1.
Parliament Building (Quebec)
–
The Parliament Building is an eight-floor building in Quebec City and home to the Parliament of Quebec, composed of the Lieutenant-Governor and the National Assembly. The building was designed by architect Eugène-Étienne Taché and was built from 1877 to 1886, with the frontal tower, the building stands at 52 metres or 171 feet in height. It features the Second Empire architectural style that was popular for prestigious buildings both in Europe and the United States during the latter 19th century and its facade presents a pantheon representing significant events and people of the history of Quebec. Additional buildings were added next to the Parliament Buildings, Édifice André-Laurendeau was added from 1935 to 1937 to house the Ministry of Transport. Édifice Honoré-Mercier was added from 1922 to 1925 to house the Ministries of the Treasury, the Attorney General, Édifice Jean-Antoine-Panet was added from 1931 to 1932 for the Ministry of Agriculture. Édifice Pamphile-Le May added from 1910 to 1915 for the Library of the National Assembly, various government offices. The Québec Parliament Building, A Monument to History, Saint-Lambert, lHôtel du Parlement, témoin de notre histoire, Sainte-Foy, Publications du Québec,204 p. ISBN 2-551-16328-5 LHotel du Parlement/National Assembly of Quebec
Parliament Building (Quebec)
–
Parliament Building, in
Quebec City
Parliament Building (Quebec)
–
The Fontaine de Tourny east of the Parliament Building
Parliament Building (Quebec)
–
Robert Bourassa sculpture in front of Parliament Building (Quebec)
Parliament Building (Quebec)
–
Louis-Philippe Hébert's Charles-Michel de Salaberry sculpture in front of Parliament Building (Quebec)
2.
Quebec City
–
Quebec City, French, Ville de Québec, officially Québec) is the capital city of the Canadian province of Quebec. Founded in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain, Quebec City is one of the oldest cities in North America. The citys landmarks include the Château Frontenac, a hotel which dominates the skyline, and La Citadelle, the National Assembly of Quebec, the Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec, and the Musée de la civilisation are found within or near Vieux-Québec. Thus, Québec is officially spelled with an accented é in both Canadian English and French, although the accent is not used in common English usage. Quebec City is one of the oldest European settlements in North America, while many of the major cities in Latin America date from the sixteenth century, among cities in Canada and the U. S. few were created earlier than Quebec City. Also, Quebecs Old Town is the only North American fortified city north of Mexico whose walls still exist, French explorer Jacques Cartier built a fort at the site in 1535, where he stayed for the winter before going back to France in spring 1536. He came back in 1541 with the goal of building a permanent settlement, Quebec was founded by Samuel de Champlain, a French explorer and diplomat on 3 July 1608, and at the site of a long abandoned St. Lawrence Iroquoian settlement called Stadacona. Champlain, also called The Father of New France, served as its administrator for the rest of his life, the name Canada refers to this settlement. Although called the cradle of the Francophone population in North America, the place seemed favourable to the establishment of a permanent colony. In 1629 there was the surrender of Quebec, without battle, however, Samuel de Champlain argued that the English seizing of the lands was illegal as the war had already ended, he worked to have the lands returned to France. As part of the negotiations of their exit from the Anglo-French War. These terms were signed into law with the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the lands in Quebec and Acadia were returned to the French Company of One Hundred Associates. In 1665, there were 550 people in 70 houses living in the city, one-quarter of the people were members of religious orders, secular priests, Jesuits, Ursulines nuns and the order running the local hospital, Hotel-Dieu. Quebec City was the headquarters of many raids against New England during the four French, in the last war, the French and Indian War, Quebec City was captured by the British in 1759 and held until the end of the war in 1763. France ceded New France, including the city, to Britain in 1763, at the end of French rule in 1763, forests, villages, fields and pastures surrounded the town of 8,000 inhabitants. The town distinguished itself by its architecture, fortifications, affluent homes of masonry and shacks in the suburbs of Saint-Jean. Despite its urbanity and its status as capital, Quebec City remained a small city with close ties to its rural surroundings. Nearby inhabitants traded their farm surpluses and firewood for imported goods from France at the two city markets, during the American Revolution revolutionary troops from the southern colonies assaulted the British garrison in an attempt to liberate Quebec City, in a conflict now known as the Battle of Quebec
Quebec City
–
Clockwise from top left: Saint Louis Gate in the Ramparts;
Parliament Hill and Bassin Louise waterfront area;
Château Frontenac and Holy Trinity Cathedral in
Vieux-Québec;
Quebec National Assembly;
Pierre Laporte Bridge with
Quebec Bridge in the background
Quebec City
–
Flag
Quebec City
–
Quebec Settlement, 1608
Quebec City
–
Port of Quebec City in the early 20th century
3.
Anticosti Island
–
Anticosti Island is an island in the province of Quebec, Canada at the outlet of the Saint Lawrence River into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, between 49° and 50° N. and between 61°40 and 64°30 W. At 7,892.52 km2 in size, it is the 90th largest island in the world, Anticosti Island is separated on the north from the Côte-Nord region of Quebec by the Jacques Cartier Strait, and on the south from the Gaspé Peninsula by the Honguedo Strait. The entire island constitutes one municipality known as LÎle-dAnticosti, due to more than 400 shipwrecks off its coasts, Anticosti Island is sometimes called the Cemetery of the Gulf. Anticosti Island is part of the eastern Saint Lawrence lowlands and it is 217 km long and has a maximum breadth of 48 km —1½ times as large as the province of Prince Edward Island. Its coastline is 520 km long, and is rocky and dangerous, offering shelter for ships except in Gamache, Ellis. There are large shoals to the south, the largest lake on the island is Lake Wickenden, which feeds the Jupiter River. There are numerous rivers on Anticosti, many of which flow through deep gorges and this plateau is a unidirectional structure slightly tilted to the south, and is characterized by rolling cuestas. The rocks exposed on the form a continuous sedimentary stratum more than 2,000 m thick. These are the most complete strata in eastern North America of the Ordovician and Silurian periods, the climate of Anticosti Island is maritime sub-boreal, tempered by the maritime influence of the Gulf of St. Lawrence which reduces the temperature differences. The average annual temperature is 1.9 °C, the month of July is the warmest with an average temperature of 14.79 °C. Conversely, February is the coldest month, on average −11.2 °C, snow precipitation is abundant, usually accumulating over 300 centimetres in the western and central parts. For thousands of years, Anticosti Island was the territory of the peoples who lived on the mainland. The Innu called it Notiskuan, translated as where bears are hunted, the French explorer Jacques Cartier sailed along its shore in the summer of 1534. He provided its first written description and named it Isle de lAssomption and this name had fallen into disuse by 1656. About 1586, the historian André Thevet wrote that the savages named Naticousti, while Samuel de Champlain spelled it Antiscoti, from that time on, France had officially incorporated the island into its colonial empire. Its first settlers arrived in 1680 when King Louis XIV gave Louis Jolliet the Seigneury of the Mingan Archipelago and Anticosti Island as compensation for exploring the Mississippi and Hudson Bay. Louis Jolliet erected a fort on Anticosti and in the spring of 1681 settled there with his wife, four children and six servants. His fort was captured and occupied during the winter of 1690 by some of the Massachusetts troops of William Phips during their retreat after an attempt to capture Quebec City
Anticosti Island
–
Salmon fisherman on Rivière à l'Huile
Anticosti Island
–
Satellite image of Anticosti Island
Anticosti Island
–
Port-Menier, Anticosti Island, in 1922
Anticosti Island
–
Boreal forest on Anticosti Island
4.
French Canadian
–
French Canadians are an ethnic group who trace their ancestry to French colonists who settled in Canada from the 17th century onward. Today, French Canadians constitute the main French-speaking population in Canada, today, French Canadians live across North America. The province of Quebec has the largest population of French-Canadian descent, though smaller communities exist throughout Canada, between 1840 and 1930, roughly 900,000 French Canadians emigrated to the United States, mostly to the New England region. Other terms for French Canadians who continue to reside in the province of Quebec, are Quebecers or Québécois, the other major group of French Canadians are the Acadians who reside in the Maritime Provinces. In total, those who identify as French Canadian, French, Québécois, the French Canadians get their name from Canada, the most developed and densely populated region of New France during the period of French colonization in the 17th and 18th century. The original use of the term Canada referred to the area along the St. From 1535 to the 1690s, the French word Canadien had referred to the First Nations the French had encountered in the St. Lawrence River valley at Stadacona, at the end of the 17th century, Canadien became an ethnonym distinguishing the inhabitants of Canada from those of France. French Canadians living in Canada express their identity using a number of terms. The Ethnic Diversity Survey of the 2006 Canadian census found that French-speaking Canadians identified their ethnicity most often as French, French Canadians, Québécois, the latter three were grouped together by Jantzen as French New World ancestries because they originate in Canada. Canadien was used to refer to the French-speaking residents of New France beginning in the last half of the 17th century, the English-speaking residents who arrived later from Great Britain were called Anglais. This usage continued until Canadian Confederation in 1867 and those reporting French New World ancestries overwhelmingly had ancestors that went back at least four generations in Canada. Fourth generation Canadiens and Québécois showed considerable attachment to their group, with 70% and 61%, respectively. The generational profile and strength of identity of French New World ancestries contrast with those of British or Canadian ancestries, which represent the largest ethnic identities in Canada. As a result, their identification with their ethnicity is weaker, for example, only 50% of third generation Canadians strongly identify as such, bringing down the overall average. The survey report notes that 80% of Canadians whose families had been in Canada for three or more generations reported Canadian and provincial or regional ethnic identities and these identities include French New World ancestries such as Québécois, Acadian. Since the 1960s, French Canadians in Quebec have generally used Québécois or Québécoise to express their cultural and national identity, rather than Canadien français, francophones who self-identify as Québécois and do not have French-Canadian ancestry may not identify as French Canadian. Those who do have French or French-Canadian ancestry, but who support Quebec sovereignty and this is a reflection of the strong social, cultural, and political ties that most Quebeckers of French-Canadian origin, who constitute a majority of francophone Quebecers, maintain within Quebec. French Canadians outside Quebec are more likely to self-identify as French Canadian, identification with provincial groupings varies from province to province, with Franco-Ontarians, for example, using their provincial label far more frequently than Franco-Columbians do
French Canadian
–
Hubert Reeves
French Canadian
–
Languages in Quebec
French Canadian
–
Gabrielle Roy
French Canadian
–
Jack Kerouac
5.
