1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
Union (American Civil War)
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The Union was opposed by 11 southern slave states that formed the Confederate States, or the Confederacy. All of the Unions states provided soldiers for the U. S. Army, the Border states played a major role as a supply base for the Union invasion of the Confederacy. The Northeast provided the resources for a mechanized war producing large quantities of munitions and supplies. The Midwest provided soldiers, food, horses, financial support, Army hospitals were set up across the Union. Most states had Republican governors who energetically supported the war effort, the Democratic Party strongly supported the war in 1861 but in 1862 was split between the War Democrats and the anti-war element led by the Copperheads. The Democrats made major gains in 1862 in state elections. They lost ground in 1863, especially in Ohio, in 1864 the Republicans campaigned under the National Union Party banner, which attracted many War Democrats and soldiers and scored a landslide victory for Lincoln and his entire ticket. The war years were quite prosperous except where serious fighting and guerrilla warfare took place along the southern border, prosperity was stimulated by heavy government spending and the creation of an entirely new national banking system. The Union states invested a great deal of money and effort in organizing psychological and social support for soldiers wives, widows, orphans, and for the soldiers themselves. Most soldiers were volunteers, although after 1862 many volunteered to escape the draft, Draft resistance was notable in some larger cities, especially New York City with its massive anti-draft riots of 1863 and in some remote districts such as the coal mining areas of Pennsylvania. In the context of the American Civil War, the Union is sometimes referred to as the North, both then and now, as opposed to the Confederacy, which was the South. The Union never recognized the legitimacy of the Confederacys secession and maintained at all times that it remained entirely a part of the United States of America, in foreign affairs the Union was the only side recognized by all other nations, none of which officially recognized the Confederate government. The term Union occurs in the first governing document of the United States, the subsequent Constitution of 1787 was issued and ratified in the name not of the states, but of We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union. Union, for the United States of America, is repeated in such clauses as the Admission to the Union clause in Article IV. Even before the war started, the preserve the Union was commonplace. Using the term Union to apply to the non-secessionist side carried a connotation of legitimacy as the continuation of the political entity. In comparison to the Confederacy, the Union had a large industrialized and urbanized area, additionally, the Union states had a manpower advantage of 5 to 2 at the start of the war. Year by year, the Confederacy shrank and lost control of increasing quantities of resources, meanwhile, the Union turned its growing potential advantage into a much stronger military force
3.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
4.
Rear admiral
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Rear admiral is a naval commissioned officer rank above that of a commodore and captain, and below that of a vice admiral. It is generally regarded as the lowest of the admiral ranks, in many navies it is referred to as a two-star rank. It originated from the days of naval sailing squadrons and can trace its origins to the Royal Navy, each naval squadron would be assigned an admiral as its head, who would command from the centre vessel and direct the activities of the squadron. The admiral would in turn be assisted by a vice admiral and this has survived into the modern age, with the rank of rear admiral the most-junior of the admiralty ranks of many navies. In some European navies, and in the Canadian Forces French rank translations, in the German Navy the rank is known as Konteradmiral, superior to the flotilla admiral. In the Royal Netherlands Navy, this rank is known as schout-bij-nacht, denoting the role junior to the squadron admiral, the Royal Australian Navy maintains a rank of rear admiral, refer to Australian Defence Force ranks and insignia. Since the mid-1990s, the insignia of a Royal Australian Navy rear admiral is the Crown of St. Edward above a crossed sword and baton, like the Royal Navy version, the sword is a traditional naval cutlass. The stars have eight points, unlike the four pointed Order of the Bath stars used by the army, prior to 1995, the RAN shoulder board was identical to the Royal Navy shoulder board. The Royal Navy shoulder board changed again in 2001 and the Australian, rear Admiral Robyn Walker AM, RAN became the first female admiral in the Royal Australian Navy when she was appointed Surgeon-General of the Australian Defence Force on 16 December 2011. In the Royal Canadian Navy, the rank of rear-admiral is the Navy rank equivalent to major-general of the Army, a rear-admiral is a flag officer, the naval equivalent of a general officer. A rear-admiral is senior to a commodore and brigadier-general, and junior to a vice-admiral and lieutenant-general, the service dress features a wide strip of gold braid around the cuff and, since June 2010, above it a narrower strip of gold braid embellished with the executive curl. On the visor of the cap are two rows of gold oak leaves. Konteradmiral is an OF-7 two-star rank equivalent to the Generalmajor in the German Army, see also The Guyana Defence Force Coast Guard is the naval component of the Military of Guyana. As such, the ranks of the Coast Guard are naval ranks similar to the practice in the respective Coast Guards of Jamaica and Trinidad, the rank of rear admiral was first awarded to chief of staff commodore Gary Best on August 19,2013. The rank insignia consists of two silver pips with green highlights, beneath a crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by the gold-colored Caciques crown with red, the Indian Navy also maintains a rear admiral rank senior to commodore and captain ranks and junior to vice admiral ranks. The rank insignia for a rear-admiral is two stars beneath crossed sword and baton, all surmounted by Emblem of India, worn on shoulder boards, before Islamic Revolution The Iranian Imperial Navy. After Islamic Revolution The Islamic Republic of Iran Navy, also known as the Iranian Navy, a rear admiral in the Pakistani Navy is a senior and two-star rank naval officer, appointed in higher naval commands. Like most Commonwealth navies, the rear admiral rank is superior to commodore, however, the rank is junior to the three-star rank vice-admiral and four-star rank admiral, who is generally a Chief of Naval Staff of the Navy
5.
Brazil Squadron
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When the Cisplatine War between Argentina and Brazil ended, the station remained and continued to protect American interests during several other conflicts. The squadron was active in suppressing the African slave trade. The South Atlantic Squadron ceased to exist when it was absorbed into the North Atlantic Fleet in 1905, when the sailors arrived at the settlement, its Argentine population was found to be suffering from starvation so Commander Silas Duncan evacuated the colonists to the mainland. Because of this the Falklands were left unpopulated and open for British colonization a few years later, argentinas dispute with the United Kingdom over rights to the islands culminated in the 1982 Falklands War which left the British in control. Exaggerated accounts in opposition of the American expedition claim that the USS Lexington destroyed the town with naval gunfire, africa Squadron, Potomac Books,2006, pp. 233–234
6.
Union blockade
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The Union blockade in the American Civil War was a naval strategy by the United States to prevent the Confederacy from trading. Those blockade runners fast enough to evade the Union Navy could only carry a fraction of the supplies needed. They were operated largely by British citizens, making use of ports such as Havana, Nassau. The Union commissioned around 500 ships, which destroyed or captured about 1,500 blockade runners over the course of the war, for this purpose a competent force will be posted so as to prevent entrance and exit of vessels from the ports aforesaid. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand, done at the City of Washington, this nineteenth day of April, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-one, and of the Independence of the United States the eighty-fifth. The British proclamation also formally gave Britain the diplomatic right to discuss openly which side, if any, to support. A joint Union military-navy commission, known as the Blockade Strategy Board, was formed to make plans for seizing major Southern ports to utilize as Union bases of operations to expand the blockade. It first met in June 1861 in Washington, D. C. under the leadership of Captain Samuel F, in the initial phase of the blockade, Union forces concentrated on the Atlantic Coast. The November 1861 capture of Port Royal in South Carolina provided the Federals with an ocean port and repair. It became a base of operations for further expansion of the blockade along the Atlantic coastline. Apalachicola, Florida, received Confederate goods traveling down the Chattahoochee River from Columbus, Georgia, another early prize was Ship Island, which gave the Navy a base from which to patrol the entrances to both the Mississippi River and Mobile Bay. The Navy gradually extended its reach throughout the Gulf of Mexico to the Texas coastline, including Galveston, with 3,500 miles of Confederate coastline and 180 possible ports of entry to patrol, the blockade would be the largest such effort ever attempted. The United States Navy had 42 ships in service, and another 48 laid up. At the time of the declaration of the blockade, the Union only had three ships suitable for blockade duty, the Navy Department, under the leadership of Navy Secretary Gideon Welles, quickly moved to expand the fleet. In 1861, nearly 80 steamers and 60 sailing ships were added to the fleet, some 52 more warships were under construction by the end of the year. By November 1862, there were 282 steamers and 102 sailing ships, by the end of the war, the Union Navy had grown to a size of 671 ships, making it the largest navy in the world. By the end of 1861, the Navy had grown to 24,000 officers and enlisted men, four squadrons of ships were deployed, two in the Atlantic and two in the Gulf of Mexico. Blockade service was attractive to Federal seamen and landsmen alike, Blockade station service was considered the most boring job in the war but also the most attractive in terms of potential financial gain
7.
European Squadron
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The European Squadron, also known as the European Station, was a part of the United States Navy in the late 19th century and the early 1900s. The squadron was named the Mediterranean Squadron and renamed following the American Civil War. In 1905, the squadron was absorbed into the North Atlantic Fleet, the Egyptian Expedition in June and July 1882 was a response by the United States to the British and French attack on Alexandria during the Anglo-Egyptian War. Other ships of the squadron from July 1901 included the cruiser USS Albany and this article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
8.
Battle of Doro Passage
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The Battle of Doro Passage was a naval engagement during the United States Navys operation against Greek pirates in the Aegean Sea. On October 16,1827 a British merchant ship was attacked by pirates in Doro Passage off the islands of Andros, the Greek War of Independence shifted the balance of sea power in the Mediterranean Sea against the Ottoman Empire. This power shift led to a rise in piracy particularly among the Greek islands in the Aegean, in 1825, after several American merchant ships had been attacked, the American navy sent a squadron of warships to protect American interests and persecute pirates. Lieutenant Benjamin Cooper commanded the twelve gun schooner USS Porpoise in October 1827 and was in the process of escorting a convoy of five American ships, at dusk on October 16, the convoy was sailing through Doro Passage when suddenly the wind came to a calm. The British brig Comet had fallen behind drifted away from the rest of the convoy and she was attacked by 200 to 300 Greek pirates in five boats called mistikos. In general the mistikos were small but fast three masted galleys armed with one bow gun, the pirates quickly took control of Comet and put most of the crew in chains before attempting to flee back to their islands. The British captain and some managed to lower a boat and paddle to the Porpoise. Lieutenant Conner gave the order to fire and give chase to the Greek pirates. However, because of the calm, the sailors had to propel their ship by oars, when rowing failed to close the range, Lieutenant Cooper dispatched four boats with thirty-five men under the command of Lieutenant Louis M. Goldsborough. With boats the Americans felt they could close the distance between the two vessels faster and cut out the captured brig and it was now dark, so when the Greeks opened fire on the approaching boats they had trouble hitting their targets. No Americans were hurt throughout the action, during the boarding a wardroom steward killed eleven of the pirates singlehandedly, Lieutenant John A. Carr killed the pirate leader and several others with his pistol. Ultimately eighty to ninety pirates became casualties and the remaining escaped to shore in their boats, Lieutenant Goldsborough received recognition for winning the largest battle of the American campaign in the Aegean and a message of thanks from the British government. Golden Age of Piracy Goldsborough, Louis Malesherbes, Rear-Admiral, U. S. N, a Naval Encyclopædia, Comprising a Dictionary of Nautical Words and Phrases, Biographical Notices, and Records of Naval Officers, Special Articles of Naval Art and Science. Philadelphia, L. R. Hamersly & Co.1881, wilson, James Grant, John Fiske, eds. New York, D. Appleton and Company, the Long War Against Piracy, Historical Trends. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, Combat Studies Institute Press
9.
