1.
First Lady of the United States
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First Lady of the United States is the informal but accepted title held by the wife of the President of the United States, concurrent with the presidents term of office. Although the first lady’s role has never been codified or officially defined, melania Trump is the current First Lady. While the title was not in use until much later, Martha Washington, the wife of George Washington. During her lifetime she was referred to as Lady Washington. Since the 1790s the role of first lady has changed considerably and it has come to include involvement in political campaigns, management of the White House, championship of social causes, and representation of the president at official and ceremonial occasions. Additionally, over the individual first ladies have held influence in a range of sectors. Historically, should a president be unmarried, or a widower, the use of the title First Lady to describe the spouse or hostess of an executive began in the United States. In the early days of the republic, there was not a generally accepted title for the wife of the president. Indulging in no indolence, she left the pillow at dawn, sometime after 1849, the title began being used in Washington, D. C. social circles. The title first gained recognition in 1877, when newspaper journalist Mary C. Ames referred to Lucy Webb Hayes as the First Lady of the Land while reporting on the inauguration of Rutherford B, the frequent reporting on Lucy Hayes activities helped spread use of the title outside Washington. A popular 1911 comedic play about Dolley Madison by playwright Charles Nirdlinger, titled The First Lady in the Land, by the 1930s, it was in wide use. Use of the later spread from the United States to other nations. The wife of the Vice President of the United States is sometimes referred to as the Second Lady of the United States, the position of the First Lady is not an elected one and carries only ceremonial duties. Nonetheless, first ladies have held a highly visible position in American society, the role of the First Lady has evolved over the centuries. She is, first and foremost, the hostess of the White House and she organizes and attends official ceremonies and functions of state either along with, or in place of, the president. Lisa Burns identifies four main themes of the first ladyship, as public woman, as political celebrity, as political activist. Martha Washington created the role and hosted many affairs of state at the national capital and this socializing became known as the Republican Court and provided elite women with an opportunity to play backstage political role
2.
John Quincy Adams
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John Quincy Adams was an American statesman who served as a diplomat, United States Senator, member of the House of Representatives, and was the sixth President of the United States from 1825 to 1829. He was a member of the Federalist, Democratic-Republican, National Republican and he was the son of President John Adams and Abigail Adams and thus contributed to the formation of the Adams political family. Adams shaped U. S. foreign policy using his ardently nationalist commitment to U. S. republican values, as a diplomat, Adams played an important role in negotiating key treaties, most notably the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812. As Secretary of State, he negotiated with Britain over the United States northern border with Canada, negotiated with Spain the annexation of Florida, historians generally concur that he was one of the greatest diplomats and secretaries of state in American history. Adams was elected president in a close and controversial four-way contest in 1824, as president he sought to modernize the American economy and promote education. Adams enacted a part of his agenda and paid off much of the national debt, however he was stymied time and again by a Congress controlled by opponents, and his lack of patronage networks helped politicians sabotage him. He lost his 1828 bid for re-election to Andrew Jackson, after leaving office, he was elected as U. S. Representative from Massachusetts in 1830, serving for the last 17 years of his life with greater acclaim than he had achieved as president, animated by his growing revulsion against slavery, Adams became a leading opponent of the Slave Power. Adams predicted the Unions dissolution over slavery, and in such a case, historians have in the aggregate ranked Adams as the 21st most successful president. John Quincy Adams was born on July 11,1767, to John Adams and he was named for his mothers maternal grandfather, Colonel John Quincy, after whom Quincy, Massachusetts, is named. Young Adams was educated by private tutors – his cousin James Thaxter and his fathers law clerk and he soon began to exhibit his literary skills in 1779, when he initiated a diary which he kept until just before he died in 1848. The diary comprised an unprecedented fifty volumes, representing one of the most extensive, much of Adams youth was spent accompanying his father overseas. He accompanied his father on diplomatic missions to France from 1778 until 1779, Adams acquired an education at institutions such as Leiden University. He matriculated in Leiden on January 10,1781, for nearly three years, beginning at the age of 14, he accompanied Francis Dana as a secretary on a mission to Saint Petersburg, Russia, to obtain recognition of the new United States. He spent time in Finland, Sweden, and Denmark and, in 1804, during these years overseas, Adams became fluent in French and Dutch and became familiar with German and other European languages. Though Adams enjoyed Europe, he and his family decided he needed to return to the United States to complete his education and he entered Harvard College, graduated in 1787 with a Bachelor of Arts degree, and was elected by Phi Beta Kappa. Adams, mainly with the influence of his father, had excelled in studies and reached fluency in Latin. Upon entering Harvard he had already translated Virgil, Horace, Plutarch, after graduating from Harvard, he studied law with Theophilus Parsons in Newburyport, Massachusetts from 1787 to 1789
3.
