the fair one of the stars on its municipal flag. Schwab, Chicago railroad and manufacturing magnate John Whitfield Bunn, and Connecticut banking, insurance, the fair was planned in the early 1890s during the Gilded Age of rapid industrial growth, immigration, and class tension. Worlds fairs, such as Londons 1851 Crystal Palace Exhibition, had been successful in Europe as a way to bring together societies fragmented along class lines, the first American attempt at a worlds fair in Philadelphia in 1876, drew crowds but was a financial failure. Nonetheless, ideas about distinguishing the 400th anniversary of Columbus landing started in the late 1880s. Civic leaders in St. Louis, New York City, Washington DC and Chicago expressed an interest in hosting a fair to generate profits, boost real estate values, Congress was called on to decide the location. What finally persuaded Congress was Chicago banker Lyman Gage, who raised several million dollars in a 24-hour period, over. The exposition corporation and national exposition commission settled on Jackson Park, Daniel H. Burnham was selected as director of works, and George R. Davis as director-general. Burnham emphasized architecture and sculpture as central to the fair and assembled the periods top talent to design the buildings, the temporary buildings were designed in an ornate Neoclassical style and painted white, resulting in the fair site being referred to as the “White City”
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Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
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Exposition Universelle (1900)
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The style that was universally present in the Exposition was Art Nouveau. The staging of the first International Exhibition in 1855 was motivated by a desire to re-establish pride, the succession of exhibitions followed the same theme, the regeneration of nationality after war. Eight years before the launch of the 1900 Paris Exposition Universelle, countries from around the world were invited by France to showcase their achievements and lifestyles, the Exposition Universelle was a uniting and learning experience. It presented the opportunity for foreigners to realize the similarities between nations as well as their unique differences, new cultures were experienced and an overall better understanding of the values each country had to offer was gained. The learning atmosphere aided in attempts to increase cultural tolerance, deemed necessary after a period of war, the early announcement and the massively positive response disenchanted the interest that had been circling around the first German International Exposition. It is suspected that the Exposition Universelle did not do as well financially as expected because the public did not have the funds to participate in the fair. The 1900 Paris Exposition Universelle was so expensive to organize and run that the cost per visitor ended up being about six hundred more than the price of admission. The exhibition lost a total of 82,000 francs after six months in operation. Many Parisians had invested money in shares sold to raise money for the event, with a much larger expected turnout the exhibit sites had gone up in value. Continuing to pay rent for the sites became increasingly hard for concessionaires as they were receiving fewer customers than anticipated, the concessionaires went on strike, which ultimately resulted in the closure of a large part of the exposition. To resolve the matter, the concessionaires were given a refund of the rent they had paid. The financial consequences of the 1900 Exposition Universelle were devastating for many Parisians, the Exposition Universelle was where talking films and escalators were first publicized, and where Campbells Soup was awarded a gold medal. At the exposition Rudolf Diesel exhibited his engine, running on peanut oil. Brief films of excerpts from opera and ballet were apparently the first films exhibited publicly with projection of both image and recorded sound, the exposition also featured many panoramic paintings and extensions of the panorama technique, such as the Cinéorama, Mareorama, and Trans-Siberian Railway Panorama. The centrepiece of the Palais de lOptique was the 1. 25-metre-diameter Great Exposition Refractor and this telescope was the largest refracting telescope at that time. The optical tube assembly was 60 meters long and 1.5 meters in diameter, light from the sky was sent into the tube by a movable 2-meter mirror. Partly organized by Booker Washington and W. E. B, du Bois, this exhibition aimed at showing African Americans positive contributions to American society. Many of the buildings constructed for the Exposition Universelle were demolished after the conclusion of the exposition, many of the buildings were built on a framework of wood, and covered with staff, which was formed into columns, statuary, walls, stairs, etc
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Clara Driscoll (Tiffany glass designer)