Siege of Veracruz
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The Battle of Veracruz was a 20-day siege of the key Mexican beachhead seaport of Veracruz, during the Mexican-American War. Lasting from March 9–29,1847, it began with the first large-scale amphibious assault conducted by United States military forces, U. S. forces then marched inland to Mexico City. After the battles of Monterrey and Buena Vista, much of Zachary Taylors Army of Occupation was transferred to the command of Major General Winfield Scott in support of the upcoming campaign. That campaign, determined by Scott and other Washington officials, would be a Veracruz landing, Veracruz was considered to be the strongest fortress in North America at the time. Puebla Libres, Orizaba, Veracruz, Oaxaca and Tehuantepec national guards, Fort San Juan de Ulúa – offshore on the Gallega Reef. Gen. Jose Durán with 1,030 men and 135 guns, artillery, Puebla and Jamiltepec activo battalions, companies of Tuxpan, Tampico, see Orders of Battle Mexican War. The Americans arrived at Anton Lizardo, Veracruz in early March, Scott agreed with Conners suggestion for a landing site at Collado Beach,3 mi south of Veracruz. The 1st Regular Division under Worth was chosen to make the landing first, followed by Pattersons volunteers, Conners Mosquito Fleet moved to within 90 yd of the beach to supply covering fire if necessary. By 12,15 pm on 9 March, this force was off Collado Beach, just before the main force touched the beach, a gig dashed ahead, and General Worth with his staff jumped ashore. Worths whole division landed without firing or receiving a single shot, by 11 pm, Scotts entire army had been brought ashore without a single man lost, and the first large scale amphibious landing conducted by the U. S. military was a success. Once ashore Pattersons division began marching northward to effect a complete envelopment of the city, one of Pattersons brigades under Gideon Pillow drove off a Mexican cavalry at Malibrán, cutting off the Alvarado road and the citys water supply. Quitman and Shields managed to drive off cavalry attempting to prevent the investment, by 13 March, the U. S. had completed a 7 mi siege line from Collado in the south to Playa Vergara in the north. On 17 March, siege lines were dug for Scotts siege artillery, sufficient for taking the city, the besiegers were plagued by sorties from the city, and Col. Juan Aguayo used the cover of a storm to slip his Alvarado garrison into Veracruz. Perry, Conners successor, returned from Norfolk, Virginia after making repairs on the USS Mississippi, perry and Conner met with Scott regarding the Navys role in the siege, and offered six guns that were to be manned by sailors from the ships. The naval battery was constructed under the direction of Captain Robert E. Lee 700 yd from the city walls. On March 22, Morales declined a surrender demand from Scott, the Naval batterys heavy cannonballs easily broke the coral walls. Congreve rockets were fired into the defenses and the fire forced the abandonment of Fort Santiago as Mexican morale began to drop. On March 24, Persifor F. Smiths brigade captured a Mexican soldier with reports that Antonio López de Santa Anna was marching an army from Mexico City to the relief of Veracruz
10.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
11.
Battle of Hatteras Inlet Batteries
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Two forts on the Outer Banks had been built by the Confederates, to protect their commerce-raiding activity. Although held up by bad weather, the fleet was able to land troops under General Ben Butler and this battle represented the first application of the naval blockading strategy. The Union retained both forts, providing access to the sounds, and commerce raiding was much reduced. The victory was welcomed by a demoralised Northern public after the humiliation of 1st Bull Run, the engagement is sometimes known as the Battle of Forts Hatteras and Clark. The North Carolina Sounds occupy most of the coast from Cape Lookout to the Virginia border, with their eastern borders marked by the Outer Banks, they were almost ideally located for raiding Northern maritime commerce. Cape Hatteras, the easternmost point in the Confederacy, is within sight of the Gulf Stream, ships in the Caribbean trade would reduce the time of their homeward journeys to New York, Philadelphia, or Boston by riding the stream to the north. Raiders, either privateers or state-owned vessels, could lie inside, watchers stationed at the Hatteras lighthouse would then signal a raider, which would dash out and make a capture, often being able to return the same day. In 1861, only four inlets were deep enough for ocean-going vessels to pass, Beaufort, Ocracoke, Hatteras, and Oregon Inlets. Hatteras Inlet was the most important of these, so it was given two forts, named Fort Hatteras and Fort Clark Fort Hatteras was sited adjacent to the inlet, Fort Clark was about half a mile to the southeast, closer to the Atlantic Ocean. The forts were not very strong, Fort Hatteras had only ten guns mounted by the end of August, with five guns in the fort. Furthermore, most of the guns were rather light 32-pounders or smaller, of limited range, the personnel problem was even worse. North Carolina had raised and equipped 22 infantry regiments to serve in the war, the six regiments remaining were responsible for the defense of the entire North Carolina coastline. Only a fraction of one regiment, the 7th North Carolina Volunteers, the other forts were likewise only weakly held. Fewer than a thousand men garrisoned Forts Ocracoke, Hatteras, Clark, reinforcements, if needed, would have to come from as far away as Beaufort. Strangely, the authorities in North Carolina did little to keep the poor state of their defenses secret. Several Yankee captains, victims of either capture or shipwreck, were detained at or near Hatteras Island while awaiting return to their homes. They were allowed free access to the forts, and made mental notes of everything. When they returned to the North, at least two of them gave full and valuable descriptions to the Navy Department, the depredations on Northern commerce emanating from Hatteras Inlet could not pass unnoticed
12.
Battle of Roanoke Island
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The defense was augmented by four forts facing on the water approaches to Roanoke Island, and two outlying batteries. At the time of the battle, Wise was hospitalized, so leadership fell to his second in command, during the first day of the battle, the Federal gunboats and the forts on shore engaged in a gun battle, with occasional contributions from the Mosquito Fleet. Late in the day, Burnsides soldiers went ashore unopposed, they were accompanied by six howitzers manned by sailors, as it was too late to fight, the invaders went into camp for the night. On the second day, February 8, the Union soldiers advanced but were stopped by an artillery battery, although the Confederates thought that their line was safely anchored in impenetrable swamps, they were flanked on both sides and their soldiers were driven back to refuge in the forts. The forts were taken in reverse, with no way for his men to escape, Col. Shaw surrendered to avoid pointless bloodshed. Northeastern North Carolina is dominated by its sounds, large but shallow bodies of water that lie between the mainland and the Outer Banks. Although they are all one body, intimately connected and having a water level. The largest of these is Pamlico Sound, immediately behind Hatteras Island, to its north is the second largest, Albemarle Sound, the linkage between these two, somewhat narrow, is further constricted by Roanoke Island. The portion of the waterway between Roanoke Island and the mainland is known as Croatan Sound, both the island and the sound are about ten miles long. The sound at its widest point is a more than 4 miles across. On the eastern side of the island is Roanoke Sound, much narrower, shallower, several North Carolina cities were sited on the sounds, among them New Bern, Beaufort, Edenton, and Elizabeth City. Others, not lying directly on the sounds, were accessible to the rivers that emptied into them, as much as a third of the state is in their watershed. Through most of the first year of the Civil War, the Confederate forces retained control of the sounds, the sounds were linked to Norfolk, Virginia by the Albemarle and Chesapeake Canal and the Dismal Swamp Canal. The blockade of Norfolk could not be complete so long as cargoes could reach the city through its back door, Roanoke Island was the key to control of the Sounds. If controlled by the Union forces, they would have a base that could be attacked only by an amphibious operation, if the Union established naval superiority there, all points on the mainland shores would be equally vulnerable to assault. The defense of Roanoke Island started in an accidental manner and they remained there for the next three months, making somewhat desultory efforts to expel the Union forces from Hatteras Island. Little was done to secure the position until early October, when Brig. Gen. Hill was assigned to command the defenses of North Carolina in the vicinity of the sounds. Hill set his soldiers to putting up earthworks across the center of the island, shortly after his departure, his district was split in two, the southern part was assigned to Brig. Gen. Lawrence OB
13.
Battle of Elizabeth City
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The Battle of Elizabeth City of the American Civil War was fought in the immediate aftermath of the Battle of Roanoke Island. It took place on 10 February 1862, on the Pasquotank River near Elizabeth City, the participants were vessels of the U. S. The battle was a part of the campaign in North Carolina that was led by Major General Ambrose E. Burnside, the result was a Union victory, with Elizabeth City and its nearby waters in their possession, and the Confederate fleet captured, sunk, or dispersed. At the outset of the American Civil War, the Union sought to implement its Anaconda Plan to isolate and defeat the Confederacy. The crucial first step was to blockade the Confederate coast to prevent access to Europe, the Union then sought to use its naval advantage to advance the rest of the Anaconda Plan by cutting parts of the Confederacy off from one another. Elizabeth City lies near the mouth of the Pasquotank River, where it flows into Albemarle Sound from the north, North of the city is the Dismal Swamp Canal. To the east is the segment of the Albemarle and Chesapeake Canal. Much of the food and forage delivered from North Carolina to southeastern Virginia was transported along these two canals, in particular, Norfolk, Virginia depended upon continued access to the canals for its subsistence. So long as the North Carolina Sounds remained in Confederate hands and that changed, however, in early February 1862. With the elimination of the batteries, however, all that stood in the way of the Union Navy was the Mosquito Fleet of the Confederate States Navy, the first shots of the Burnside Expedition were fired on 7 February 1862, in the Battle of Roanoke Island. On that first day of the battle, a force of 19 Union gunboats bombarded, rather inconclusively, four Rebel forts facing Croatan Sound. The Federal ships were parts of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, the Confederate vessels were drawn from a unit led by Flag Officer William F. Lynch, termed the Mosquito Fleet, intended to serve on Albemarle Sound and nearby waters. The gunnery duel lasted from noon until sunset, one other ship was damaged, but not by enemy action, CSS Forrest damaged her screw by running on a submerged obstacle, and was thereafter unable to move under her own power. The remainder of the Mosquito Fleet suffered only minimal damage and they had to retire at the end of the day, with Forrest in tow, solely because they had nearly run out of ammunition. Flag Officer Lynch took his fleet to Elizabeth City, to resupply, failing to find ammunition to replenish his magazines, he sent Commander Thomas T. Hunter, former captain of CSS Curlew, to Norfolk. He later sent CSS Raleigh up the Dismal Swamp Canal for the same purpose, Hunter returned with enough to resupply only two ships, Lynch divided it among all of his remaining serviceable ships. Raleigh, however, was not able to return in time, no further changes of status affected the Mosquito Fleet. On the eve of battle, Lynch had at his six ships in the water, each with only enough shot
14.