North America
–
North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
North America
–
Map of North America, from 1621.
North America
–
North America
North America
–
The
El Castillo pyramid, at
Chichén Itzá, Mexico.
North America
–
Benjamin West 's
The Death of General Wolfe (1771) depicting the
Battle of the Plains of Abraham.
6.
Jesuit
–
The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre
Jesuit
–
Ignatius of Loyola
Jesuit
–
Society of Jesus
Jesuit
–
Church of
Saint-Pierre de Montmartre, Paris.
Jesuit
–
Fresco of Approving of bylaw of Society of Jesus depicting
Ignatius of Loyola receiving papal bull
Regimini militantis Ecclesiae from
Pope Paul III. The fresco was created by
Johann Christoph Handke in the Church of Our Lady Of the Snow in
Olomouc after 1743.
7.
Jacques Marquette
–
Father Jacques Marquette S. J. sometimes known as Père Marquette or James Marquette, was a French Jesuit missionary who founded Michigans first European settlement, Sault Ste. Marie, and later founded St. Ignace, Michigan, in 1673 Father Marquette and Louis Jolliet were the first Europeans to explore and map the northern portion of the Mississippi River. Jacques Marquette was born at Laon, France, on June 1,1637, after he worked and taught in France for several years, the Jesuits assigned him to New France in 1666 as a missionary to the indigenous peoples of the Americas. He showed great proficiency in learning the languages, especially Huron. In 1668 Father Marquette was moved by his superiors to missions farther up the St. Lawrence River in the western Great Lakes region and he helped found missions at Sault Ste. Marie in present-day Michigan in 1668, St. Ignace in 1671, at La Pointe he encountered members of the Illinois tribes, who told him about the important trading route of the Mississippi River. They invited him to teach their people, whose settlements were mostly farther south, leave was granted, and in 1673, Marquette joined the expedition of Louis Jolliet, a French-Canadian explorer. They departed from St. Ignace on May 17, with two canoes and five voyageurs of French-Indian ancestry and they followed Lake Michigan to Green Bay and up the Fox River, nearly to its headwaters. From there, they were told to portage their canoes a distance of less than two miles through marsh and oak plains to the Wisconsin River. Many years later, at point the town of Portage, Wisconsin was built. From the portage, they ventured forth, and on June 17, they entered the Mississippi near present-day Prairie du Chien, the Joliet-Marquette expedition traveled to within 435 miles of the Gulf of Mexico but turned back at the mouth of the Arkansas River. By this point they had encountered natives carrying European trinkets. They followed the Mississippi back to the mouth of the Illinois River and they reached Lake Michigan near the site of modern-day Chicago, by way of the Chicago Portage. In September Marquette stopped at the mission of St. Francis Xavier, located in present-day Green Bay, Wisconsin, Marquette and his party returned to the Illinois Territory in late 1674, becoming the first Europeans to winter in what would become the city of Chicago. As welcomed guests of the Illinois Confederation, the explorers were feasted en route, in the spring of 1675, Marquette traveled westward and celebrated a public mass at the Grand Village of the Illinois near Starved Rock. A bout of dysentery which he had contracted during the Mississippi expedition sapped his health, on the return trip to St. Ignace, he died at age 37 near the modern town of Ludington, Michigan. Marquette Transportation Company, a company using a silhouette of the Pere in his canoe as their emblem. Other types of memorials were erected, including those at his birthplace in Laon, France, the Legler Branch of the Chicago Public Library displays Wilderness, Winter River Scene, a restored mural by Midwestern artist R. Fayerweather Babcock
Jacques Marquette
–
Jacques Marquette
Jacques Marquette
–
Pere Marquette and the Indians [at the Mississippi River], oil painting (1869) by Wilhelm
Lamprecht (1838–1906), at
Marquette University
Jacques Marquette
–
Monument marking where Marquette spent the winter of 1674–75 in what is now Chicago
Jacques Marquette
–
The grave of Father Marquette, St. Ignace, Michigan.
8.
Catholic priest
–
The ministerial orders of the Roman Catholic Church are those of bishop, presbyter, and deacon. The ordained priesthood and the priesthood are different in function. The Catholic Church teaches that when a man participates in priesthood, unlike usage in English, the Latin words sacerdos and sacerdotium are used to refer in general to the ministerial priesthood shared by bishops and presbyters. The words presbyter, presbyterium and presbyteratus refer to priests in the English use of the word or presbyters. According to the Annuario Pontificio 2016, as of December 31,2014, there were 415,792 Catholic priests worldwide, a priest of the regular clergy is commonly addressed with the title Father. The state of consecrated life or monasticism is a separate, third distinct vocational state from the clergy, as an overview, there are the members of the laity- who are married or unmarried, and the clergy- the bishops, priests, and deacons. Members of institutes of consecrated life, or monks, can be either clergy or non-ordained members of the religious order. Those ordained priests or deacons who are not members of some sort of religious order most often serve as clergy to a church or in an office of a specific diocese or in Rome. The priest was understood as a mediator between God and human beings who offers sacrifices and intercedes for the people, the Catholic priesthood is a participation in this priesthood of Christ, and therefore traces its origins to Jesus Christ himself. Thus, the New Testament says that as high priest, Jesus has made the Church a kingdom of priests for his God and Father. All who are baptized are given a share in the priesthood of Christ, the whole community of believers is, as such, priestly. The ministerial priesthood of Catholic priests and bishops — what most people think of as the Catholic priesthood — has a distinct history. It is understood to have begun at the Last Supper, when Jesus Christ instituted the Eucharist in the presence of the Twelve Apostles, the Catholic priesthood, therefore, is a share in the priesthood of Christ and traces its historical origins to the Twelve Apostles appointed by Christ. Those apostles in turn selected other men to succeed them as the bishops of the Christian communities, with whom were associated presbyters and deacons. As communities multiplied and grew in size, the bishops appointed more and more presbyters to preside at the Eucharist in place of the bishop in the communities in each region. The diaconate evolved as the assistants of the bishop and his delegate for the administration of Church funds. In the decade of the 2010s, catholic priests as a group garnered public attention due to the cases of sexual abuse of children by catholic clergy being revealed. The theology of the Catholic priesthood is rooted in the priesthood of Christ, a priest is one who presides over a sacrifice and offers that sacrifice and prayers to God on behalf of believers
Catholic priest
–
Saint Peter
Catholic priest
–
Ordination to the priesthood (
Latin rite). Devotional card, 1925.
Catholic priest
–
During the rite of ordination, after the bishop the priest present lay their hands on the ordinands
Catholic priest
–
A
Ukrainian Catholic priest at a
St. Joseph the Betrothed Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (His wedding ring appears on his right hand as per
Byzantine tradition).
9.