Elizabeth Monroe
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Elizabeth Kortright Monroe was First Lady of the United States from 1817 to 1825, as the wife of James Monroe, fifth President. Due to the condition of Elizabeths health, many of the duties of official hostess were assumed by her eldest daughter. Born in New York City on June 30,1768, Elizabeth was the youngest daughter of Lawrence Kortright, a wealthy merchant and her father was one of the founders of the New York Chamber of Commerce. During the Revolutionary War, he was owner of several privateers fitted out at New York. He purchased land tracts in what is now Delaware county, New York, Elizabeth acquired social graces and elegance at an early age. She grew up in a household with four siblings, Sarah, Hester, John. According to the records of Trinity Church, New York, Elizabeths mother, Hannah, died on September 6 or 7,1777. The cause of death was recorded as resulting from Child Bed, an unidentified sibling of Elizabeth, age 13 months, succumbed to flux and fever a few days later. Mother and infant were both buried at St. Georges Chapel in New York, at the time of their deaths, Elizabeth was nine years old. A historian later wrote that this blaze was due to the mismanagement of British troops while directing the firefighters, Elizabeth, age 10, with her father and siblings, survived the fire unscathed. Elizabeth first caught the attention of James Monroe in 1785 while he was in New York City serving as a member of the Continental Congress, James, age twenty-seven, married Elizabeth, age seventeen, on February 16,1786, at her fathers home in New York City. The marriage was performed by Reverend Benjamin Moore, and recorded in the records of Trinity Church. After a brief honeymoon on Long Island, the returned to New York to live with her father until Congress adjourned. Their first child, whom they named Eliza Kortright Monroe, was born in December,1786, in 1794, James was appointed United States Minister to France by President George Washington. The Monroes also provided support and shelter to the American citizen Thomas Paine in Paris and this association led to a friendship between the family of Napoleon Bonaparte and the Monroes. James was recalled from his Ambassadorship in 1796, due to his support of France in the opposition of the Jay Treaty, the Monroes returned to Virginia where he became Governor. A son, James Monroe, Jr. was born in 1799, during this time, Elizabeth suffered the first of a series of seizures and collapses, which would plague her for the rest of her life, and gradually cause her to restrict social activities. The Monroes third child, a daughter whom they named Maria Hester, was born in Virginia in early 1802, in 1803, President Jefferson appointed James to be United States Minister to Great Britain, and also the United States Minister to Spain
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London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
5.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
6.
George Washington Adams
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George Washington Adams was the eldest son of John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States. He had a life and died of apparent suicide at age 28. He was named for the first president and his grandfather John Adams was the first Vice President of the United States and also the second President. He was born a month after his grandfather left office, Adams graduated from Harvard University in the Class of 1821 and studied law. After briefly practicing as an attorney, he ran for state office and he was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1826 and served one year. In 1828, Adams served on the Boston City Council and he wrote a pamphlet An Oration delivered at Quincy, on the Fifth of July,1824. He disappeared on April 30,1829 while on board the steamship Benjamin Franklin in Long Island Sound during passage from Boston to Washington, D. C. He was last seen at about 2 A. M. and his hat and cloak were found on deck and his body washed ashore on June 10. The consensus in news accounts of the time and among historians subsequently is that he committed suicide by drowning after he jumped from the Benjamin Franklin and he was said to be predisposed to gloom and paranoia, a combination that would probably be classified as depressive illness. Prior to his death, Adams had a mistress, Eliza Dolph, Dolph was the chamber maid to a Dr. Welch, the familys Boston doctor. She had a child in December 1828 and was moved to another location so George could visit her, miss Eliza Dolph became ill in March and her child was forced to be cared for by another. By July 1829, Eliza has now gained her health- lost her child- learned a lesson by experience- by my attention, pages from John Quincy Adams journal reference a letter from Dr. Storer in 1829 making him aware of certain events in Georges life. Conversations held with his son Charles regarding the estate of his late son George, are noted in his journal on June 19,1829
7.