Battle of New Bern
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The Battle of New Bern was fought on 14 March 1862, near the city of New Bern, North Carolina, as part of the Burnside Expedition of the American Civil War. The US Armys Coast Division, led by Brigadier General Ambrose E. Branch, although the defenders fought behind breastworks that had been set up before the battle, their line had a weak spot in its center that was exploited by the attacking Federal soldiers. When the center of the line was penetrated, many of the militia broke, General Branch was unable to regain control of his troops until they had retreated to Kinston, more than 30 miles away. New Bern came under Federal control, and remained so for the rest of the war, New Bern lies on the left bank of the Neuse River, about 37 miles above its exit into Pamlico Sound. The river is broad in this vicinity, and is enough that vessels that can navigate the sound can also ply the river. In the colonial era, the town was important as a seaport. Nevertheless, New Bern was still a significant military target, as the railroad connected the coast with the interior passed through the city. A short distance further up, at Goldsboro, the crossed the Wilmington and Weldon Railroad. Thus, if New Bern were to fall into Federal hands, the land in this part of North Carolina is low and rather flat, and is sometimes marshy. In 1862, the land was mostly covered with open pine forest, although in places it was broken into low hills with deciduous forests. It is crossed by creeks that sometimes rise to the status of small rivers. One of these, the Trent River, separates New Bern from the land to its south, the slightly smaller Slocums Creek, enters 16 miles farther down the Neuse. It was to be the site for the attacking Federal forces. The entire action, aside from the takeover of the city, was confined to the land between two streams. The railroad ran on a system of berms and occasional cuts about a mile inland from the river and it entered the city on a bridge over the Trent River. A county road passed over the land, also connecting New Bern with Morehead City. In the vicinity of the battle, it lay between railroad and the river, but it crossed the railroad about a mile and a north of what would be the battlefield. The road continued to the northwest, crossing the Trent on a drawbridge some 4 miles west of the city, in the manner of the time, the road was unpaved, as the Union soldiers learned to their sorrow
15.
Siege of Fort Macon
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The Siege of Fort Macon took place from March 23 to April 26,1862, on the Outer Banks of Carteret County, North Carolina. It was part of Union Army General Ambrose E. Burnsides North Carolina Expedition during the American Civil War, in late March, Major General Burnside’s army advanced on Fort Macon, a casemated masonry fort that commanded the channel to Beaufort,35 miles southeast of New Bern. The Union force invested the fort with siege works and on April 25 opened a fire on the fort. Within a few hours the forts began to collapse, and in late afternoon the Confederate commander, Colonel Moses J. White. Burnsides terms of surrender were accepted, and the Federal troops took possession of the fort the next morning, Fort Macon was one of a system of coastal forts that were built around the borders of the still-young United States following the War of 1812. It was built on the end of Bogue Banks, in the Outer Banks of North Carolina. Begun in 1826, it was completed and received its first garrison in 1834, as it was intended for defense against attacking enemy naval forces, it was built of masonry. Gunfire from a ships deck was not accurate enough at that time to be able to break down brick. Although the advent of rifled artillery would make its walls vulnerable. It was an out of date when the Civil War came. After the first spate of enthusiasm, the fort was allowed to deteriorate, the woodwork rotted, the ironwork rusted, and gun carriages were allowed to decay. The garrison was reduced in size, until by the time of the beginning of the Civil War the care of the fort was entrusted to a single sergeant. When the fort was taken over by North Carolina troops under Captain Josiah Solomon Pender on April 14, the local military authorities immediately set about improving the armament. A total of 56 pieces were mounted, but they had ammunition for three days of action. At the time of the siege, the garrison of the fort numbered about 430 officers and men, sickness reduced this number by about a third. Despite the poor diet and other living conditions that they suffered, morale among the men was generally not good, as they were cut off from their families, and White was unpopular, both with his men and with the people of Beaufort. A few men deserted during the siege, when battle came, the fort was outdated, inadequately armed, poorly supplied, and intended for a different form of combat than that it faced. These deficiencies are adequate to explain why the fort succumbed so readily at the first blow and his plan was approved by General-in-Chief George B. McClellan and the War Department
16.
Peninsula Campaign
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The Peninsula Campaign of the American Civil War was a major Union operation launched in southeastern Virginia from March through July 1862, the first large-scale offensive in the Eastern Theater. The operation, commanded by Maj. Gen. George B, McClellan, was an amphibious turning movement against the Confederate States Army in Northern Virginia, intended to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond. McClellan landed his army at Fort Monroe and moved northwest, up the Virginia Peninsula, Magruders defensive position on the Warwick Line caught McClellan by surprise. His hopes for a quick advance foiled, McClellan ordered his army to prepare for a siege of Yorktown, just before the siege preparations were completed, the Confederates, now under the direct command of Johnston, began a withdrawal toward Richmond. The first heavy fighting of the campaign occurred in the Battle of Williamsburg, in which the Union troops managed some tactical victories, an amphibious flanking movement to Elthams Landing was ineffective in cutting off the Confederate retreat. In the Battle of Drewrys Bluff, an attempt by the U. S. Navy to reach Richmond by way of the James River was repulsed. As McClellans army reached the outskirts of Richmond, a battle occurred at Hanover Court House. The battle was inconclusive, with casualties, but it had lasting effects on the campaign. On August 20,1861, Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan formed the Army of the Potomac, with himself as its first commander. During the summer and fall, McClellan brought a degree of organization to his new army. It was an achievement, in which he came to personify the Army of the Potomac. He created defenses for Washington that were almost impregnable, consisting of 48 forts and strong points, on November 1,1861, Gen. Winfield Scott retired and McClellan became general in chief of all the Union armies. The president expressed his concern about the vast labor involved in the role of army commander and general in chief. On January 27, Lincoln issued an order that all of his armies to begin offensive operations by February 22. On January 31, he issued an order for the Army of the Potomac to move overland to attack the Confederates at Manassas Junction. Although Lincoln believed his plan was superior, he was relieved that McClellan finally agreed to begin moving, on March 8, doubting McClellans resolve, Lincoln called a council of war at the White House in which McClellans subordinates were asked about their confidence in the Urbanna plan. They expressed their confidence to varying degrees, after the meeting, Lincoln issued another order, naming specific officers as corps commanders to report to McClellan. McClellan retooled his plan so that his troops would disembark at Fort Monroe, Virginia, in the Battle of Hampton Roads, Virginia defeated wooden U. S
17.
John R. Goldsborough
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Commodore John R. Goldsborough was an officer in the United States Navy. Goldsborough was the brother of U. S. Navy Rear Admiral Louis M. Goldsborough, Goldsborough was born in Washington, D. C. on 2 July 1809, the son of a chief clerk in the United States Department of the Navy. He was a cadet-midshipman aboard the frigate USS John Adams, the flagship of Commodore David Porter in the West Indies Squadron, as a midshipman, he was attached to the ship-of-the-line USS North Carolina and the sloop-of-war USS Warren in the Mediterranean Squadron from November 1824 to June 1830. Warrens commanding officer, Master Commandant Lawrence Kearny, personally thanked him for the manner in which he carried out the capture of Helene, Goldsborough was promoted to passed midshipman on 28 April 1832 and to lieutenant on 6 September 1837. From 1844 to 1850 he was assigned to the United States Coast Survey and was involved in charting the United States East Coast, commanding the schooner USS Wave for at least part of that time. Prior to Goldsboroughs Coast Survey tour, U. S. Navy Lieutenant George M. Known as the red right return system, it has been in use in the United States ever since. Promoted to commander on 14 September 1855, Goldsborough commanded the Naval Rendezvous at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from 1855 to 1859, on 1 June 1861, Union captured a Confederate blockade runner, the schooner C. W. On 9 August 1861, York captured the Union schooner George G. Baker and Union intervened, recapturing George G. Baker and forcing the crew of York to set York on fire, Union then was transferred to the Potomac Flotilla in August 1861. He was promoted to captain on 16 July 1862 and that took command of a settlement of former slaves at St. Simons Island. He left Colorado in November 1863 and took up duty at Portsmouth Navy Yard in Kittery, Maine. From 1865 to 1868, Goldsborough commanded the screw sloop-of-war USS Shenandoah, voyaging to the Azores, Goldsborough was promoted to commodore on 13 April 1867 while aboard Shenandoah. Goldsborough retired from the Navy on 2 July 1870, around 1833, Goldsborough married the former Mary Lawrence Pennington, who resided in Philadelphia during his Navy service. Goldsborough was a Freemason during his lifetime, but later withdrew from both Masonic Lodges of which he was a member, Goldsborough died in Philadelphia on 22 June 1877. He is buried with his wife at the Church of St. James the Less in Philadelphia, John R. Goldsborough at Find a Grave John R. Goldsborough at Find a Grave
18.