Missionary
–
A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to proselytize and/or perform ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development. The word mission originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin missionem, meaning act of sending or mittere, meaning to send. The word was used in light of its usage, in the Latin translation of the Bible. The term is most commonly used for Christian missions, but can be used for any creed or ideology, a Christian missionary can be defined as one who is to witness across cultures. The Lausanne Congress of 1974, defined the term, related to Christian mission as, Missionaries can be found in many countries around the world. Jesus instructed the apostles to make disciples of all nations and this verse is referred to by Christian missionaries as the Great Commission and inspires missionary work. The New Testament-era missionary outreach of the Christian church from the time of St Paul expanded throughout the Roman Empire and beyond to Persia, in 596, Pope Gregory the Great sent the Gregorian Mission into England. In their turn, Christians from Ireland and from Britain became prominent in converting the inhabitants of central Europe, about the same time, missionaries such as Francis Xavier as well as other Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans, and Dominicans started moving into Asia and the Far East. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa and these are some of the most well-known missions in history. While some missions accompanied imperialism and oppression, others were relatively peaceful, contemporary Christian missionaries argue that working for justice forms a constitutive part of preaching the Gospel, and observe the principles of inculturation in their missionary work. Over time, the Vatican gradually established a church structure in the mission areas, often starting with special jurisdictions known as apostolic prefectures. The two 9th-century saints Cyril and Methodius had extensive success in central Europe. The Byzantines expanded their work in Ukraine after a mass baptism in Kiev in 988. The Serbian Orthodox Church had its origins in the conversion by Byzantine missionaries of the Serb tribes when they arrived in the Balkans in the 7th century, Orthodox missionaries also worked successfully among the Estonians from the 10th to the 12th centuries, founding the Estonian Orthodox Church. The Russian St. Nicholas of Japan took Eastern Orthodoxy to Japan in the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church also sent missionaries to Alaska beginning in the 18th century, including Saint Herman of Alaska, to minister to the Native Americans. Quaker publishers of truth visited Boston and other mid-17th century colonies, the Danish government began the first organized Protestant mission work through its College of Missions, established in 1714. This funded and directed Lutheran missionaries such as Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg in Tranquebar, India and he also got to know a slave from the Danish colony in the West Indies. Within thirty years, Moravian missionaries had become active on every continent, and they are famous for their selfless work, living as slaves among the slaves and together with the Native Americans, the Delaware and Cherokee Indian tribes
Missionary
–
Village of Christianized Tapuyos Indians,
Brazil c. 1820
Missionary
–
English missionary
John Williams, active in the
South Pacific
Missionary
–
Jesuits who were martyred by the
Araucanian Indians in Elicura in 1612
Missionary
–
The first recorded baptism in
Alta California.
10.
Mississippi River
–
The Mississippi River is the chief river of the largest drainage system on the North American continent. Flowing entirely in the United States, it rises in northern Minnesota, with its many tributaries, the Mississippis watershed drains all or parts of 31 U. S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth longest and fifteenth largest river in the world by discharge, the river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries, most were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the way of life as first explorers, then settlers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. Formed from thick layers of the silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country. In recent years, the river has shown a shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta. The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe name for the river, see below in the History section for additional information. In addition to historical traditions shown by names, there are at least two measures of a rivers identity, one being the largest branch, and the other being the longest branch. Using the largest-branch criterion, the Ohio would be the branch of the Lower Mississippi. Using the longest-branch criterion, the Middle Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson-Beaverhead-Red Rock-Hellroaring Creek River would be the main branch and its length of at least 3,745 mi is exceeded only by the Nile, the Amazon, and perhaps the Yangtze River among the longest rivers in the world. The source of this waterway is at Browers Spring,8,800 feet above sea level in southwestern Montana and this is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase Trans-Mississippi as used in the name of the Trans-Mississippi Exposition. It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, the New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway, the Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca,1,475 feet above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, however, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams. From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river
Mississippi River
–
Mississippi River near Fire Point in
Effigy Mounds National Monument, Iowa
Mississippi River
–
Detailed map of Mississippi River tributary structure
Mississippi River
–
The beginning of the Mississippi River at
Lake Itasca (2004)
Mississippi River
–
Mississippi head of navigation, Coon Rapids Dam
11.
New France
–
The territory was divided into five colonies, each with its own administration, Canada, Hudsons Bay, Acadia, Newfoundland, and Louisiana. Acadia had a history, with the Great Upheaval, remembered on July 28 each year since 2003. The descendants are dispersed in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, in Maine and Louisiana in the United States, with populations in Chéticamp, Nova Scotia. In the sixteenth century, the lands were used primarily to draw from the wealth of natural resources, in the seventeenth century, successful settlements began in Acadia, and in Quebec by the efforts of Champlain. By 1765, the population of the new Province of Quebec reached approximately 70,000 settlers. In 1763 France had ceded the rest of New France, except the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, to Great Britain and Spain at the Treaty of Paris, in 1800, Spain returned its portion of Louisiana to France under the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. However, French leader Napoleon Bonaparte in turn sold it to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, New France eventually became part of the United States and Canada, with the only vestige remaining under French rule being the tiny islands Saint Pierre and Miquelon. In the United States, the legacy of New France includes numerous placenames as well as pockets of French-speaking communities. In Canada, institutional bilingualism and strong Francophone identities are arguably the most enduring legacy of New France, the Conquest is viewed differently among Francophone Canadians, and between Anglophone and Francophone Canadians. Around 1523, the Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano convinced King Francis I, late that year, Verrazzano set sail in Dieppe, crossing the Atlantic on a small caravel with 50 men. After exploring the coast of the present-day Carolinas early the year, he headed north along the coast. The first European to discover the site of present-day New York, he named it Nouvelle-Angoulême in honour of the king, verrazzanos voyage convinced the king to seek to establish a colony in the newly discovered land. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain and English Newfoundland, in 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of King Francis I. It was the first province of New France, however, initial French attempts at settling the region met with failure. French fishing fleets continued to sail to the Atlantic coast and into the St. Lawrence River, French merchants soon realized the St. Lawrence region was full of valuable fur-bearing animals, especially the beaver, which were becoming rare in Europe. Eventually, the French crown decided to colonize the territory to secure, another early French attempt at settlement in North America took place in 1564 at Fort Caroline, now Jacksonville, Florida. Intended as a haven for Huguenots, Caroline was founded under the leadership of René Goulaine de Laudonnière and it was sacked by the Spanish led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés who then established the settlement of St. Augustine on 20 September 1565. Acadia and Canada were inhabited by indigenous nomadic Algonquian peoples and sedentary Iroquoian peoples and these lands were full of unexploited and valuable natural riches, which attracted all of Europe
New France
–
A map of New France made by Samuel de Champlain in 1612.
New France
–
Flag
New France
–
Champlain's Habitation c. 1608
New France
–
A map of western New France, including the
Illinois Country, by
Vincenzo Coronelli, 1688.
12.
Saint Lawrence River
–
The Saint Lawrence River is a large river in the middle latitudes of North America. The Saint Lawrence River flows in a roughly north-easterly direction, connecting the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean and forming the primary drainage outflow of the Great Lakes Basin. It traverses the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and is part of the boundary between Ontario, Canada, and the U. S. state of New York. This river also provides the basis of the commercial Saint Lawrence Seaway, the estuary begins at the eastern tip of Île dOrléans, just downstream from Quebec City. The river becomes tidal around Quebec City, the St. Lawrence River runs 3,058 kilometres from the farthest headwater to the mouth and 1,197 km from the outflow of Lake Ontario. The farthest headwater is the North River in the Mesabi Range at Hibbing, the average discharge below the Saguenay River is 16,800 cubic metres per second. At Quebec City, it is 12,101 m3/s, the average discharge at the rivers source, the outflow of Lake Ontario, is 7,410 m3/s. The St. Lawrence River includes Lake Saint-Louis south of Montreal, Lake Saint Francis at Salaberry-de-Valleyfield, pierre Archipelago and the smaller Mingan Archipelago. Other islands include Île dOrléans near Quebec City and Anticosti Island north of the Gaspé and it is the second longest river in Canada. Lake Champlain and the Ottawa, Richelieu, Saguenay, and Saint-François rivers drain into the St. Lawrence. The St. Lawrence River is in an active zone where fault reactivation is believed to occur along late Proterozoic to early Paleozoic normal faults related to the opening of Iapetus Ocean. The faults in the area are related and are called the Saint Lawrence rift system. According to the United States Geological Survey, the St. Lawrence Valley is a province of the larger Appalachian division, containing the Champlain. However, in Canada, where most of the valley is, it is considered part of a distinct Saint Lawrence Lowlands physiographic division. Lawrence River itself was Jacques Cartier, at that time, the land along the river was inhabited by the St. Lawrence Iroquoians, at the time of Cartiers second voyage in 1535. Because Cartier arrived in the estuary on St. Lawrences feast day, the St. Lawrence River is partly within the U. S. and as such is that countrys sixth oldest surviving European place-name. The earliest regular Europeans in the area were the Basques, who came to the St Lawrence Gulf, the Basque whalers and fishermen traded with indigenous Americans and set up settlements, leaving vestiges all over the coast of eastern Canada and deep into the Saint Lawrence River. Basque commercial and fishing activity reached its peak before the Armada Invencibles disaster, initially, the whaling galleons from Labourd were not affected by the Spanish defeat
Saint Lawrence River
–
St. Lawrence River near
Alexandria Bay
Saint Lawrence River
–
Downstream from Quebec City, the St. Lawrence widens into a huge
estuary.
Saint Lawrence River
–
The Saint Lawrence River valley, from its headwaters at Lake Ontario to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, running diagonally from the lower mid-left to the upper-mid right, at night, from space, in summer 2013
Saint Lawrence River
–
Map of 1543 showing Cartier's discoveries
13.