John Adams II
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John Adams was the second son of President John Quincy Adams and Louisa Adams. He is usually called John Adams II to distinguish him from President John Adams, John Adams II was born in Quincy, Massachusetts on July 4,1803. He studied at Harvard University, but was expelled during his year for participating in the 1823 student rebellion to protest the curriculum. He then studied law under his father, and when John Quincy Adams became President, since the President was considered to be immune from a dueling challenge, Jarvis attempted to initiate a duel with John Adams II, who had been at the reception. Jarviss effort to provoke an incident led to a highly publicized fistfight in the Capitol Rotunda, with Jarvis pulling the nose of and slapping Adams, an investigating committee of the United States House of Representatives determined that Jarvis had initiated the attack, but took no other action. In 1828 John married Mary Hellen at a ceremony in the White House, John Adams II and Mary Hellen were the parents of two daughters, Mary Louisa and Georgiana Frances. After his father left the White House John attempted a career in business and his lack of success and despondency over his brother Georges alcoholism and 1829 suicide led to Johns own descent into alcoholism. He died in Washington, D. C. on October 23,1834 and is buried in Quincys Hancock Cemetery, Mary Hellen Adams continued to reside with John Quincy and Louisa Adams and helped care for them in their old age. She died in Bethlehem, New Hampshire on August 31,1870
8.
Charles Francis Adams, Sr.
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Charles Francis Adams Sr. was an American historical editor, politician and diplomat. He was a son of President John Quincy Adams and grandson of President John Adams and that meant conducting dialogue with both sides and monitoring the British connection in the supply of commerce raiders. He became an overseer of Harvard University, and built Adams National Historical Park and he was born in Boston and attended Boston Latin School and Harvard College, where he graduated in 1825. He then studied law with Daniel Webster and practiced in Boston and he wrote numerous reviews of works about American and British history for the North American Review. Charles Adams and his brothers, John and George, were all rivals for the woman, their cousin, Mary Catherine Hellen. In 1828 John married Mary Hellen at a ceremony in the White House, from the 1840s Adams became one of the finest historical editors of his era. He developed his expertise in part because of the example of his father, the senior Adams began a life of his father, John Adams, but wrote only a few chapters before resuming his political career in 1830 with his election to the US House of Representatives. The edition, titled The Works of John Adams, Esq and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1857. As a Republican, Adams was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1858, where he chaired the Committee on Manufactures. He was re-elected in 1860, but resigned to become U. S. minister to the Court of St Jamess, powerful Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner had wanted the position and became alienated from Adams. Part of his duties included correspondence with British civilians including Karl Marx, back in Boston, Adams declined the presidency of Harvard University but became one of its overseers in 1869. In 1870 he built the first presidential library in the United States to honor his father John Quincy Adams, the Stone Library includes over 14,000 books written in twelve languages. The library is located on the property of the Old House at Adams National Historical Park in Quincy, Adams served as U. S. arbiter on the 1871–72 international commission to settle the Alabama claims that met in Geneva. He is considered one of the contributors on this seminal work in forwarding the concept of world law through arbitration. During the 1876 electoral college controversy, Adams sided with Democrat Samuel J. Tilden over Republican Rutherford B. Hayes for the presidency and he was the last surviving child of John Quincy Adams. Abigails health and spirits worsened after her husbands death and she died at Peacefield June 6,1889, butterfield, L. H. et al. eds. Multivolume letterpress edition of all letters to and from members of the Adams family, plus their diaries. Donald, Aida Dipace and Donald, David Herbert, eds, Charles Francis Adams Sr. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
9.