Rear admiral (United States)
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Rear admiral in the United States refers to two different ranks of commissioned officers — one-star flag officers and two-star flag officers. By contrast, in most nations, the rear admiral refers to an officer of two-star rank. The abbreviation for personnel from the USN, USCG, and NOAA is RDML, whereas for the USPHS, Rear admiral ranks above captain and below rear admiral. Rear admiral is equivalent to the rank of general in the other uniformed services. In the United States uniformed services, rear admiral replaced the rank of commodore in 1985, Rear admiral ranks above rear admiral and below vice admiral. Rear admiral is equivalent to the rank of general in the other uniformed services. It is the highest permanent rank during peacetime in the uniformed services, all higher ranks are temporary ranks and linked to their specific commands or office and expire with the expiration of their term of command or office. Before the American Civil War, the American Navy had resisted creating the rank of admiral, instead, they preferred the term flag officer, in order to distinguish the rank from the traditions of the European navies. During the American Civil War, The US Congress honored David Glasgow Farraguts successful assault on the city of New Orleans by creating the rank of admiral on July 16,1862. During World War II, the U. S. Navy, by the end of the war, all incumbents had been advanced to the rank of two-star rear admiral and the commodore rank was eliminated in both services. Lower-half rear admirals were promoted to full rear admirals, or upper half status. However, both categories of rear admiral wore two-star insignia, an issue that was a source of consternation to the other services. Although not flag officers, these officers were entitled to a blue and white command pennant containing the initials. 97–86 expanded commodore from a title to a permanent grade by creating the one-star rank of commodore admiral. After only 11 months, the rank was reverted to just commodore, however, this caused issues with the Navy due to the difficulty in discriminating those commodores who were flag officers from commodores who were senior captains in certain command positions. 99–145 renamed commodore to the current grade of rear admiral effective on November 8,1985, up until 1981, all rear admirals wore two stars on their shoulder bars and rank insignia. Since then, rear admirals wear one star while rear admirals wear two, verbal address remains rear admiral for both ranks, on correspondence, where the rear admirals rank is spelled out, the acronym and follows the rear admirals rank title to distinguish between one and two stars. The flags of restricted line officers and staff officers have blue stars on a white field
19.
Commodore (United States)
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Commodore was an early title and later a rank in the United States Navy, United States Coast Guard and the Confederate States Navy. For over two centuries, the designation has been varying levels of authority and formality. Because the U. S. Congress was originally unwilling to authorize more than four officer ranks in the navy until 1862, considerable importance was attached to the title of commodore. Like its Royal Navy counterpart at the time, the U. S. Navy commodore was not a higher rank, an American commodore in the early period, like an English commodore or a French chef descadre, was an officer assigned temporary command of more than one ship. He continued his permanent or regular rank during the assignment, once employed as a commodore, however, many jealously held onto the impressive title after their qualifying assignment ended. The Navy Department tried to discourage such continuing usage because it led to confusion, in 1857, Congress established the grade of flag officer. This generic title was intended to promote the efficiency of the Navy, like the courtesy-title commodores, flag officers reverted to captain once their squadron command assignment was completed. Because of the acute need for officers at the beginning of the American Civil War, naval tradition was ignored, eighteen commodores were authorized on July 16,1862. The rank of commodore continued in the Navy until March 3,1899, in short, U. S. Navy commodores were not being treated as flag officers by other navies, or given the respect that the Navy Department thought was their due. If there were an odd number of admirals, the lower half of the list was to be the larger. The U. S. Supreme Court later held that the rank of commodore had been removed from the U. S. Navy and this act disgruntled all the brigadier generals, who could now be outranked by officers who were their juniors in terms of service. This was a point of controversy for many years, especially after 1916. Thus the two-star rank of admiral was now equal to that of major general. The COMINCH of the U. S. Navy and Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Ernest J. King, president Franklin D. Roosevelt agreed, making the suggestion that the title be revived. As a result, the officer rank for the U. S. Navy. In actual practice, some officers on admirals staffs were also promoted to the rank of commodore, by the end of the War in the Pacific in August 1945, there were over 100 commodores in the U. S. Navy and U. S. Coast Guard. After World War II, and with the drawdown in size of both the Navy and the Coast Guard, very few of the wartime commodores were ever promoted to rear admiral. All promotions to commodore ceased in 1947, and nearly all of the commodores who had held the rank had either been promoted to rear admiral or had retired from the Navy by 1950
20.
United States Department of the Navy
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The Secretary of the Navy is appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. They supervise their military services of the Department of the Navy. They are assisted by a Vice Chief of Naval Operations and an Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps. Unlike its U. S. Army and U. S. Air Force counterparts, the Department of the Navy consists of all elements of the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps. According to Navy Regulations Section 0204-2, the term Navy Department refers only to the offices at the seat of government. The bill passed in the House on 17 May 2007, but encountered opposition among members of the DoD civilian leadership and among senior Navy admirals, in the Senate, the provision was replaced in S. Amdt. 2011, an amendment in the nature of a substitute proposed by Senator Carl Levin of Michigan on 9 July 2007, the amendment removed the renaming provision and also made other changes. The House version including the provision was withdrawn in conference committee, Naval Vessel Register Title 32 of the Code of Federal Regulations United States Navy Regulations, Accessed on 2011-03-23. Department of the Navy website US Marine Corps official website US Navy official website Department of Defense website Department of the Navy in the Federal Register
21.
United States Secretary of the Navy
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The Secretary of the Navy is a statutory office and the head of the Department of the Navy, a military department within the Department of Defense of the United States of America. The Department of the Navy consists of two Uniformed Services, the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps. In effect, all authority within the Navy and Marine Corps, specifically enumerated responsibilities of the SECNAV in beforementioned section are, recruiting, organizing, supplying, equipping, training, mobilizing, and demobilizing. The Secretary also oversees the construction, outfitting, and repair of ships, equipment. The Secretary of the Navy is a member of the Defense Acquisition Board, chaired by the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, the CNO and the Commandant act as the principal executive agents of the SECNAV within their respective services to implement the orders of the Secretary. The United States Navy Regulations is the principal regulatory document of the Department of the Navy, the Chief of Naval Operations and the Commandant of the Marine Corps have their own separate staffs, the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations and Headquarters Marine Corps
22.
Paul Hamilton (politician)
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Paul Hamilton was the 3rd United States Secretary of the Navy, from 1809 to 1813. Paul Hamilton was born in Saint Pauls Parish, South Carolina and he left school at the age of sixteen due to financial problems. During the American War of Independence he served actively in military roles in the southern states and he participated with Colonel William Harden in the capture of Fort Balfour. Following the war, he was a planter and public figure, Hamilton served South Carolina in many public offices including state Representative, State Senator, Comptroller, and the 42nd Governor. In 1809, President James Madison selected Hamilton to become the third Secretary of the Navy and his term in office included the first months of the War of 1812, during which time the small United States Navy achieved several remarkable victories over British warships. Hamilton was a proponent of preparedness, especially sea fortifications. Although he wanted to strengthen the Navy, he found the Congress hostile, however, he was responsible for the Naval Hospitals Act of 1811. Secretary Hamilton resigned at the end of 1812 and returned to South Carolina, three Navy destroyers have been named USS Paul Hamilton in his honor along with the USS Hamilton and one Liberty ship named SS Paul Hamilton. Also bearing his name is the town of Hamilton, Georgia and this article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Naval History & Heritage Command. SCIway Biography of Paul Hamilton NGA Biography of Paul Hamilton Paul Hamilton at Find a Grave Paul Hamilton Papers at the University of South Carolina Librarys Digital Collections Page
23.
Washington Navy Yard
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The Washington Navy Yard is the former shipyard and ordnance plant of the United States Navy in Southeast Washington, D. C. It is the oldest shore establishment of the U. S. Navy, the Yard currently serves as a ceremonial and administrative center for the U. S. S. Navy Judge Advocate Generals Corps, Marine Corps Institute, the United States Navy Band, in 1998, the yard was listed as a Superfund site due to environmental contamination. The history of the yard can be divided into its history and cultural. The land was purchased under an Act of Congress on July 23,1799, the Washington Navy Yard was established on October 2,1799, the date the property was transferred to the Navy. It is the oldest shore establishment of the U. S. Navy, the original boundaries that were established in 1800, along 9th and M Street SE, are still marked by a white brick wall that surrounds the Yard on the north and east sides. The next year, two lots were purchased. The north wall of the Yard was built in 1809 along with a guardhouse, after the Burning of Washington in 1814, Tingey recommended that the height of the eastern wall be increased to ten feet because of the fire and subsequent looting. The southern boundary of the Yard was formed by the Anacostia River, the west side was undeveloped marsh. The land located along the Anacostia was added to by landfill over the years as it became necessary to increase the size of the Yard, the USS Constitution came to the Yard in 1812 to refit and prepare for combat action. For the first thirty years of the century, the Navy Yard was the Districts principal employer of enslaved African Americans. Their numbers rose rapidly and by 1808, the muster lists, the number of enslaved workers gradually declined during the next thirty years. While the total number of enslaved workers declined, free African Americans remained a presence on the shipyard. Sailors of Navy Yard were part of the hastily assembled American army, the Navy Yard sailors, and Marines of nearby Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. were in the third and last line of defense at Bladensburg. Together, they fought hand to hand with cutlasses and pikes against the British regulars before being overwhelmed, as the British marched into Washington, holding the Yard became impossible. Tingey, seeing the smoke from the burning Capitol, ordered the Yard burned to prevent its capture by the enemy, both structures are now individually listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Following the War of 1812, the Washington Navy Yard never regained its prominence as a shipbuilding facility, the waters of the Anacostia River were too shallow to accommodate larger vessels, and the Yard was deemed too inaccessible to the open sea. Thus came a shift to what was to be the character of the Yard for more than a century, ordnance, the Yard possessed one of the earliest steam engines in the United States
24.
William Wirt (Attorney General)
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William Wirt was an American author and statesman who is credited with turning the position of United States Attorney General into one of influence. He was the longest serving Attorney General in U. S. history, Wirt County, West Virginia, is named in his honor. William Wirt was born in Bladensburg, Maryland, to a German mother, Henrietta, both parents died before he was eight years old and Jasper Wirt, his uncle, became his guardian. For two years he boarded with Hunt, in whose library he spent much of his time, reading with a keen, in his fifteenth year the school was disbanded, and his inheritance nearly exhausted. Wirt accepted the offer and stayed twenty months, teaching, pursuing his own classical and historical studies, writing, Wirt was admitted to the Virginia bar in 1792, and he began practice at Culpeper Courthouse. Wirt had the advantages of a constitution and a good carriage, but the drawbacks of meager legal equipment, constitutional shyness. In 1795, he married Mildred, daughter of Dr. George Gilmer, and moved to Pen Park, there he made the acquaintance of many persons of eminence, including Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe. In 1799 his wife died, and he moved to Richmond, in 1802, he married Elizabeth Washington Gamble, the daughter of Colonel Robert Gamble of Richmond. In the winter of 1803/04, Wirt moved to Norfolk, but in 1806, wishing for a field of practice. In 1807, President Thomas Jefferson asked him to be the prosecutor in Aaron Burrs trial for treason and his principal speech, four hours in length, was characterized by eloquent appeal, polished wit, and logical reasoning. Wirt was nicknamed the Whip Syllabub Genius by his enemies for the frothy, in 1808, Wirt was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates. In 1816 he was appointed U. S. William Wirt has the record for the longest tenure in history of any U. S. attorney general, in 1824, Attorney General Wirt argued for the United States against Daniel Webster in Gibbons v. Although the Gibbons Court declined to decide the question,140 years later the Supreme Court confirmed Wirts view in Sears, Roebuck & Co. v. Stiffel Co. In June 1830, a delegation of Cherokee led by Chief John Ross selected Wirt on the urging of Senators Webster and Frelinghuysen to defend Cherokee rights before the U. S. Supreme Court. Wirt argued, in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, that the Cherokee Nation was a nation in the sense of our constitution. Although the Court determined that it did not have jurisdiction in this case. Wirt therefore waited for a test case to resolve the constitutionality of the laws of Georgia. On March 1,1831, Georgia passed a law aimed at evicting missionaries, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, an interdenominational missionary organization, hired Wirt to challenge the new law
25.