First Nations
–
The First Nations are the predominant Aboriginal peoples of Canada south of the Arctic. Those in the Arctic area are distinct and known as Inuit, the Métis, another distinct ethnicity, developed after European contact and relations primarily between First Nations people and Europeans. There are currently 634 recognized First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. Under the Employment Equity Act, First Nations are a group, along with women, visible minorities. First Nations are not defined as a minority under the Act or by the criteria of Statistics Canada. Within Canada, First Nations has come into general use—replacing the deprecated term Indians—for the indigenous peoples of the Americas, individuals using the term outside Canada include supporters of the Cascadian independence movement, as well as U. S. tribes within the Pacific Northwest. The singular, commonly used on culturally politicized reserves, is the term First Nations person, North American indigenous peoples have cultures spanning thousands of years. Some of their oral traditions accurately describe historical events, such as the Cascadia earthquake of 1700, written records began with the arrival of European explorers and colonists during the Age of Discovery, beginning in the late 15th century. European accounts by trappers, traders, explorers, and missionaries give important evidence of early contact culture, in addition, archeological and anthropological research, as well as linguistics, have helped scholars piece together understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples. Combined with later development, this relatively non-combative history has allowed First Nations peoples to have an influence on the national culture. Collectively, First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples constitute Aboriginal peoples in Canada, Indigenous peoples of the Americas, First Nations came into common usage in the 1980s to replace the term Indian band in referring to groups of Indians with common government and language. Elder Sol Sanderson says that he coined the term in the early 1980s, others say that the term came into common usage in the 1970s to avoid using the word Indian, which some Canadians considered offensive. No legal definition of the term exists, some Aboriginal peoples in Canada have also adopted the term First Nation to replace the word band in the formal name of their community. While the word Indian is still a term, its use is erratic. Some First Nations people consider the term offensive, while others prefer it to Aboriginal person/persons/people, the term is a misnomer given to indigenous peoples of North America by European explorers who erroneously thought they had landed on the Indian subcontinent. The use of the term Native Americans, which the United States government and it refers more specifically to the Aboriginal peoples residing within the boundaries of the United States. The parallel term Native Canadian is not commonly used, but Natives and autochthones are, under the Royal Proclamation of 1763, also known as the Indian Magna Carta, the Crown referred to indigenous peoples in British territory as tribes or nations. The term First Nations is capitalized, unlike alternative terms, bands and nations may have slightly different meanings
First Nations
First Nations
–
Squamish woman
First Nations
First Nations
–
Aboriginal peoples
in Canada
14.
Aboriginal languages
–
The Australian Aboriginal languages consist of up to twenty-seven language families and isolates, spoken by Aboriginal Australians of mainland Australia and a few nearby islands. The relationships between these languages are not clear at present, despite this uncertainty the indigenous languages of Australia are collectively covered by the technical term Australian languages. By convention, these do not include the Tasmanian languages or the eastern Torres Strait language Meriam Mer, in the late 18th century, there were about 250 distinct Aboriginal social groupings, and a similar number of languages or varieties. At the start of the 21st century, fewer than 150 Aboriginal languages remain in daily use, the surviving languages are located in the most isolated areas. For example, of the five least endangered Western Australian Aboriginal languages, four belong to the Ngaanyatjarra grouping of the Central, yolŋu languages from north-east Arnhem Land are also currently learned by children. Bilingual education is being used successfully in some communities, seven of the most widely spoken Australian languages, such as Warlpiri and Tiwi, retain between 1,000 and 3,000 speakers. Some Aboriginal communities and linguists show support for learning programs either for language revival proper or for only post-vernacular maintenance, Aboriginal Tasmanians were nearly eradicated early in Australias colonial history, and their languages were lost before much was recorded. Tasmania was separated from the mainland at the end of the Quaternary glaciation, too little is known of their languages for classification, though they seem to have had phonological similarities with languages of the mainland. A common feature of many Australian languages is that they display so-called avoidance speech and these registers share the phonology and grammar of the standard language, but the lexicon is different and usually very restricted. There are also commonly speech taboos during extended periods of mourning or initiation that have led to numerous Aboriginal sign languages, for morphosyntactic alignment, many Australian languages have ergative–absolutive case systems. There are also a few languages which employ only nominative–accusative case marking, a typical Australian phonological inventory includes just three vowels, usually, which may occur in both long and short variants. In a few cases the has been unrounded to give, there is almost never a voicing contrast, that is, a consonant may sound like a at the beginning of a word, but like a between vowels, and either symbol could be chosen to represent it. Australia also stands out as being almost entirely free of fricative consonants, some languages also have three rhotics, typically a flap, a trill, and an approximant, that is, like the combined rhotics of English and Spanish. Besides the lack of fricatives, the most striking feature of Australian speech sounds is the number of places of articulation. Nearly every language has four places in the region, either phonemically or allophonically. This is accomplished through two variables, the position of the tongue, and its shape, there are also bilabial, velar and often palatal consonants, but a complete absence of uvular or glottal consonants. Both stops and nasals occur at all six places, and in some languages laterals occur at all four coronal places. A language which displays the range of stops and laterals is Kalkatungu, which has labial p, m, dental th, nh, lh, alveolar t, n, l, retroflex rt, rn, rl, palatal ty, ny, ly
Aboriginal languages
–
The primary typological division in Australian languages: Pama–Nyungan languages (tan) and non-Pama–Nyungan languages (mustard and grey). Mustard-coloured languages may be related to Pama–Nyungan.
15.
Fur trade
–
The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of a world fur market in the modern period, furs of boreal, polar. Historically the trade stimulated the exploration and colonization of Siberia, northern North America, today the importance of the fur trade has diminished, it is based on pelts produced at fur farms and regulated fur-bearer trapping, but has become controversial. Animal rights organizations oppose the fur trade, citing that animals are brutally killed, Fur has been replaced in some clothing by synthetic imitations, for example, as in ruffs on hoods of parkas. Before the European colonization of the Americas, Russia was a supplier of fur pelts to Western Europe. Its trade developed in the Early Middle Ages, first through exchanges at posts around the Baltic, the main trading market destination was the German city of Leipzig. Originally, Russia exported raw furs, consisting in most cases of the pelts of martens, beavers, wolves, foxes, squirrels and hares. Between the 16th and 18th centuries, Russians began to settle in Siberia, in a search for the prized sea otter pelts, first used in China, and later for the northern fur seal, the Russian Empire expanded into North America, notably Alaska. From the 17th through the half of the 19th century. The fur trade played a role in the development of Siberia, the Russian Far East. As recognition of the importance of the trade to the Siberian economy, the sable is a symbol of the Ural Sverdlovsk Oblast. Fur was relied on to make clothing, a critical consideration prior to the organization of coal distribution for heating. Portugal and Spain played major roles in fur trading after the 15th century with their business in fur hats and they began by establishing trading posts along the Volga and Vychegda river networks and requiring the Komi people to give them furs as tribute. Novgorod, the chief fur-trade center prospered as the easternmost trading post of the Hanseatic League, Novgorodians expanded farther east and north, coming into contact with the Pechora people of the Pechora River valley and the Yugra people residing near the Urals. Both of these native tribes offered more resistance than the Komi, as Muscovy gained more power in the 15th century and proceeded in the gathering of the Russian lands, the Muscovite state began to rival the Novgorodians in the North. During the 15th century Moscow began subjugating many native tribes, one strategy involved exploiting antagonisms between tribes, notably the Komi and Yugra, by recruiting men of one tribe to fight in an army against the other tribe. Campaigns against native tribes in Siberia remained insignificant until they began on a larger scale in 1483 and 1499. Besides the Novgorodians and the indigenes, Muscovites also had to contend with the various Muslim Tatar khanates to the east of Muscovy, at this point the phrase ruler of Obdor, Konda, and all Siberian lands became part of the title of the Tsar in Moscow
Fur trade
–
Fur trade in
Nizhny Novgorod (before 1906)
Fur trade
–
A fur trader in
Fort Chipewyan,
Northwest Territories in the 1890s
Fur trade
–
Fur
muff manufacturer's 1949 advertisement
Fur trade
–
Cossacks collecting yasak in Siberia
16.
Holy Orders
–
In the Christian churches, Holy Orders are ordained ministries such as bishop, priest or deacon. Except for Lutherans and some Anglicans, these churches regard ordination as a sacrament, the Anglo-Catholic tradition within Anglicanism identifies more with the Roman Catholic position about the sacramental nature of ordination. Denominations have varied conceptions of Holy Orders, in the Anglican churches and some Lutheran churches the traditional orders of bishop, priest and deacon are bestowed using ordination rites. The extent to which ordination is considered sacramental in these traditions has, however, many other denominations do not consider ministry as being sacramental in nature and would not think of it in terms of holy orders as such. Historically, the word order designated a civil body or corporation with a hierarchy. The word holy refers to the Church, in context, therefore, a holy order is set apart for ministry in the Church. The Eastern Orthodox Church considers ordination to be a Sacred Mystery, although all other mysteries may be performed by a presbyter, ordination may only be conferred by a bishop, and ordination of a bishop may only be performed by several bishops together. Cheirotonia always takes place during the Divine Liturgy and it was the mission of the Apostles to go forth into all the world and preach the Gospel, baptizing those who believed in the name of the Holy Trinity. In the Early Church those who presided over congregations were referred to variously as episcopos or presbyteros and this link is believed to continue in unbroken succession to this day. Over time, the ministry of bishops and presbyters or priests came to be distinguished, in Orthodox terminology, priesthood or sacerdotal refers to the ministry of bishops and priests. A bishop is the Teacher of the Faith, the carrier of Sacred Tradition, a bishop is consecrated through the laying on of hands by several bishops. The consecration of a bishop takes place near the beginning of the Liturgy, since a bishop can, in addition to performing the Mystery of the Eucharist, also ordain priests and deacons. Customarily, the consecrated bishop ordains a priest and a deacon at the Liturgy during which he is consecrated. A priest may serve only at the pleasure of his bishop, a bishop bestows faculties giving a priest chrism and an antimins, he may withdraw faculties and demand the return of these items. After the Aër is taken from the candidate to cover the chalice and diskos, the candidate is then taken to the southeast corner of the Holy Table and kneels on both knees, resting his forehead on the edge of the Holy Table. Afterwards, the bishop brings the newly ordained priest to stand in the Holy Doors and he then clothes the priest in each of his sacerdotal vestments, at each of which the people sing, Worthy. A deacon may not perform any Sacrament and performs no liturgical services on his own but serves only as an assistant to a priest and may not even vest without the blessing of a priest. After being vested as a deacon and given a liturgical fan, the Anglican churches hold their bishops to be in apostolic succession, although there is some difference of opinion with regard to whether ordination is to be regarded as a sacrament
Holy Orders
–
Metropolitan
Hilarion (Kapral) performs the laying on of hands (
Cheirotonia), conferring the holy order of
presbyter (priest) upon an Orthodox
deacon.