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Clara Driscoll of Tallmadge, Ohio, was head of the Tiffany Studios Womens Glass Cutting Department, in New York City. Using patterns created from the designs, these women selected. Driscoll designed more than thirty Tiffany lamps produced by Tiffany Studios, among them the Wisteria, Dragonfly, Peony, virtually nothing was known about Driscoll until quite recently. It had always thought that Louis Comfort Tiffany was the chief designer behind the greatest of the Tiffany leaded lamps. Clara Driscoll was born Clara Pierce Wolcott on December 15,1861 and she lost her father at the age of 12. Unusual for that time, she, along with her equally bright, Driscolls artistic potential was apparent and she was hired by the famed Tiffany Studios in 1888. She worked there off an on, designing and directing the designs of lamps, mosaics, windows, engaged or married women were not allowed to work at Tiffanys, so Driscoll had to leave because of her marriage in 1889. After Driscolls first husband Francis Driscoll died in 1892, she returned to Tiffanys and she became engaged again in 1896-1897, to Edwin Waldo, but he disappeared and no marriage occurred. She remained at Tiffanys until her marriage to Edward A, booth in 1909, an event which ended her career at Tiffany. While at Tiffanys, Driscoll worked closely with a number of other Tiffany Girls, including Alice Carmen Gouvy, all records for Tiffany Studios were lost after it closed in the early 1930s. However, a book published in 2002 entitled Tiffany Desk Treasures, the book also cited Driscoll as being one of the highest-paid women of her time, earning $10,000 per year. The New York Times quoted Gray as saying, They brought out two books and several boxes, all letters, and I think the first thing I read was about how she had designed a daffodil lamp. At the top it said something like ‘Noon at Tiffany’s, ’ so it was during her lunch hour, what do you do with something like that. ”Martin Eidelberg had independently seen the correspondence when he was approached by a descendent of Clara Driscoll after a lecture. The two historians compared notes after they crossed paths at Kent State University, where they were tracking down more of Driscolls correspondence. It was Clara Driscoll and the Tiffany Girls who had created many of the Tiffany lamps originally attributed to Louis Comfort Tiffany, the New-York Historical Societys exhibit A New Light on Tiffany showcasing Driscolls work was the result of the investigative efforts of Eidelberg, Gray and Hofer. The book A New Light on Tiffany, Clara Driscoll and the Tiffany Girls was published in 2007. It presents celebrated works of Tiffany Studios in a new context
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Rutgers University
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Rutgers was chartered as Queens College on November 10,1766. It is the eighth-oldest college in the United States and one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the American Revolution, for most of its existence, Rutgers was a private liberal arts college affiliated with the Dutch Reformed Church. The college expanded its role in research and instruction in agriculture, engineering and it gained university status in 1924 with the introduction of graduate education and further expansion. However, Rutgers evolved into a public research university after being designated The State University of New Jersey by the New Jersey Legislature in laws enacted in 1945 and 1956. It is one of two colonial colleges that later became public universities. Rutgers has three campuses located throughout New Jersey, the New Brunswick campus in New Brunswick and adjacent Piscataway, the Newark campus, the university has additional facilities elsewhere in New Jersey. Instruction is offered by 9,000 faculty members in 175 academic departments to over 45,000 undergraduate students and more than 20,000 graduate, through several years of effort by the Rev. Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen and Rev. The Grammar School, today the private Rutgers Preparatory School, was a part of the community until 1959. New Brunswick was chosen as the location over Hackensack because the New Brunswick Dutch had the support of the Anglican population, despite the religious nature of the early college, the first classes were held at a tavern called the Sign of the Red Lion. When the Revolutionary War broke out and taverns were suspected by the British as being hotbeds of rebel activity, in its early years, due to a lack of funds, Queens College was closed for two extended periods. Early trustees considered merging the college with the College of New Jersey, in Princeton, in 1808, after raising $12,000, the college was temporarily reopened and broke ground on a building of its own, called Old Queens, designed by architect John McComb, Jr. The colleges third president, the Rev. Ira Condict, laid the cornerstone on April 27,1809, shortly after, the New Brunswick Theological Seminary, founded in 1784, relocated from Brooklyn, New York, to New Brunswick, and shared facilities with Queens College. During those formative years, all three institutions fit into Old Queens, in 1830, the Queens College Grammar School moved across the street, and in 1856, the Seminary relocated to a seven-acre tract less than one-half miles away. According to the Board of Trustees, Colonel Rutgers was honored because he epitomized Christian values, the Rutgers Scientific School would expand over the years to grow into the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station and divide into the College of Engineering and the College of Agriculture. Rutgers created the New Jersey College for Women in 1918, with the development of graduate education, and the continued expansion of the institution, the collection of schools became Rutgers University in 1924. Rutgers College continued as an arts college within the university. Rutgers was designated the State University of New Jersey by acts of the New Jersey Legislature in 1945 and 1956, shortly after, the University of Newark was merged with Rutgers in 1946, as were the College of South Jersey and South Jersey Law School, in 1950. These two institutions became Rutgers University–Newark and Rutgers University–Camden, respectively, on September 10,1970, after much debate, the Board of Governors voted to admit women into Rutgers College