Monticello, Florida
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Monticello is a city in Jefferson County, Florida, United States. The population was 2,533 at the 2000 census, as of 2004, the population recorded by the U. S. Census Bureau is 2,572. It is the county seat of Jefferson County, the city is named after Monticello, the estate of the countys namesake, Thomas Jefferson. Monticello is home to Indian mounds and many buildings, including the Perkins Opera House. Monticello is located at 30°32′41″N 83°52′02″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 3.4 square miles, all land. This is also where the highest confirmed recorded temperature in Florida occurred, as of the census of 2000, there were 2,533 people,973 households, and 664 families residing in the city. The population density was 749.4 people per square mile, there were 1,088 housing units at an average density of 321.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 47. 06% White,50. 85% African American,0. 12% Native American,0. 59% Asian,0. 08% Pacific Islander,0. 43% from other races, and 0. 87% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 30% of the population,27. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the family size was 3.03. In the city, the population was out with 25. 1% under the age of 18,9. 0% from 18 to 24,24. 6% from 25 to 44,22. 7% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 79.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 73.3 males, the median income for a household in the city was $28,720, and the median income for a family was $32,356. Males had an income of $25,932 versus $21,760 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,522, about 18. 5% of families and 22. 2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 27. 2% of those under age 18 and 14. 4% of those age 65 or over. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Monticello has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. Monticello has a historic 19th century opera house that features regular musical performances, as well as theater productions. The first floor also holds receptions on a regular basis
26.
Seminole Wars
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Taken together, the Seminole Wars were the longest and most expensive Indian Wars in United States history. The First Seminole War began with General Andrew Jacksons excursions into West Florida, the governments of Britain and Spain both expressed outrage over the invasion. However, Spain was unable to defend its territory, and the Spanish Crown agreed to cede Florida to the United States in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. According to the Treaty of Moultrie Creek of 1823, the Seminoles were required to leave northern Florida and were confined to a reservation in the center of the Florida peninsula. The U. S. government enforced the treaty by building a series of forts and trading posts in the territory, mainly along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts. The war resulted in most of the Seminole population in Florida being killed in battle, ravaged by starvation and disease, a few hundred Seminoles were allowed to remain in an unofficial reservation in southwest Florida. An estimated 100 Seminoles still refused to leave and retreated deep into the Everglades to live on land that was unwanted by white settlers, raids from the newly- established English Province of Carolina beginning in the mid-1600s began another steep decline in the indigenous population. In the first decade of the 18th century,10,000 –12,000 Indians were taken as slaves according to the governor of La Florida and by 1710, observers noted that north Florida was virtually depopulated. The few remaining natives fled west to Pensacola and beyond or east to the vicinity of St. Augustine. When Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain as part of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, during the mid-1700s, small bands from various Native American tribes from the southeastern United States began moving into the unoccupied lands of Florida. In 1715, the Yamasee moved into Florida as allies of the Spanish, Creek people, at first primarily the Lower Creek but later including Upper Creek, also started moving into Florida from the area of Georgia. The Mikasuki, Hitchiti-speakers, settled around what is now Lake Miccosukee near Tallahassee, another group of Hitchiti speakers, led by Cowkeeper, settled in what is now Alachua County, an area where the Spanish had maintained cattle ranches in the 17th century. One of the best-known ranches was Rancho de la Chua, the region became known as the Alachua Prairie. The Spanish in Saint Augustine began calling the Alachua Creek Cimarrones and this was the probable origin of the term Seminole. This name was applied to the other groups in Florida. Escaped African and African-American slaves who could reach the fort were essentially free, many were from Pensacola, some were free citizens though others had escaped from United States territory. The Spanish offered the freedom and land in Florida, they recruited former slaves as militia to help defend Pensacola. Other escaped slaves joined various Seminole bands as free members of the tribe, while most of the former slaves at Fort Mose went to Cuba with the Spanish when they left Florida in 1763, others lived with or near various bands of Indians
27.
Brig
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A brig is a sailing vessel with two square-rigged masts. During the Age of Sail, brigs were seen as fast and they were especially popular in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Brigs fell out of use with the arrival of the ship because they required a relatively large crew for their small size and were difficult to sail into the wind. They are not to be confused with a brigantine, which has different rigging, in sailing, a full-rigged brig is a vessel with two square rigged masts. The main mast of a brig is the aft one, to improve maneuverability, the mainmast carries a small fore-and-aft sail. Behind the main sail there is a small fore-and-aft sail called the spanker or boom mainsail, on the foremast is a similar sail, called the trysail. Attached to the yards of square-rigged ships are smaller spars. These are called studding sails, and are used with fair, the wings are named after the sails to which they are fastened, i. e. the main studding sails, main top studding sails, and the main top gallant studding sails, etc. The brig’s foremast is smaller than the main mast, the fore mast holds a fore sail, fore top sail, fore top gallant sail, and fore royal. Between the fore mast and the bowsprit are the fore staysail, jib, all the yards are manipulated by a complicated arrangement of cordage named the running rigging. This is opposed to the rigging which is fixed, and keeps mast. A brig is generally built on a scale than a schooner. Brigs vary in length between 75 and 165 ft with tonnages up to 480, a notable exception being the famous designer Colin Mudies Little Brigs, which are only 10m long and weigh only 8 tonnes. Historically, most brigs were made of wood, although some later brigs were built with hulls, a brig made of pine in the 19th century was designed to last for about twenty years. The word brig has been used in the past as an abbreviation of brigantine, the brig actually developed as a variant of the brigantine. Re-rigging a brigantine with two square-rigged masts instead of one gave it greater sailing power, the square-rigged brigs advantage over the fore-and-aft rigged brigantine was that the sails, being smaller and more numerous, are more easily managed, and require fewer men or hands to work them. The variant was so popular that the term came to exclusively signify a ship with this type of rigging. By the 17th century the British Royal Navy defined brig as having two square rigged masts, Brigs were used as small warships carrying about 10 to 18 guns
28.
Mediterranean Sea
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The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum
29.
Piracy
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Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship- or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable items or properties. Those who engage in acts of piracy are called pirates, the earliest documented instances of piracy were in the 14th century BC, when the Sea Peoples, a group of ocean raiders, attacked the ships of the Aegean and Mediterranean civilizations. Narrow channels which funnel shipping into predictable routes have long created opportunities for piracy, as well as for privateering and commerce raiding. Historic examples include the waters of Gibraltar, the Strait of Malacca, Madagascar, the Gulf of Aden, a land-based parallel is the ambushing of travelers by bandits and brigands in highways and mountain passes. While the term can include acts committed in the air, on land, or in major bodies of water or on a shore. It does not normally include crimes committed against people traveling on the vessel as the perpetrator. Piracy or pirating is the name of a crime under customary international law. They also use larger vessels, known as ships, to supply the smaller motorboats. The international community is facing challenges in bringing modern pirates to justice. In the 2000s, a number of nations have used their naval forces to protect ships from pirate attacks. The English pirate is derived from the Latin term pirata and that from Greek πειρατής, brigand, in turn from πειράομαι, I attempt, from πεῖρα, attempt, the meaning of the Greek word peiratēs literally is one who attacks. The word is cognate to peril. The term is first attested to c, spelling was not standardised until the eighteenth century, and spellings such as pirrot, pyrate and pyrat were used until this period. It may be reasonable to assume that piracy has existed for as long as the oceans were plied for commerce, the earliest documented instances of piracy are the exploits of the Sea Peoples who threatened the ships sailing in the Aegean and Mediterranean waters in the 14th century BC. In classical antiquity, the Phoenicians, Illyrians and Tyrrhenians were known as pirates, the ancient Greeks condoned piracy as a viable profession, it apparently was widespread and regarded as an entirely honourable way of making a living. References are made to its perfectly normal occurrence many texts including in Homers Iliad and Odyssey, by the era of Classical Greece, piracy was looked upon as a disgrace to have as a profession. In the 3rd century BC, pirate attacks on Olympos brought impoverishment, among some of the most famous ancient pirateering peoples were the Illyrians, a people populating the western Balkan peninsula. Constantly raiding the Adriatic Sea, the Illyrians caused many conflicts with the Roman Republic and it was not until 229 BC when the Romans finally decisively beat the Illyrian fleets that their threat was ended
30.
Charles Wilkes
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Charles Wilkes was an American naval officer, ships captain, and explorer. His behavior led to two convictions by court-martial, one stemming from the massacre of almost 80 Fijians on Malolo in 1840, Wilkes was born in New York City, on April 3,1798, as the great nephew of the former Lord Mayor of London John Wilkes. His mother was Mary Seton, who died in 1802 when Charles was just three years old. As a result, Charles was raised by his aunt, Elizabeth Ann Seton, when Elizabeth was left widowed with five children, Charles was sent to a boarding school, and later attended Columbia College, which is the present-day Columbia University. He entered the United States Navy as a midshipman in 1818, in 1833, for his survey of Narragansett Bay, he was placed in charge of the Navys Department of Charts and Instruments, out of which developed the Naval Observatory and Hydrographic Office. Wilkes interdisciplinary expedition set a physical oceanography benchmark for the offices first superintendent Matthew Fontaine Maury, in 1838, although not yet a seasoned naval line officer, Wilkes was experienced in nautical survey work, and was working with civilian scientists. Upon this background, he was given command of the government exploring expedition, for the purpose of exploring and surveying the Southern Ocean. Exploring Squadron was authorized by act of the Congress on May 18,1836, next the expedition visited Fiji and the Hawaiian Islands. In Fiji, the expedition kidnapped the chief Ro Veidovi, charging him with the murder of a crew of American whalers. And, in July 1840, two sailors, one of whom was Wilkes nephew, Midshipman Wilkes Henry, were killed while bartering for food on Fijis Malolo Island, Wilkes retribution was swift and severe. According to an old man of Malolo Island, nearly 80 Fijians were killed in the incident, from December 1840 to March 1841, he employed hundreds of native Hawaiian porters and many of his men to haul a pendulum to the summit of Mauna Loa to measure gravity. Instead of using the trail, he blazed his own way. The conditions on the mountain reminded him of Antarctica, many of his crew suffered snow blindness, altitude sickness and foot injuries from wearing out their shoes. He explored the west coast of North America, including the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Puget Sound, the Columbia River, San Francisco Bay and he held the first American Independence Day celebration west of the Mississippi River in Dupont, Washington on July 5,1841. The United States Exploring Expedition passed through the Ellice Islands and visited Funafuti, Nukufetau, the expedition returned by way of the Philippines, the Sulu Archipelago, Borneo, Singapore, Polynesia and the Cape of Good Hope, reaching New York on June 10,1842. After having completely encircled the globe, Wilkes had logged some 87,000 miles, a major witness against him was ship doctor Charles Guillou. He was acquitted on all charges except illegally punishing men in his squadron, for a short time, he was attached to the Coast Survey, but from 1844 to 1861, he was chiefly engaged in preparing the report of the expedition. His Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition were published in 1844 and he edited the scientific reports of the expedition and was the author of Vol. XI and Vol. XXIII
31.