Holy Orders
–
After the transmutation of the Holy Gifts, the bishop presents to the newly ordained priest a portion of the Lamb (i.e., the Body of Christ)"
Holy Orders
–
The laying on of hands (
Cheirotonia), conferring the holy order of
deacon upon an Orthodox
subdeacon.
Holy Orders
–
Ordination to the Catholic priesthood (Latin rite). Devotional card, 1925.
17.
Priest
–
A priest or priestess, is a person authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites, in particular, rites of sacrifice to, and propitiation of and their office or position is the priesthood, a term which also may apply to such persons collectively. The necessity to read sacred texts and keep temple or church records helped foster literacy in early societies. Priests exist in many religions today, such as all or some branches of Judaism, Christianity, the question of which religions have a priest depends on how the titles of leaders are used or translated into English. In some cases, leaders are more like those that other believers will often turn to for advice on spiritual matters, for example, clergy in Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy are priests, but in Protestant Christianity they are typically minister and pastor. The terms priest and priestess are sufficiently generic that they may be used in a sense to describe the religious mediators of an unknown or otherwise unspecified religion. In many religions, being a priest or priestess is a full-time position, many Christian priests and pastors choose or are mandated to dedicate themselves to their churches and receive their living directly from their churches. In other cases it is a part-time role, for example, in the early history of Iceland the chieftains were titled goði, a word meaning priest. In some religions, being a priest or priestess is by election or human choice. In Judaism the priesthood is inherited in familial lines, in a theocracy, a society is governed by its priesthood. The word priest, is derived from Greek, via Latin presbyter. Old High German also has the disyllabic priester, priestar, apparently derived from Latin independently via Old French presbtre, the Latin presbyter ultimately represents Greek presbyteros, the regular Latin word for priest being sacerdos, corresponding to Greek hiereus. That English should have only the term priest to translate presbyter. The feminine English noun, priestess, was coined in the 17th century, in the 20th century, the word was used in controversies surrounding the ordination of women. In the case of the ordination of women in the Anglican communion, it is common to speak of priests. In historical polytheism, a priest administers the sacrifice to a deity, in the Ancient Near East, the priesthood also acted on behalf of the deities in managing their property. Priestesses in antiquity often performed sacred prostitution, and in Ancient Greece, some such as Pythia, priestess at Delphi. Sumerian and Akkadian Entu or EN were top-ranking priestesses who were distinguished with special ceremonial attire and they owned property, transacted business, and initiated the hieros gamos ceremony with priests and kings
Priest
–
A
vajracharya (thunderbolt-carrier), a
Newar Buddhist priest.
Priest
–
Modern
Maya priest performing a healing.
Priest
–
Vestal Virgin priestess of
Ancient Rome
Priest
–
Antonia Minor as a priestess of
Ceres (36 BCE–37 CE)
18.
Hernando de Soto
–
A vast undertaking, de Sotos North American expedition ranged throughout the southeastern United States searching for gold, and a passage to China. De Soto died in 1542 on the banks of the Mississippi River in what is now Guachoya, Arkansas or Ferriday and he was born in Jerez de los Caballeros, in the current province of Badajoz. However, three towns—Badajoz, Barcarrota and Jerez de los Caballeros—claim to be his birthplace and he spent time as a child at each place, and he stipulated in his will that his body be interred at Jerez de los Caballeros, where other members of his family were interred. The age of the Conquerors came on the heels of the Spanish reconquest of the Iberian peninsula from Islamic forces, Spain and Portugal were filled with young men seeking a chance for military fame after the Moors were defeated. With discovery of new lands to the west, they were attracted to whispers of glory, De Soto sailed to the New World with the first Governor of Panama, Pedrarias Dávila. In 1520 he participated in Gaspar de Espinosas expedition to Veragua, there he acquired an encomienda and a public office in Leon, Nicaragua. Brave leadership, unwavering loyalty, and ruthless schemes for the extortion of native villages for their chiefs became de Sotos hallmarks during the Conquest of Central America. He gained fame as an excellent horseman, fighter, and tactician, in 1530, de Soto became a regidor of León, Nicaragua. He led an expedition up the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula searching for a passage between the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean to enable trade with the Orient, the richest market in the world. Failing that, and without means to further, de Soto, upon Pedro Arias Dávilas death. Bringing his own men on ships which he hired, de Soto joined Francisco Pizarro at his first base of Tumbes shortly before departure for the interior of present-day Peru, Pizarro quickly made de Soto one of his captains. When Pizarro and his men first encountered the army of the Inca Atahualpa at Cajamarca, when Pizarros men attacked Atahualpa and his guard the next day, de Soto led one of the three groups of mounted soldiers. De Soto was sent to the camp of the Incan army, during 1533, the Spanish held Atahualpa captive in Cajamarca for months while his subjects paid for his ransom by filling a room with gold and silver objects. During this captivity, de Soto became friendly with Atahualpa and taught him to play chess, by the time the ransom had been completed, the Spanish became alarmed by rumors of an Incan army advancing on Cajamarca. Pizarro sent de Soto with 200 soldiers to scout for the rumored army, while de Soto was gone, the Spanish in Cajamarca decided to kill Atahualpa to prevent his rescue. De Soto returned to report that he found no signs of an army in the area, after executing Atahualpa, Pizarro and his men headed to Cuzco, the capital of the Incan Empire. As the Spanish force approached Cuzco, Pizarro sent his brother Hernando, the advance guard fought a pitched battle with Incan troops in front of the city, but the battle had ended before Pizarro arrived with the rest of the Spanish party. The Incan army withdrew during the night, the Spanish plundered Cuzco, where they found much gold and silver
Hernando de Soto
–
Hernando de Soto
Hernando de Soto
–
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Hernando de Soto
–
A proposed route for the de Soto Expedition, based on
Charles M. Hudson map of 1997.
Hernando de Soto
–
Library of Congress ' engraving. The Spanish caption reads: "HERNANDO DE SOTO: Extremaduran, one of the discoverers and conquerors of Peru: he travelled across all of Florida and defeated its previously invincible natives, he died on his expedition in the year 1543 at the age of 42".
19.
St. Ignace
–
Saint Ignace, usually written as St. Ignace, is a city at the southern tip of the Upper Peninsula of the U. S. state of Michigan, bordering the Straits of Mackinac. The population was 2,452 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Mackinac County. For travelers coming from the Lower Peninsula, St. Ignace is the gateway to the part of the state. St. Ignace Township is located just to the north of the city, located in Michigans Upper Peninsula, St. Ignace is at the northern end of the Mackinac Bridge and Mackinaw City is the southern end. The bridge connects the Lower and the Upper peninsulas of Michigan, as of the 2010 census, nearly one-third of the population of the city identified as Native American. The Mackinac Bands of Chippewa and Ottawa Indians, a recognized tribe, is headquartered at St. Ignace. In addition, the federally recognized Sault Ste. Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians owns and operates a casino on its land in St. Ignace, St. Ignace is the second-oldest city founded by Europeans in Michigan. Before French contact, various cultures of Native Americans had inhabited the area for thousands of years, early historic peoples here were predominantly the Iroquoian-speaking Wendat, whom the French called the Huron. By the early 18th century, the Anishinaabe Ojibwe, who one of the Algonquian languages. Another related Anishinaabe people were the Ottawa, the third member of the Council of Three Fires, a loose confederacy of these tribes, was the Potowatomi people. All three peoples are members of federally recognized tribes in northern Michigan. French explorer and priest Jacques Marquette founded the St. Ignace Mission on this site in 1671 and was buried there after his death and he named it for St. Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the Jesuit religious order, whose priests were active as missionaries across North America. Jesuits served at missions to convert First Nations/Native Americans to Catholicism, in 1673, Marquette joined the expedition of Louis Jolliet, a French-Canadian explorer, and departed from St. Ignace on August 27,1679. Louis de La Porte, Sieur de Louvigny founded Fort de Buade here in 1681 as a fur trading post and it was later directed by Antoine Cadillac. It was closed by the French in 1697, the Jesuits abandoned their mission in 1705. The Ojibwe, who came to dominate most of the territory of present-day Michigan in the 18th century among Native Americans, were allies of the French in the Seven Years War against the British. After the British victory in the Seven Years War, in 1763 they took over the territory of France in North America, including this part of the former New France
St. Ignace
–
Downtown St.Igance.