Consul (representative)
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A consul is distinguished from an ambassador, the latter being a representative from one head of state to another. In Classical Greece, some of the functions of the modern consul were fulfilled by a proxenos, unlike the modern position, this was a citizen of the host polity. The proxenos was usually a rich merchant who had ties with another city. The position of proxenos was often hereditary in a particular family, modern honorary consuls fulfil a function that is to a degree similar to that of the ancient Greek institution. Consuls were the highest magistrates of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire, the term was revived by the Republic of Genoa, which, unlike Rome, bestowed it on various state officials, not necessarily restricted to the highest. The Consolat de mar was an institution established under the reign of Peter IV of Aragon in the fourteenth century and it was primarily a judicial body, administering maritime and commercial law as Lex Mercatoria. Although the Consolat de mar was established by the Corts General of the Crown of Aragon and this distinction between consular and diplomatic functions remains to this day. Modern consuls retain limited powers to settle disputes on ships from their country. The Consulado de mercaderes was set up in 1543 in Seville as a merchant guild to control trade with Latin America, as such, it had branches in the principal cities of the Spanish colonies. The connection of consul with trade and commercial law is retained in French, in francophone countries, a juge consulaire is a non-professional judge elected by the chamber of commerce to settle commercial disputes in the first instance. Like the term embassy, the consulate may refer not only to the office of consul. The consulate may share premises with the embassy itself, a consul of the highest rank is termed a consul-general, and his or her office a consulate-general. He or she typically has one or several deputy consuls-general, consuls, vice-consuls, consulates-general need not have their offices in the capital city, but rather could have them in the most important/appropriate cities in terms of bilateral relations. In the United States, for example, most countries have a consulate-general in New York City, consuls of various ranks may have specific legal authority for certain activities, such as notarizing documents. As such, diplomatic personnel with other responsibilities may receive consular letters patent, aside from those outlined in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, there are few formal requirements outlining what a consular official must do. Nonetheless, consulates proper will be headed by consuls of various ranks, and although it is never admitted publicly, consulates, like embassies, may also gather intelligence information from the assigned country. Contrary to popular belief, although many of the staff of consulates may be career diplomats, in practice, the extension and application of consular privileges and immunities can be subject to wide discrepancies from country to country. Consulates are more numerous than diplomatic missions, such as embassies, ambassadors are posted only in a foreign nations capital
10.
Thirteen Colonies
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The Thirteen Colonies were a group of British colonies on the east coast of North America founded in the 17th and 18th centuries that declared independence in 1776 and formed the United States. The Thirteen Colonies had very similar political, constitutional, and legal systems and they were part of Britains possessions in the New World, which also included colonies in present-day Canada and the Caribbean, as well as East and West Florida. However, the Thirteen Colonies had a degree of self-government and active local elections. In the 1750s, the colonies began collaborating with each other instead of dealing directly with Britain, Colonial decisions were subject to approval by the governor and the home government. There were also substantial populations of African slaves in some of the colonies, especially Virginia, the Carolinas, the names of the colonies were chosen by the founders and proprietors, subject to royal approval, and given in the founding charters. Nine of the thirteen chose to include in their names the term Province of, later residents tended to drop the ambiguous terminology, as in the map shown in the article Province of New Jersey, which is labeled simply East Jersey and West Jersey. In July 1776, they formed a new nation called the United States of America, the new nation achieved that goal by winning the American Revolutionary War with the aid of France, the Netherlands, and Spain. The American flag features thirteen horizontal stripes which represent these original thirteen colonies, besides these thirteen colonies, Britain had another dozen in the New World. Those in the British West Indies, Newfoundland, the Province of Quebec, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Bermuda, and East and West Florida remained loyal to the crown throughout the war. The British crown had recently acquired those lands, and many of the issues facing the Thirteen Colonies did not apply to them, especially in the case of Quebec. Contemporary documents usually list the thirteen colonies of British North America in geographical order, the consolidation collapsed after the Glorious Revolution of 1688–89, and the nine former colonies re-established their separate identities in 1689. Massachusetts Bay Colony Settled in 1630 by Puritans from England, the colonial charter was revoked in 1684, and a new charter was issued in 1691 establishing an enlarged Province of Massachusetts Bay. Province of Maine Settled in 1622, the Massachusetts Bay Colony claimed the Maine territory in the 1650s, then limited to present-day southernmost Maine. Parts of Maine east of the Kennebec River were also part of New York in the half of the 17th century. These areas were made part of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the charter of 1691. Plymouth Colony Settled in 1620 by the Pilgrims, plymouth was merged into the Province of Massachusetts Bay in the charter of 1691. Saybrook Colony Founded in 1635 and merged with Connecticut Colony in 1644, New Haven Colony Settled in late 1637. New Netherland Extensive region centered about New Amsterdam at the tip of Manhattan Island
11.