Frigate
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A frigate /ˈfrɪɡᵻt/ is any of several types of warship, the term having been used for ships of various sizes and roles over the last few centuries. In the 17th century, this term was used for any warship built for speed and maneuverability and these could be warships carrying their principal batteries of carriage-mounted guns on a single deck or on two decks. The term was used for ships too small to stand in the line of battle. In the late 19th century, the frigate was a type of ironclad warship that for a time was the most powerful type of vessel afloat. The term frigate was used because such ships still mounted their principal armaments on a continuous upper deck. Ship classes dubbed frigates have more closely resembled corvettes, destroyers, cruisers. The rank frigate captain derives from the name of type of ship. The term frigate originated in the Mediterranean in the late 15th century, referring to a lighter galleass type ship with oars, sails and a light armament, built for speed and maneuverability. The etymology of the word is unknown, although it may have originated as a corruption of aphractus, aphractus was, in turn, derived from the Ancient Greek phrase ἄφρακτος ναῦς, or undefended ship. In 1583, during the Eighty Years War, Habsburg Spain recovered the Southern Netherlands from the rebellious Dutch and this soon led to the occupied ports being used as bases for privateers, the Dunkirkers, to attack the shipping of the Dutch and their allies. To achieve this they developed small, maneuverable, sailing vessels that came to be referred to as frigates, in French, the term frigate became a verb, meaning to build long and low, and an adjective, adding further confusion. Even the huge English Sovereign of the Seas could be described as a frigate by a contemporary after her upper decks were reduced in 1651. The navy of the Dutch Republic was the first navy to build the larger ocean-going frigates, the first two tasks required speed, shallowness of draft for the shallow waters around the Netherlands, and the ability to carry sufficient supplies to maintain a blockade. The third task required heavy armament, sufficient to fight against the Spanish fleet, the first of these larger battle-capable frigates were built around 1600 at Hoorn in Holland. The effectiveness of the Dutch frigates became most visible in the Battle of the Downs in 1639, encouraging most other navies, especially the English, to adopt similar designs. The fleets built by the Commonwealth of England in the 1650s generally consisted of ships described as frigates, the largest of which were two-decker great frigates of the third rate. Carrying 60 guns, these vessels were as big and capable as great ships of the time, however, most other frigates at the time were used as cruisers, independent fast ships. The term frigate implied a long hull design, which relates directly to speed and also, in turn, in Danish, the word fregat is often applied to warships carrying as few as 16 guns, such as HMS Falcon which the British classified as a sloop
32.
USS United States (1797)
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USS United States was a wooden-hulled, three-masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy and the first of the six original frigates authorized for construction by the Naval Act of 1794. Joshua Humphreys designed the frigates to be the young Navys capital ships, Union forces raised the scuttled ship, and retained control of the ship until she was broken up in 1865. During the 1790s American merchant vessels began to fall prey to Barbary pirates in the Mediterranean, congresss response was the Naval Act of 1794. The Act provided funds for the construction of six frigates, however, joshua Humphreys design was long on keel and narrow of beam for mounting very heavy guns. The design incorporated a diagonal scantling scheme to limit hogging while giving the ships extremely heavy planking and this gave the hull greater strength than those of more lightly built frigates. Humphreys developed his design after realizing that the fledgling United States could not match the sizes of the European states. He therefore designed his frigates to be able to overpower other frigates, originally designated as Frigate A and subsequently named United States by President George Washington, her keel was laid down in 1795 at Humphreys shipyard in Philadelphia Pennsylvania. Humphreys was assigned as her constructor and US Navy Captain John Barry as superintendent, as Philadelphia was at the time Americas capital, many visitors walked through observing her construction as it progressed. Humphreys personally led President Washington and First Lady Martha on a tour, the President expressed his admiration of the great size of the ship. Fearing sabotage, Humphreys was concerned about the nature of his ship yard which allowed anyone to wander in. He requested from the War Department a number of guards which were posted to keep out visitors, Construction slowly continued until a peace treaty was announced between the United States and Algiers in March 1796. In accordance with the clause in the Naval Act, construction of United States was discontinued, President Washington requested instructions from Congress on how to proceed. Several proposals circulated before a decision was reached allowing Washington to complete the three frigates nearest to completion, United States, Constellation and Constitution were chosen. On 10 May 1797 she was the first American warship to be launched under the Naval Act of 1794, and she was fitted out at Philadelphia during the spring of 1798 and, on 3 July ordered to proceed to sea. Relations with the French government had deteriorated, starting the Quasi-War, United Statess nominal rating was that of a 44-gun ship. However, she carried over 50 guns. United States was originally armed with a battery of 55 guns, thirty-two 24-pounder cannon, twenty-two 42-pounder carronades, unlike modern naval vessels, ships of this era had no permanent battery of guns. Guns were portable and often exchanged between ships as situations warranted, consequently, a vessels armament would change often during its career, records of the changes were not generally kept
33.
Veracruz (city)
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Veracruz, officially known as Heroica Veracruz, is a major port city and municipality on the Gulf of Mexico in the Mexican state of Veracruz. The city is located along the coast in the part of the state,90 km southeast of the state capital Xalapa along Federal Highway 140. It is the states most populous city, with a population that is greater than the municipalitys population, at the 2010 census, the city had 554,830 inhabitants,428,323 in Veracruz Municipality and 126,507 in Boca del Río Municipality. Developed during Spanish colonization, Veracruz has been Mexico’s oldest, largest and it was the second Spanish settlement on the mainland of the Americas but the first to receive a coat-of-arms. During the colonial period, this city had the largest mercantile class and was at times wealthier than the capital of Mexico City and its wealth attracted the raids of 17th-century pirates, against which fortifications such as Fort San Juan de Ulúa were built. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Veracruz was invaded on different occasions by France and it has become the principal port for most of Mexico’s imports and exports, especially for the automotive industry. Veracruz has a blend of cultures, mostly indigenous, ethnic Spanish, the influence of these three is best seen in the food and music of the area, which has strong Spanish, Caribbean and African influences. The name Veracruz, derives from the Latin Vera Crux, having established the settlement of Villa Rica on Good Friday 1519, Cortés dedicated the place to the True Cross as an offering. The Spanish captain Juan de Grijalva, along with Bernal Díaz del Castillo, the Spanish gave it that name because they landed on the Christian feast of John the Baptist, and in honor of the captain. De Ulúa is derived from the name for the Aztecs. According to tradition, when the Spanish arrived, they found two men who had been sacrificed. When they asked the locals what had happened, they said the Aztecs had ordered the sacrifice, the word for Aztec evolved into Ulúa. Because the first expedition detected the presence of gold in the region, Cortés and his men landed at the shore opposite the island where Grijalva had moored, which has the pre-Hispanic name of Chalchihuecan. Cortés, Francisco de Montejo and Alonso Hernández Puertocarrero founded the settlement, the name Villa Rica referred to the gold that was found here and Vera cruz was added because the Cortés expedition landed on Good Friday, a Christian holy day. When Cortés and his soldiers elected a Justicia Mayor and a Capitán General, the city was the first on mainland America to receive a European coat of arms, which was authorized by Carlos V in Valladolid, Spain on 4 July 1523. The original settlement was moved to what is now known as Antigua and this separated the city from the port, as ships could not enter the shallow river. Ships continued to dock at San Juan de Ulúa, with boats being used to ferry goods on. When large-scale smuggling of goods took place to avoid customs officials, docks and an observation tower were constructed on the island to ensure that goods went through customs officials
34.
USS Ohio (1820)
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The second USS Ohio was a ship of the line of the United States Navy. She was designed by Henry Eckford, laid down at Brooklyn Navy Yard in 1817 and she went into ordinary and in the ensuing years decayed badly. Refitted for service in 1838, Ohio sailed on 16 October 1838 to join the Mediterranean Squadron under Commodore Isaac Hull, acting as flagship for two years, she protected commerce and suppressed the slave trade off the African coast. Ohio proved to have excellent performance under sail, repeatedly making more than 12 kn, one of her officers stated, I never supposed such a ship could be built — a ship possessing in so great a degree all the qualifications of a perfect vessel. In 1840, Ohio returned to Boston where she went into ordinary. From 1841-1846, Ohio served as receiving ship, to meet the needs of the Mexican-American War, Ohio was recommissioned on 7 December 1846, and sailed on 4 January 1847 for the Gulf of Mexico, arriving off Veracruz on 22 March. Ohio landed 10 guns on 27 March to help in the siege of Veracruz, Ohio drew too much water for coastal operations in the gulf. However,336 of her crew participated in the Tuxpan River Expedition, in 1847, the entire distance from the mouth of the river to the town was covered with thick jungle growth. The enemy had constructed three well-positioned forts on bluffs overlooking bends in the river, matthew Perry arrived off the mouth of the river with 15 vessels. At 22,00, light-draft steamers Scourge, Spitfire, and Vixen, each towing a schooner, bombships Etna, Hecla, and Vesuvius followed closely while 30 surf boats containing 1,500 men brought up the rear. Approaching the town, the squadron came under hot fire from Fort LaPena, Perry ordered Commander Franklin Buchanan to disembark the surf boats and storm the fort. As the landing party ashore, the Mexicans abandoned their position. The other two fell in a like manner, with only light casualties sustained by the squadron. Men from Ohio retrieved the guns of brig Truxtun which had foundered in a storm near Tuxpan on 16 September 1846, the town was occupied and all military stores destroyed. Following Tuxpan, Ohio sailed from Veracruz and arrived in New York on 9 May, on 26 June, she sailed to bolster the Pacific Squadron, first carrying the U. S. minister to Brazil and operating off the east coast of South America until December. In Valparaíso on 21 January 1848, Cmdre, thomas ap Catesby Jones took her as the flagship of the Pacific Squadron, intending to blockade the western Mexico ports. Ohio arrived at Mazatlán on 6 May, shortly after the Mexican-American War ended, Jones used the fleet to help transport to Monterey, California, those that had aided the United States in the war, arriving there on 9 October. Ohio then sailed to Sausalito, in San Francisco Bay, Ohio spent the next two years in the Pacific protecting commerce and policing the newly acquired California Territory during the chaotic early months of the gold rush
35.