St. Ignace
–
The Museum of Ojibwa Culture operates in the former St. Ignace Mission building. The mission is listed on the
National Register of Historic Places. This was the site of a historic
Wyandot (Huron) village.
St. Ignace
–
A tombstone marks the grave of Father Marquette, next to the Museum of Ojibway Culture at the former site of St. Ignace Mission.
St. Ignace
–
Municipal Building
20.
Michigan
–
Michigan /ˈmɪʃᵻɡən/ is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit, Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is noted to be shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, the two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, as a result, it is one of the leading U. S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds, a person in the state is never more than six miles from a natural water source or more than 85 miles from a Great Lakes shoreline. What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century, the area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Eventually, in 1805, the Michigan Territory was formed, which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26,1837, the state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination. Though Michigan has come to develop an economy, it is widely known as the center of the U. S. automotive industry. When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa, the three nations co-existed peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest, French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlés expedition in 1622, the first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan as a base for Catholic missions, missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were received by the areas Indian populations, with relatively few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph, in 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present day city of Niles. The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent, cadillacs wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in the Michigan wilderness. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post, the Église de Saint-Anne was founded the same year
Michigan
–
Père Marquette and the Indians (1869), Wilhelm Lamprecht
Michigan
–
Flag
Michigan
–
Approximate area of Michigan highlighted in
Guillaume de L'Isle 's 1718 map
Michigan
–
Lumbering pines in the late 1800s
21.
Voyageurs
–
The voyageurs were French Canadians who engaged in the transporting of furs by canoe during the fur trade years. Voyageur is a French word, meaning traveler, the emblematic meaning of the term applies to places and times where transportation of materials was mainly over long distances. This major and challenging task of the fur trading business was done by canoe, the term in its fur trade context also applied, at a lesser extent, to other fur trading activities. Being a voyageur also included being a part of a licensed, organized effort, additionally, they were set apart from engagés, who were much smaller merchants and general laborers. Mostly immigrants, engagés were men who were obliged to go anywhere, until their contract expired, engagés were at the full servitude of their master, which was most often a voyageur. Less than fifty percent of engagés whose contracts ended chose to remain in New France, the voyageurs were regarded as legendary, especially in French Canada. They were heroes celebrated in folklore and music, for reasons of promised celebrity status and wealth, this position was very coveted. James H. Baker was once told by an unnamed retired voyageur, I could carry, paddle, walk, I have been twenty-four years a canoe man, and forty-one years in service, no portage was ever too long for me, fifty songs could I sing. I have saved the lives of ten voyageurs, have had twelve wives, I spent all of my money in pleasure. Were I young again, I would spend my life the way over. There is no life so happy as a voyageurs life, despite the fame surrounding the voyageur, their life was one of toil and not nearly as glorious as folk tales make it out to be. For example, they had to be able to carry two 90-pound bundles of fur over portage, some carried up to four or five, and there is a report of a voyageur carrying seven for half of a mile. Hernias were common and frequently caused death, most voyageurs would start working when they were twenty two and they would continue working until they were in their sixties. They never made enough money to consider an early retirement from what was a physically grueling lifestyle, Europeans mainly traded alongside the coast of North America with Native Americans. The early fur trade with Native Americans, which developed alongside the coasts of North America, was not limited to the beaver, beavers were not particularly valued and people preferred fancy fur or fur that is used with or on the pelt. The fur trade was viewed as secondary to fishing during this era, soon, coureurs des bois achieved business advantages by travelling deeper into the wilderness and trading there. By 1681, the King of France decided to control the traders by publishing an edict that banned fur, also, as the trading process moved deeper into the wilderness, transportation of the furs became a larger part of the fur trading business process. The authorities began a process of issuing permits and those travellers associated with the canoe transportation part of the licensed endeavour became known as voyageurs, a term which literally means traveler in French
Voyageurs
–
Quetico Superior Route, Passing a Waterfall by
Frances Anne Hopkins
Voyageurs
–
Voyageurs at Dawn, 1871 by Frances Anne Hopkins (1838–1919)
Voyageurs
–
Photo of the Edict that the King Louis XIV passed limiting who could participate in the fur trade
Voyageurs
–
The Voyageurs, 1846 by Charles Deas
22.
Lake Michigan
–
Lake Michigan is one of the five Great Lakes of North America and the only one located entirely within the United States. The other four Great Lakes are shared by the U. S. and it is the second-largest of the Great Lakes by volume and the third-largest by surface area, after Lake Superior and Lake Huron. Lake Michigan is shared, from west to east, by the U. S. states of Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, ports along its shores include Chicago, Milwaukee, Green Bay, Wisconsin, Gary, Indiana, and Benton Harbor, Michigan. The word Michigan originally referred to the lake itself, and is believed to come from the Ojibwa word mishigami meaning great water, some of the earliest human inhabitants of the Lake Michigan region were the Hopewell Indians. Their culture declined after 800 AD, and for the few hundred years. The French explorer Jean Nicolet is believed to have been the first European to reach Lake Michigan, in the earliest European maps of the region, the name of Lake Illinois has been found in addition to that of Michigan, named for the Illinois Confederation of tribes. Lake Michigan is joined via the narrow, open-water Straits of Mackinac with Lake Huron, the Straits of Mackinac were an important Native American and fur trade route. The eastern end of the Straits was controlled by Fort Mackinac on Mackinac Island, French coureurs des bois and voyageurs established small ports and trading communities, such as Green Bay, on the lake during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. In the 19th century, Lake Michigan played a role in the development of Chicago. The first person to reach the bottom of Lake Michigan was J. Val Klump. Klump reached the bottom via submersible as part of a 1985 research expedition, in 2007, a row of stones paralleling an ancient shoreline was discovered by Mark Holley, professor of underwater archeology at Northwestern Michigan College. This formation lies 40 feet below the surface of the lake, One of the stones is said to have a carving resembling a mastodon. So far the formation has not been authenticated, Lake Michigan is the only one of the Great Lakes wholly within the borders of the United States, the others are shared with Canada. It lies in the known as the American Midwest. Lake Michigan has an area of 22,404 sq. mi, making it the largest lake entirely within one country by surface area. It is the half of Lake Michigan–Huron, which is the largest body of fresh water in the world. It is 307 miles long by 118 miles wide with a shoreline 1,640 miles long, the lakes average depth is 46 fathoms 3 feet, while its greatest depth is 153 fathoms 5 feet. It contains a volume of 1,180 cubic miles of water, Green Bay in the northwest is its largest bay
Lake Michigan
–
Landsat image
Lake Michigan
–
The
Milwaukee lakefront
Lake Michigan
–
Sunset over Lake Michigan from
Grand Traverse Point
Lake Michigan
–
Sand dune on Lake Michigan at
Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore
23.
Green Bay (Lake Michigan)
–
Green Bay is an arm of Lake Michigan, located along the south coast of Michigans Upper Peninsula and the east coast of Wisconsin. It is separated from the rest of the lake by the Door Peninsula in Wisconsin, the Garden Peninsula in Michigan, Green Bay is some 120 miles long, with a width ranging from about 10 miles to 20 mi. It is 1,626 square miles in area, at the southern end of the bay is the city of Green Bay, Wisconsin, where the Fox River enters the bay. The Leo Frigo Memorial Bridge spans the point where the bay ends, locally, the bay is often called the Bay of Green Bay to distinguish the bay from the city. The bay is navigable by large ships, the bay is located in parts of five counties in Wisconsin, and two in Michigan. Oconto, Green Bay was home to Copper Culture State Park and it is a burial ground of the Copper Culture Indians. This burial ground is considered to be the oldest cemetery in Wisconsin, the French Jesuit, Roman Catholic priest, and missionary, Father Claude-Jean Allouez said the first Mass in Oconto on December 3,1669. The bay was named la baie des Puants by the French explorer Jean Nicolet as shown on many French maps of the 17th and 18th centuries, the French also called the bay Baie Verte, and the English kept this name as Green Bay. Peshtigo Fire, a firestorm that affected land on both sides of Green Bay, and the deadliest fire in the history of the United States
Green Bay (Lake Michigan)
–
View of the
Green Bay Harbor Entrance Light.
Green Bay (Lake Michigan)
–
Green Bay
Green Bay (Lake Michigan)
–
A
Tall ship sailing into the mouth of the
Fox River
24.