Melania Trump
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Melania Trump is the First Lady of the United States, married to President Donald Trump. Born in Slovenia, then part of Yugoslavia, she became a permanent resident of the United States in 2001 and an American citizen in 2006. Prior to marrying Donald Trump, she worked as a model, by 2016 she considered herself a full-time mom. Trump is the second foreign-born First Lady of the United States, following Louisa Adams in 1825. Melanija Knavs was born in Novo Mesto in the southeast of Slovenia and she is a daughter of Amalija and Viktor Knavs, who managed car and motorcycle dealerships for a state-owned vehicle manufacturer. Her father was from the town of Radeče. Her mother came from the village of Raka, and was a patternmaker at the clothing manufacturer Jutranjka in Sevnica. When later working as a model, she changed the Slovene form of her last name Knavs to the German Knauss and she grew up in a modest apartment in a housing block in Sevnica, in Slovenias Lower Sava Valley. She has a sister and an elder half-brother, whom she reportedly has never met, when she was a teenager, the family moved to a two-story house in Sevnica, and as a high school student, she lived in a high-rise apartment in Ljubljana. Melanija attended the Secondary School of Design and Photography in Ljubljana and she declares speaking six languages, English, French, Italian, German, Serbo-Croatian, and her native Slovene. Knauss began modeling at age 5 and started doing commercials at 16, at 18, she signed with a modeling agency in Milan, Italy. She was named runner-up in the 1992 Jana Magazine Look of the Year contest, held in Ljubljana, after attending the University of Ljubljana for one year, she modeled for fashion houses in Milan and Paris, and relocated to New York City in 1996. Her modeling career was associated with Irene Marie Management Group and Donald Trumps Trump Model Management, applying as a model of extraordinary ability, Melania obtained a green card and became a lawful permanent resident in 2001, she gained United States citizenship in 2006. After moving to New York City in 1996, Melania met her future husband and he and Marla Maples had separated in May 1997 and divorced in June 1999. Their relationship gained attention after a 1999 interview on The Howard Stern Show, in 2000 she appeared with Donald while he campaigned for that years Reform Party presidential nomination. Their relationship gained additional publicity after the 2004 launch of Donalds business-oriented reality television show, Donald described their long courtship in 2005, We literally have never had an argument, forget about the word fight. At the reception, Billy Joel serenaded the crowd with Just the Way You Are, the Trumps wedding ceremony and reception were widely covered by the media. Melania wore a $200,000 dress made by John Galliano of the house of Christian Dior, on March 20,2006, Trump gave birth to her only son Barron William Trump. Melania suggested his name, and her husband suggested his first name
12.
City of London
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The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate
13.