Tuxpan
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Tuxpan is both a municipality and city located in the Mexican state of Veracruz. The population of the city was 78,523 and of the municipality was 134,394 inhabitants, according to the INEGI census of 2005, the municipality includes many smaller outlying communities, the largest of which are Alto Lucero and Santiago de la Peña. A local beachside community is also nearby, Tuxpan or Túxpam, pronounced in Nahuatl, the language of the ancient Aztecs, literally means Place of Rabbits, a compound of tochtli rabbit and -pan place. The city is located on the banks of the Tuxpan River, being the nearest port to Mexico City, Tuxpan is an important commercial link for Mexican imports and exports. Tuxpan is now primarily a port, with emphasis on soybeans. Off-shore links to oil pipelines are used to transfer petroleum products to and from tanker ships operated by Pemex, as part of the Pemex operations and infrastructure in the city, a facility on the river manufactures and maintains oil rigs for use in the Gulf of Mexico. In the 1870s, a colony of some hundreds of former Confederate officers, soldiers. Sometimes referred to as the Puerto de Tuxpan, the port is able to handle supertanker sized cargo ships, due to increasing commercial shipping traffic in the city of Veracruz, Tuxpan is now the headquarters for the Mexican Navys Gulf fleet. As such, it is the port for several military vessels including 3 frigates named Allende, Abasolo. These ships were originally Knox-class frigates built in the 1960s and they were purchased from the US Navy in the mid to late 1990s after their decommissioning. A small museum near the river has photographs and other related memorabilia, niquero Tuxpan municipal government Municipal Official Information Enciclopedia de los Municipios de Mexico
36.
Oregon
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Oregon is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Oregon is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by Washington, on the south by California, on the east by Idaho, the Columbia River delineates much of Oregons northern boundary, and the Snake River delineates much of the eastern boundary. The parallel 42° north delineates the boundary with California and Nevada. Oregon was inhabited by indigenous tribes before Western traders, explorers. An autonomous government was formed in the Oregon Country in 1843 before the Oregon Territory was created in 1848, Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14,1859. Today, at 98,000 square miles, Oregon is the ninth largest and, with a population of 4 million, the capital of Oregon is Salem, the second most populous of its cities, with 164,549 residents. Portland is Oregons most populous city, with 632,309 residents, Portlands metro population of 2,389,228 ranks the 23rd largest metro in the nation. The Willamette Valley in western Oregon is the states most densely populated area, the tall conifers, mainly Douglas fir, along Oregons rainy west coast contrast with the lighter-timbered and fire-prone pine and juniper forests covering portions to the east. Abundant alders in the west fix nitrogen for the conifers, stretching east from central Oregon are semi-arid shrublands, prairies, deserts, steppes, and meadows. At 11,249 feet, Mount Hood is the states highest point, Oregons only national park, Crater Lake National Park, comprises the caldera surrounding Crater Lake, the deepest lake in the United States. The state is home to the single largest organism in the world, Armillaria ostoyae. Because of its landscapes and waterways, Oregons economy is largely powered by various forms of agriculture, fishing. It is also the top timber-producer of the lower 48 states, Technology is another one of the states major economic forces, which began in the 1970s with the establishment of the Silicon Forest and the expansion of Tektronix and Intel. Sportswear company Nike, Inc. headquartered in Beaverton, is the states largest public corporation with a revenue of $30.6 billion. The earliest evidence of the name Oregon has Spanish origins and this chronicle is the first topographical and linguistic source with respect to the place name Oregon. There are also two other sources with Spanish origins such as the name Oregano which grows in the part of the region. Another early use of the name, spelled Ouragon, was in a 1765 petition by Major Robert Rogers to the Kingdom of Great Britain, the term referred to the then-mythical River of the West. By 1778 the spelling had shifted to Oregon, in his 1765 petition, Rogers wrote, The rout. is from the Great Lakes towards the Head of the Mississippi, and from thence to the River called by the Indians Ouragon
37.
United States Naval Academy
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The United States Naval Academy is a four-year coeducational federal service academy in Annapolis, Maryland, United States. The entire campus is a National Historic Landmark and home to historic sites, buildings. It replaced Philadelphia Naval Asylum, in Philadelphia, that served as the first United States Naval Academy from 1838 to 1845 when the Naval Academy formed in Annapolis. Candidates for admission generally must both apply directly to the academy and receive a nomination, usually from a Member of Congress, students are officers-in-training and are referred to as midshipmen. Tuition for midshipmen is fully funded by the Navy in exchange for an active duty service obligation upon graduation, approximately 1,200 plebes enter the Academy each summer for the rigorous Plebe Summer, but only about 1,000 midshipmen graduate. The United States Naval Academy has some of the highest paid graduates in the according to starting salary. Midshipmen are required to adhere to the academys Honor Concept, the United States Naval Academys campus is located in Annapolis, Maryland, at the confluence of the Severn River and the Chesapeake Bay. In its 2016 edition, U. S. News & World Report ranked the U. S. Naval Academy as the No.1 public liberal arts college and tied for the 9th best overall liberal arts college in the U. S. In the category of High School Counselor Rankings of National Liberal Arts Colleges, Military Academy and the U. S. Air Force Academy, and is tied for the No.5 spot for Best Undergraduate Engineering program at schools where doctorates not offered. In 2016, Forbes ranked the U. S. Naval Academy as No.24 overall in its report Americas Top Colleges, nominations may be made by members of and delegates to Congress, the President or Vice-President, the Secretary of the Navy or certain other sources. Candidates must also pass a fitness test and a thorough medical exam as part of the application process. In the 21st century, there have been about 1,200 students in each new class of plebes, the U. S. government pays for tuition, room, and board. Midshipmen receive monthly pay of $1,017.00, as of 2015, from this amount, pay is automatically deducted for the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, services, and other miscellaneous expenses. Midshipmen only receive a portion of their pay in cash while the rest is released during firstie year. Midshipmen fourth-class to midshipmen second-class receive monthly stipends of $100, $200, $300, Midshipmen first-class receive the difference between pay and outstanding expenses. Students at the academy are addressed as Midshipman, an official military rank. The same term comprises both males and females, upon graduation, most naval academy midshipmen are commissioned as ensigns in the Navy or second lieutenants in the Marine Corps and serve a minimum of five years after their commissioning. If they are selected to serve as a pilot, they will serve 8–11 years minimum from their date of winging, Foreign midshipmen are commissioned into the armed forces of their native countries
38.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
39.
Atlantic Blockading Squadron
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The Atlantic Blockading Squadron was a unit of the United States Navy created in the early days of the American Civil War to enforce a blockade of the ports of the Confederate States. It was formed in 1861 and split up the year for the creation of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron. Following President Abraham Lincoln’s proclamation of a blockade of Southern ports on April 19,1861 the Navy Department found it necessary to subdivide the territory assigned to the Home Squadron and this resulted in the creation of the Coast Blockading Squadron and the Gulf Blockading Squadron in early May 1861. In orders sent on May 1,1861 Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles appointed Flag Officer Silas H. Stringham to command the Coast Blockading Squadron, Stringham received this order and took command on May 4,1861. On May 17,1861 the Coast Blockading Squadron was re-designated the Atlantic Blockading Squadron, on September 16,1861 Stringham tendered his resignation as commander of the squadron following his receipt of a letter from Acting Secretary of the Navy Gustavus V. Fox that he felt indicated disapproval of his measures to enforce the blockade, stringham’s resignation was accepted on September 18,1861 and the same day Flag Officer Louis M. Goldsborough was appointed as his replacement. The transfer of command took place on September 23,1861 when Goldsborough arrived at Hampton Roads, in communicating to Goldsborough about his appointment Gideon Welles stated that “more vigorous and energetic action must be taken” to enforce the blockade. During the summer of 1861 a four-person board, chaired by Captain Samuel F, du Pont, was formed to study the implementation of the blockade and make recommendations to improve its efficiency. In the board’s report of July 16,1861 it was recommended that the Atlantic region be divided into northern and southern sectors. On September 18,1861 the Navy Department reached the decision to implement this division with the line being the border between North Carolina and South Carolina. Du Pont, who was appointed commander of the squadron, departed from Hampton Roads with the expedition to capture Port Royal. Du Pont departed on October 29,1861 upon which date the squadron was divided to form the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, the only major operation conducted by the Atlantic Blockading Squadron was the expedition that led to the capture of Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina August 26–29,1861. This goal of the operation was to use of the inlet to Confederate shipping. In effect Wards flotilla acted independently under the orders of the Navy Department. With the acquisition and arming of civilian vessels the Atlantic Blockading Squadron grew to three times its original allocated strength. In these notes the abbreviation ORN is used for the work Official Records of the Union, notes Bibliography Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, Series I, Volume 5. Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, Series I, Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion, Series I, Volume 12. By Sea and by River, The Naval History of the Civil War, warships of the Civil War Navies
40.