Fox River (Wisconsin)
–
The Fox River is a river in the north central United States, in eastern Wisconsin. Along the banks is a chain of cities and villages, including Oshkosh, Neenah, Menasha, Appleton, Little Chute, Kimberly, Combined Locks, except for Oshkosh, located on the Upper Fox River near Lake Winnebago, these cities and villages identify as the Fox Cities. Together, the two give the Fox River a length of 182 miles. Counting the distance through Lake Winnebago gives a total of 200 miles, the Fox River flows from north to south in its first section. The Upper Fox River begins as a small stream northeast of Pardeeville and it flows southwest towards Portage and comes within 2 miles of the Wisconsin River before turning north. After flowing past Montello, the river goes northeast until reaching Lake Butte des Morts, here it is joined by the tributary Wolf River before entering the west side of Lake Winnebago at Oshkosh. The Upper Fox flows for a total of 142 miles, the Lower Fox begins at the north end of Lake Winnebago, where it flows north past Neenah, Menasha, and Appleton as it begins its 40-mile course northeast towards Lake Michigan. The river drops around 164 feet over this short stretch, prior to the construction of European-style dams after 1850, the river had many sizable rapids. The Lower Fox ends after flowing through the city of Green Bay, altogether, the Fox-Wolf watershed drains an area of about 6,429 square miles, giving the Fox an average discharge rate of 4132 ft3/s into the bay. The name is the translation of rivière aux Renards, given by explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette because it went through the territory of the Meskwaki people, archaeologists have determined that indigenous peoples lived in the Fox River area as early as 7000 BC. Prior to European settlement in the late 17th century, the shores of the Fox River, the first Europeans to reach the Fox were French, beginning with explorer Jean Nicolet in 1634. In 1673 explorers Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet canoed up the river as far as Portage, here they made the short portage from the Fox to the Wisconsin River and then canoed on toward the Mississippi River. They established an important water route between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River known as the Fox–Wisconsin Waterway and it was likely long used by Native Americans prior to European encounter, as they had extensive cross-country trading routes related to the Mississippi River. During the French colonization of the Americas, this route was used frequently by fur traders, in Canada, the Metis of the Red River of the North are classified as a distinct ethnicity because of their shared culture. The company was hoping to establish Green Bay as a city to rival Chicago by making the Fox-Wisconsin Waterway into the principal shipping route between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi River. This goal was never achieved, as the Upper Fox remained too shallow for significant shipping even after damming and dredging, in addition, the lakes that the narrow, winding stream flows through were frozen solid for five months every year. The Lower Fox was developed instead as a center of riverfront industry, during the mid-19th century, when Wisconsin was a leading producer of wheat, several flour mills were built along the river to harness its abundant water power. The Lower Fox proved an ideal location for production, owing to its proximity to lumbering areas that could supply wood pulp to make paper
Fox River (Wisconsin)
–
The
Wisconsin Route 47 bridge over the Lower Fox River in
Appleton
Fox River (Wisconsin)
–
Looking west toward Buffalo Lake in
Montello
Fox River (Wisconsin)
–
Looking east at the Upper Fox River in Montello
Fox River (Wisconsin)
–
The Upper Fox River emptying into
Lake Winnebago at
Oshkosh
25.
Portage, Wisconsin
–
Portage is a city in and the county seat of Columbia County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 10,662 at the 2010 census making it the largest city in Columbia County, the city is part of the Madison Metropolitan Statistical Area. The citys slogan is Where the North Begins, the Native American tribes that once lived here, and later the European traders and settlers, took advantage of the lowlands between the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers as a natural portage. In May 1673, Jacques Marquette joined the expedition of Louis Jolliet and they departed from St. Ignace on May 17, with two canoes and five voyageurs of French-Indian ancestry. They followed Lake Michigan to Green Bay and up the Fox River, from there, they were told to portage their canoes a distance of slightly less than two miles through marsh and oak plains to the Wisconsin River. Later, French fur traders described the place as le portage, as a portage, this community developed as a center of commerce and trade, later, a canal was constructed to facilitate this trade. When the railroads came through, the community continued in this role, Portage emerged at this place because of its unique position along the one and a half mile strip of marshy floodplain between the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers. By the end of the 17th century, the Fox-Wisconsin waterway, linked at The Portage and it was not until the 1780s and 1790s that traders built their posts and warehouses at each end of The Portage. In the early 19th century Portage was primarily populated by Métis, in 1828, the federal government recognized the strategic economic importance of The Portage and built Fort Winnebago at the Fox River end. After 15 years of controversy, Winnebago settlement won the county seat in 1851, the community incorporated as Portage City in 1854. The Portage business district lies along a hill that overlooks the Portage Canal, the buildings now in the citys downtown were once part of a bustling, urban commercial center serving a large region across north central Wisconsin. The building of the city paralleled its commercial prominence between the end of the American Civil War and the decade of the 20th century. The city is surrounded by prairies and grasslands, approximately three miles west of the city are the Baraboo bluffs. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 9.62 square miles. The location of the town at the split of the Wisconsin and Fox river is what gives it the name Portage, when Portage was first established, the streets were laid out on a traditional grid system. Today, the streets of the city are contorted as a result of the many marshes. The northern side of the city thus looks different from the central city, the city has two commercial areas. One is the historic district, which features several small boutique shops and restaurants
Portage, Wisconsin
–
Downtown Portage
Portage, Wisconsin
–
Wisconsin in 1718,
Guillaume de L'Isle map, showing the historic portage.
Portage, Wisconsin
–
Aerial view of Portage, Wisconsin
Portage, Wisconsin
–
Portage High School, 1911
26.
Portage
–
Portage or portaging is the practice of carrying water craft or cargo over land, either around an obstacle in a river, or between two bodies of water. A place where this occurs is also called a portage. Early French explorers in New France and French Louisiana encountered many rapids, the Native Americans carried their canoes over land to avoid river obstacles. Over time, important portages were sometimes provided with canals with locks, primitive portaging generally involves carrying the vessel and its contents across the portage in multiple trips. Small canoes can be portaged by carrying them inverted over ones shoulders, historically, voyageurs often employed tump lines on their heads to carry loads on their backs. Portages can be many kilometers in length, such as the 19-kilometre Methye Portage, some portages involve very little elevation change, such as the very short Mavis Grind in Shetland, which crosses an isthmus. This section deals mostly with the freight canoes used by the Canadian Voyageurs. Portage trails usually began as animal tracks and were improved by tramping or blazing, in a few places iron-plated wooden rails were laid to take a handcart. Heavily used routes sometimes evolved into roads when sledges, rollers or oxen were used, sometimes railways or canals were built. If the second course were chosen, the boat would be controlled by the avant standing in front with a long paddle, the avant had a better view and was in charge but the gouvernail had more control over the boat. The other canoemen provided power under the instructions of the avant, going upstream was more difficult, as there were many places where the current was too swift to paddle. Where the river bottom was shallow and firm, voyageurs would stand in the canoe and push it upstream with 3-metre poles. If the shoreline was reasonably clear the canoe could be tracked or lined, that is, in worse conditions, the demi-chargé technique was used. Half the cargo was unloaded, the canoe forced upstream, unloaded, in still worse currents, the entire cargo was unloaded and carried overland while the canoe was forced upstream. In the worst case a full portage was necessary, the canoe was carried overland by two or four men The cargo was divided into standard 41-kilogram packs or pièces with each man responsible for about six. One pack would be carried by a tumpline and one on the back, to allow regular rests the voyageur would drop his pack at a pose about every 1 kilometre and go back for the next load. The time for a portage was estimated at one hour per half mile, the Diolkos was a paved trackway in Ancient Greece which enabled boats to be moved overland across the Isthmus of Corinth between the Gulf of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf. It was constructed to high ranking Despots to conduct business in the justice system
Portage
–
Canoes from
Camp Pathfinder portaging in
Algonquin Park
Portage
–
Canoe rest along a portage trail
Portage
–
Small railway portage in the U.S.
Portage
–
Paved section of the
Diolkos
27.
Wisconsin River
–
The Wisconsin River is a tributary of the Mississippi River in the U. S. state of Wisconsin. At approximately 430 miles long, it is the states longest river, the rivers name, first recorded in 1673 by Jacques Marquette as Meskousing, is rooted in the Algonquian languages used by the areas American Indian tribes, but its original meaning is obscure. The Wisconsin River originates in the forests of the Lake District of northern Wisconsin, in Lac Vieux Desert near the border of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and it flows south across the glacial plain of central Wisconsin, passing through Wausau, Stevens Point, and Wisconsin Rapids. In southern Wisconsin it encounters the terminal moraine formed during the last ice age, north of Madison at Portage, the river turns to the west, flowing through Wisconsins hilly Western Upland and joining the Mississippi approximately 3 miles south of Prairie du Chien. The highest waterfall on the river is Grandfather Falls in Lincoln County, the modern Wisconsin River was formed in several stages. The lower, westward-flowing portion of the river is located in the unglaciated Driftless Area, the lower reach of the river is narrower than its upstream valley, leading to the suggestion the upper portions of the ancestor of the river flowed east previous to the Pleistocene. The remaining length of the river was formed gradually as glaciers advanced and retreated over Wisconsin, the stretch of river from Stevens Point north to Merrill was a drainage route for meltwater flowing away from the glaciers which covered northern Wisconsin during the Wisconsin Glaciation. As the glaciers retreated northward, the river also grew in that direction. South from Stevens Point, the meltwater would have flowed into Glacial Lake Wisconsin, in the summer of 1673, French missionary Jacques Marquette, French-Canadian explorer Louis Joliet, and their crew of five Metis arrived near the headwaters of the Fox River. From there, they were told to portage their two canoes a distance of less than two miles through marsh and oak plains to the Wisconsin River. The river on which we embarked is called Meskousing, wrote Marquette and it is very wide, it has a sandy bottom, which forms various shoals that render its navigation very difficult. In his only reference to the river, Marquette says that the Mississippi is narrow at the place where Miskous empties. The name used today was born when the explorer Rene Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, misread Marquettes initial M, over the next two decades the initial M completely disappeared as writers and mapmakers always called the river by some version that began with a vowel. For the next 150 years the river, and by extension our part of the world generally, was known as Ouisconsin, as American soldiers and officials traveled through the area for the first time following the War of 1812, they initially used the French spelling. But when large numbers of lead miners streamed into the south of the river in the 1820s. These legal documents created by the government in Washington sometimes used the French spelling, in 1836, when territorial status was authorized on July 4, the name became officially Wisconsin. Oddly, the person who did the most to create Wisconsin Territory didnt like the name, james Duane Doty, who first visited the region in 1820, was the principal advocate for the spelling Wiskonsan, which shows up dozens of times through the early 1840s. During all this time, Governor Doty and the legislature were in constant hostility, one of the governors vagaries had to be settled by a joint resolution
Wisconsin River
–
Dells of the Wisconsin River, May 2002.
Wisconsin River
–
Wisconsin and the Wisconsin River
Wisconsin River
–
A dam in
Stevens Point
Wisconsin River
–
Highway 82 bridge over the Wisconsin River
28.
Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin
–
Prairie du Chien is a city in and the county seat of Crawford County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 5,911 at the 2010 census, often referred to as Wisconsins second oldest city, Prairie du Chien was established as a European settlement by French voyageurs in the late seventeenth century. The city is located near the confluence of the Wisconsin and Mississippi Rivers, early French visitors to the site found it occupied by a group of Fox Indians led by a chief whose name Alim meant Chien in French. The French explorers named the location Prairie du Chien, French for Dogs Prairie, originally this name applied only to the plain upon which the settlement is located, but it was later extended to mean the city as well. The city of Prairie du Chien is located between the Town of Prairie du Chien and the Town of Bridgeport. The first Europeans to reach Prairie du Chien were the French explorers Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet, later travel between French Canada and the Mississippi River passed through Prairie du Chien, although routes via the Illinois River were also used. In 1685, the French explorer Nicolas Perrot established a trading post in the area as part of the large, the significance of Prairie du Chien as a center of the fur trade did not diminish until the mid-nineteenth century. In 1763, when Great Britain defeated France in the French and Indian War, it took possession of the French territory in North America, the British expanded the fur trade during their occupation of the area. During the American Revolutionary War, the city was used as a point for British troops. After the American victory, the Treaty of Paris granted the area to the new United States of America, only after the War of 1812 did the city become fully American. In July, British soldiers captured the fort during the Siege of Prairie du Chien, the British maintained control over the city until the wars end in 1815. Not wanting another invasion through Prairie du Chien, the Americans constructed Fort Crawford in 1816, the fort was the site of the negotiations and signing of the Treaties of Prairie du Chien, by which the Fox and Sauk ceded much of their land to the US. Representing them and the United Nations of the Chippewa, Ottawa and Pottawatomie in the 1829 negotiations was Billy Caldwell, of Scots-Irish and he became involved with the Pottawatomie after moving to the US as a young man from Canada. In 1829, the army doctor William Beaumont carried out many of his famous experiments on digestion in the hospital of Fort Crawford, beaumonts discoveries are still the basis of current knowledge on the human digestive process. Col. Zachary Taylor, who became the 12th U. S. President, was the commanding officer at Fort Crawford during the Black Hawk War of 1832. Taylor oversaw the surrender of Black Hawk in Prairie du Chien, lt. Jefferson Davis, who later became president of the Confederate States of America, was stationed at Fort Crawford at the same time. Here Jefferson Davis met Zachary Taylors daughter, Sarah Knoxie Taylor, outside the walls of the fort, early nineteenth century life in Prairie du Chien was still dominated by the fur trade. Prairie du Chiens most well-known traders during this time were Michel Brisbois, Joseph Rolette, Nathan Myrick, and Hercules L. Dousman
Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin
–
Prairie du Chien Post Office
Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin
–
Plaque for Marquette
Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin
–
Wyalusing Academy, the former St Mary’s College and Saint Mary’s School
Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin
–
The
Mississippi River, viewed from St. Feriole Island.
29.
Gulf of Mexico
–
The Gulf of Mexico is an ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. The U. S. states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas border the Gulf on the north, Atlantic and Pacific coasts, or sometimes the south coast, in juxtaposition to the Great Lakes region being the north coast. One of the seven main areas is the Gulf of Mexico basin. The Gulf of Mexico formed approximately 300 million years ago as a result of plate tectonics, the Gulfs basin is roughly oval and is approximately 810 nautical miles wide and floored by sedimentary rocks and recent sediments. It is connected to part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Florida Straits between the U. S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatan Channel between Mexico and Cuba, with the narrow connection to the Atlantic, the Gulf experiences very small tidal ranges. The size of the Gulf basin is approximately 1.6 million km2, almost half of the basin is shallow continental shelf waters. The basin contains a volume of roughly 2,500 quadrillion liters, the consensus among geologists who have studied the geology of the Gulf of Mexico, is that prior to the Late Triassic, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. It was created by the collision of plates that formed Pangea. As interpreted by Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, geologists and other Earth scientists agree in general that the present Gulf of Mexico basin originated in Late Triassic time as the result of rifting within Pangea. The rifting was associated with zones of weakness within Pangea, including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, first, there was a Late Triassic-Early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds. Second, as rifting progressed through Early and Middle Jurassic time and it was at this time that tectonics first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the basin created by rifting and crustal thinning to create the Gulf of Mexico. While the Gulf of Mexico was a basin, the subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt. Initially, during the Late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the Gulf of Mexico and progressed to the point that sea-floor spreading, at this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased. During the Late Jurassic through Early Cretaceous, the occupied by the Gulf of Mexico experienced a period of cooling. The subsidence was the result of a combination of stretching, cooling. Initially, the combination of stretching and cooling caused about 5–7 km of tectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional
Gulf of Mexico
–
Sediment in the Gulf of Mexico
Gulf of Mexico
–
Undersea
topography of the Gulf of Mexico
Gulf of Mexico
–
Fishing boats in
Biloxi
Gulf of Mexico
–
Gulf beach near Sabine Pass
30.
Arkansas River
–
The Arkansas River is a major tributary of the Mississippi River. It generally flows to the east and southeast as it traverses the US states of Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma and it then flows east into the Midwest via Kansas, and finally into the South through Oklahoma and Arkansas. At 1,469 miles, it is the sixth-longest river in the United States, the second-longest tributary in the Mississippi–Missouri system, and its origin is in the Rocky Mountains in Lake County, Colorado, near Leadville. In 1859, placer gold discovered in the Leadville area brought thousands seeking to strike it rich, the Arkansas Rivers mouth is at Napoleon, Arkansas, and its drainage basin covers nearly 170,000 sq mi. In terms of volume, the river is smaller than the Missouri and Ohio Rivers. The Arkansas from its headwaters to the 100th meridian west formed part of the US-Mexico border from the Adams–Onís Treaty until the Texas Annexation or Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the Arkansas has three distinct sections in its long path through central North America. At its headwaters, the Arkansas runs as a steep fast-flowing mountain river through the Rockies in its narrow valley and this section supports extensive whitewater rafting, including The Numbers, Browns Canyon, and the Royal Gorge. At Cañon City, Colorado, the Arkansas River valley widens and flattens markedly, just west of Pueblo, Colorado, the river enters the Great Plains. Through the rest of Colorado, Kansas, and much of Oklahoma, it is a typical Great Plains riverway, with wide, shallow banks subject to seasonal flooding, tributaries include the Cimarron River and the Salt Fork Arkansas River. In eastern Oklahoma the river begins to widen further into a more contained consistent channel, the river valley then expands as it encounters much flatter land beginning just west of Little Rock, Arkansas. It continues eastward across the plains and forests of eastern Arkansas until it flows into the Mississippi River. Important cities along the Arkansas River include Pueblo, Colorado, Garden City, Kansas, Wichita, Kansas, Tulsa, Oklahoma, Fort Smith, Arkansas, and Little Rock, Arkansas. The I-40 bridge disaster of May 2002 took place on I-40s crossing of Kerr Reservoir on the Arkansas River near Webbers Falls, Oklahoma. The problems over the possession and use of Arkansas River water by Colorado, while Congress approved the Arkansas River Compact in 1949, the compact did not stop further disputes by the two states over water rights to the river. The Kansas-Oklahoma Arkansas River Basin Compact was created in 1965 to promote mutual consideration and it led to the Kansas-Oklahoma Arkansas River Commission, which was charged with administering the compact and reducing pollution. The compact was approved and implemented by states in 1970, and has been in force since then. Through Oklahoma and Arkansas, dams artificially deepen and widen the river to build it into a navigable body of water. Many nations of Native Americans lived near, or along, the 1, the first Europeans to see the river were members of the Spanish Coronado expedition on June 29,1541
Arkansas River
–
The lower part of the Arkansas River near
Little Rock, Arkansas
Arkansas River
–
The Arkansas River flows through Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, and its watershed also drains parts of Texas, New Mexico and Missouri.
Arkansas River
–
The headwaters of the Arkansas near
Leadville, Colorado
Arkansas River
–
Drought can reduce the Arkansas River so much, trees along the river cannot survive.
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Louis Joliet". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton.