Silas H. Stringham
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He was present during the Little Belt Affair in May 1811, and during the engagement with HMS Belvidera on 23 June 1812. In early 1816, while Spark was at Gibraltar, a French brig, attempting to enter the bay in a heavy gale, Stringham and six seamen in a small boat, pulled over to the brig, and rescued five of the crew. He attempted to return to Spark, but could make no headway, so turned and pulled for the Algerian shore, in 1819 Stringham was serving aboard the Cyane, conveying black settlers to Liberia. While Cyane was off the African coast, captain Edward Trenchard gave Stringham command of a boat in he capturing four slaver. Trenchard then appointed Stingham prize-master and sent him home with them, in 1821 Stringham was appointed First Lieutenant of the brig Hornet in the West Indies Squadron, and from 1825 to 1829 served at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. In late 1829 he was appointed First Lieutenant of the Peacock to take part in the search his former ship Hornet, during the search he was transferred to the sloop Falmouth, and sent to Cartagena, finally returning to New York in 1830. Stringham was promoted to commander on 3 March 1831, and for the five years was engaged on shore duty. In 1836-37 he served in the Mediterranean Squadron commanding the John Adams, receiving promotion to captain in 1841, he commanded the razee Independence in the Home Squadron in 1843, then returned to the Brooklyn Navy Yard, serving as Commandant in 1845-46. For a short time afterwards he commanded the Brazil Squadron, between 1852 and 1855 he commanded the Mediterranean Squadron, his flagship being the frigate Cumberland. He then returned to Gosport, where he remained till 1859, on the outbreak of the Civil War in April 1861, he was appointed Flag officer of the Atlantic Blockading Squadron. In August he was sent with troops under General Benjamin F. Butler, in the ensuing battle, the fortifications were captured without loss, though not without some difficulty owing to the weather, and the fleet returned to Fort Monroe to general acclaim. However this soon give way to criticism of Stringham for not taking his ships closer in, as some small compensation on 1 August 1862 he was promoted to the rank of rear admiral on the retired list. Though no longer on duty, Stringham served as Commandant of the Boston Navy Yard, 1864–66. Rear Admiral Stringham died in Brooklyn, New York, and was buried at Green-Wood Cemetery, two Navy ships have been named USS Stringham in his honor. This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, the entry can be found here. First Battle of Bull Run, Online Exhibit, New York State Library
41.
Samuel Francis Du Pont
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Samuel Francis Du Pont was a Rear Admiral in the United States Navy, and a member of the prominent Du Pont family. In the Mexican–American War, Du Pont captured San Diego, and was commander of the California naval blockade. Through the 1850s, he promoted engineering studies at the United States Naval Academy, to more mobile. In the American Civil War, he played a role in making the Union blockade effective. Du Pont was born at Goodstay, his home at Bergen Point, New Jersey. His uncle was Eleuthère Irénée du Pont, the founder of E. I. du Pont de Nemours Company, which began as a gunpowder factory and today is a multinational chemical corporation. Du Pont spent his childhood at his fathers home, Louviers, across the Brandywine Creek from his uncles estate and gunpowder factory, Eleutherian Mills, just north of Wilmington and he was enrolled at Mount Airy Academy in Germantown, Pennsylvania, at age 9. However, his father was unable to fund his education because of his failing wool mill and he then served aboard the frigate Congress in the West Indies and off the coast of Brazil. After returning from the Ontario in June 1833, Du Pont married Sophie Madeleine du Pont, his first cousin as the daughter of his uncle, Eleuthère Irénée du Pont. As he never kept a journal, his voluminous correspondence with Sophie serves as the main documentation of his operations and observations throughout the rest of his naval career. From 1835 until 1838, he was the officer of the frigate Constellation. In 1838 he joined the ship Ohio in the Mediterranean until 1841, the following year he was promoted to Commander and set sail for China aboard the brig Perry, but was forced to return home and give up his command because of severe illness. Du Pont transported Major John Fremonts troops to San Diego, where they captured the city, Du Pont then continued operations along the Baja coast, including the capture of La Paz, and burnt two enemy gunboats in the harbor of Guaymas under heavy fire. He was given command of the California naval blockade in the last months of the war and, Du Pont served most of the next decade on shore assignment, and his efforts during this time are credited with helping to modernize the U. S. Navy. He studied the possibilities of steam power, and emphasized engineering and he was appointed superintendent of the Academy, but resigned after four months because he believed it was a post more appropriate for someone closer to retirement age. He was an advocate for a mobile and offensive Navy, rather than the harbor defense function that much of it was then relegated to. After being appointed to the board of the United States Lighthouse Service, in 1853, Du Pont was made general superintendent over what is typically considered the first Worlds Fair in the United States—the Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations, held in New York City. Despite international praise, low attendance caused the venture to go into heavy debt, Du Pont became an enthusiastic supporter of naval reform, writing in support of the 1855 congressional act to Promote the Efficiency of the Navy
42.
North Carolina
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North Carolina is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west, Virginia to the north, North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the U. S. states. The state is divided into 100 counties, the most populous municipality is Charlotte, which is the second largest banking center in the United States after New York City. The state has a range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet at Mount Mitchell. The climate of the plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a highland climate. North Carolina is bordered by South Carolina on the south, Georgia on the southwest, Tennessee on the west, Virginia on the north, the United States Census Bureau places North Carolina in the South Atlantic division of the southern region. So many ships have been lost off Cape Hatteras that the area is known as the Graveyard of the Atlantic, the most famous of these is the Queen Annes Revenge, which went aground in Beaufort Inlet in 1718. The coastal plain transitions to the Piedmont region along the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, the Piedmont region of central North Carolina is the states most populous region, containing the six largest cities in the state by population. It consists of rolling countryside frequently broken by hills or low mountain ridges. The Piedmont ranges from about 300 feet in elevation in the east to about 1,500 feet in the west, the western section of the state is part of the Appalachian Mountain range. Among the subranges of the Appalachians located in the state are the Great Smoky Mountains, Blue Ridge Mountains, the Black Mountains are the highest in the eastern United States, and culminate in Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet, the highest point east of the Mississippi River. North Carolina has 17 major river basins, the five basins west of the Blue Ridge Mountains flow to the Gulf of Mexico, while the remainder flow to the Atlantic Ocean. Of the 17 basins,11 originate within the state of North Carolina, but only four are contained entirely within the states border – the Cape Fear, the Neuse, the White Oak, and the Tar-Pamlico basin. Elevation above sea level is most responsible for temperature change across the state, the climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream, especially in the coastal plain. These influences tend to cause warmer winter temperatures along the coast, the coastal plain averages around 1 inch of snow or ice annually, and in many years, there may be no snow or ice at all. North Carolina experiences severe weather in summer and winter, with summer bringing threat of hurricanes, tropical storms, heavy rain
43.
General officer
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A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles
44.
Ambrose Burnside
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Ambrose Everett Burnside was an American soldier, railroad executive, inventor, industrialist, and politician from Rhode Island, serving as governor and a United States Senator. His distinctive style of facial hair became known as sideburns, derived from his last name and he was also the first president of the National Rifle Association. Burnside was born in Liberty, Indiana and was the fourth of nine children of Edghill and Pamela Brown Burnside and his great-great-grandfather Robert Burnside was born in Scotland and settled in the Province of South Carolina. His father was a native of South Carolina, he was an owner who freed his slaves when he relocated to Indiana. Ambrose attended Liberty Seminary as a boy, but his education was interrupted when his mother died in 1841, he was apprenticed to a local tailor. He graduated in 1847, ranking 18th in a class of 47 and he traveled to Veracruz for the Mexican–American War, but he arrived after hostilities had ceased and performed mostly garrison duty around Mexico City. In 1849, he was wounded by an arrow in his neck during a skirmish against Apaches in Las Vegas and he was promoted to 1st lieutenant on December 12,1851. In 1852, he was assigned to Fort Adams, Newport, Rhode Island, the marriage lasted until Marys death in 1876, but it was childless. In October 1853, Burnside resigned his commission in the United States Army and he devoted his time and energy to the manufacture of the famous firearm that bears his name, the Burnside carbine. President Buchanans Secretary of War John B, Floyd contracted the Burnside Arms Company to equip a large portion of the Army with his carbine, mostly cavalry, and induced him to establish extensive factories for its manufacture. The Bristol Rifle Works were no sooner complete than another gunmaker allegedly bribed Floyd to break his $100,000 contract with Burnside, Burnside ran as a Democrat for one of the Congressional seats in Rhode Island in 1858 and was defeated in a landslide. The burdens of the campaign and the destruction by fire of his contributed to his financial ruin. He then went west in search of employment and became treasurer of the Illinois Central Railroad, McClellan, who later became one of his commanding officers. At the outbreak of the Civil War, Burnside was a general in the Rhode Island Militia. He raised the 1st Rhode Island Volunteer Infantry Regiment, and was appointed its colonel on May 2,1861, two companies of this regiment were then armed with Burnside Carbines. Within a month, he ascended to command in the Department of Northeast Virginia. He commanded the brigade without distinction at the First Battle of Bull Run in July, and took over division command temporarily for wounded Brig. Gen. David Hunter. His 90-day regiment was mustered out of service on August 2 and he conducted a successful amphibious campaign that closed more than 80% of the North Carolina sea coast to Confederate shipping for the remainder of the war
45.
Roanoke Island
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Roanoke Island is an island in Dare County on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, United States. It was named after the historical Roanoke Carolina Algonquian people who inhabited the area in the 16th century at the time of English exploration, the town of Manteo is located on the northern portion of the island, and is the county seat of Dare County. Fort Raleigh National Historic Site is on the end of the island. There is an area of 17.95 square miles. Located along U. S. Roanoke Island was the site of the Roanoke Colony, a group of about 120 men, women and children arrived in 1587. Shortly after arriving in this New World, colonist Eleanor Dare, daughter of Governor John White and she was the first English child born in North America. Governor White returned to England later that year for supplies, due to impending war with Spain, White was unable to return to Roanoke Island until 1590. When he arrived, the colony had vanished, the fate of those first colonists remains a mystery to this day and is one of Americas most intriguing unsolved mysteries. Archaeologists, historians, and other researchers continue to work to resolve the mystery, Roanoke Island is one of the three oldest surviving English place-names in the U. S. Along with the Chowan and Neuse rivers, it was named in 1584 by Captains Philip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe and it was, for thousands of years, the site of ancient Indian settlements. Archeological excavations in the early 1980s at the Tillett Site at Wanchese have revealed evidence of various cultures dating back to 8000 BC, Wanchese was used as a seasonal fishing village for 1500 years before English colonial settlement. Ancestors of the Algonquian-speaking Roanoke coalesced as a people in about 400, another colony, which was much more populous than that of Raleighs, was developed at the island during the American Civil War. After Union forces took over the island in 1862, slaves migrated there for freedom, as they were considered contraband by the military. The Army established the Roanoke Island Freedmens Colony in 1863, an important social experiment as part of the US governments developing policies related to the future of the slaves in freedom. The Congregational chaplain Horace James was appointed superintendent of the colony, with a view to making it self-sustaining, he had a sawmill built, and freedmen were allotted lands to cultivate. Those who worked for the Army were paid wages, when the United States Colored Troops were founded, many men from the colony enlisted. A corps of Northern teachers was sponsored by the American Missionary Association, today the residents of Roanoke Island are governed by the Dare County Board of Commissioners. They are located within Congressional District 1 of North Carolina, Roanoke Island was the site of the 16th-century Roanoke Colony, the first English colony in the New World
46.
Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
United States of America
United States Navy
Rear Admiral