Thomas Johnson (jurist)
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Thomas Johnson was an American jurist with a distinguished political career. He was the first Governor of Maryland, a delegate to the Continental Congress, Johnson was born in Calvert County, Maryland, on November 4,1732 to Thomas and Dorcas Sedgwick Johnson. His grandfather, also named Thomas, was a lawyer in London who had emigrated to Maryland sometime before 1700 and he was the fourth of ten children, some of whom also had large families. His niece, Louisa Johnson, married John Quincy Adams, the family, including Thomas, were educated at home. As a young man he was attracted to the law, studied it, by 1760, he had moved his practice to Frederick County, Maryland, and in 1761 he was elected to the provincial assembly for the first time. Johnson married Ann Jennings, the daughter of a judge from Annapolis on February 16,1766, the couple had eight children, Thomas Jennings, Ann Jennings, Rebecca, Elizabeth, Rebecca Jennings, James, Joshua, and Dorcas. In 1774 and 1775 the Maryland assembly sent him as a delegate to the Continental Congress, in the Congress he was firmly in the camp of those who favored separation from Great Britain. In November 1775, Congress created a Committee of Correspondence that was to foreign support for the war. Thomas Johnson, along with Benjamin Franklin, and Benjamin Harrison V were initially named to the committee and he then returned to Maryland and continued his work in the states Assembly when the United States Declaration of Independence was signed. He also served as general in the Maryland militia. Thomas Johnson and his brothers supported the revolution by manufacturing ammunition and their former factory, Catoctin Furnace, is now part of a state park near Camp David, just north of Frederick, Maryland. The state legislature elected Johnson as the new states first Governor in 1777 and he served in that capacity until 1779. In the 1780s he held a number of posts in Maryland, as well as served in the assembly in 1780,1786. Johnson attended the Maryland Convention in 1788, where he urged the states ratification of the United States Constitution. In September 1789, President George Washington nominated Johnson to be the first federal judge for the District of Maryland, in 1790 and 1791, Johnson was the senior justice in the Maryland General Court system. In January 1791, President Washington appointed Johnson, with David Stuart and Daniel Carroll, in September 1791 the commissioners named the federal city The City of Washington and the federal district The Territory of Columbia. On August 5,1791, Johnson received an appointment from Washington to the seat on the U. S. Supreme Court that became available after John Rutledge resigned. Formally nominated on October 31,1791, Johnson was confirmed by the United States Senate on November 7,1791, though he received his commission that day, he was not sworn in until August 6,1792
14.
United States Supreme Court
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
15.
Maryland
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The states largest city is Baltimore, and its capital is Annapolis. Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State, the Free State, the state is named after Henrietta Maria of France, the wife of Charles I of England. George Calvert was the first Lord of Baltimore and the first English proprietor of the colonial grant. Maryland was the state to ratify the United States Constitution. Maryland is one of the smallest U. S. states in terms of area, as well as one of the most densely populated, Maryland has an area of 12,406.68 square miles and is comparable in overall area with Belgium. It is the 42nd largest and 9th smallest state and is closest in size to the state of Hawaii, the next largest state, its neighbor West Virginia, is almost twice the size of Maryland. Maryland possesses a variety of topography within its borders, contributing to its nickname America in Miniature. The mid-portion of this border is interrupted by Washington, D. C. which sits on land that was part of Montgomery and Prince Georges counties and including the town of Georgetown. This land was ceded to the United States Federal Government in 1790 to form the District of Columbia, the Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore. Close to the town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two-thirds of the way across the state. This geographical curiosity makes Maryland the narrowest state, bordered by the Mason–Dixon line to the north, portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions. Much of the Baltimore–Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, earthquakes in Maryland are infrequent and small due to the states distance from seismic/earthquake zones. The M5.8 Virginia earthquake in 2011 was felt moderately throughout Maryland, buildings in the state are not well-designed for earthquakes and can suffer damage easily. The lack of any glacial history accounts for the scarcity of Marylands natural lakes, laurel Oxbow Lake is an over one-hundred-year-old 55-acre natural lake two miles north of Maryland City and adjacent to Russett. Chews Lake is a natural lake two miles south-southeast of Upper Marlboro. There are numerous lakes, the largest of them being the Deep Creek Lake. Maryland has shale formations containing natural gas, where fracking is theoretically possible, as is typical of states on the East Coast, Marylands plant life is abundant and healthy. Middle Atlantic coastal forests, typical of the southeastern Atlantic coastal plain, grow around Chesapeake Bay, moving west, a mixture of Northeastern coastal forests and Southeastern mixed forests cover the central part of the state
16.
Nantes, France
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Nantes is a city in western France, located on the Loire River,50 km from the Atlantic coast. The city is the sixth largest in France, with almost 300,000 inhabitants within its limits. Together with Saint-Nazaire, a located on the Loire estuary. Nantes is the seat of the Loire-Atlantique département and of the Pays de la Loire région. Historically and culturally, Nantes belongs to Brittany, a former duchy, the fact that it is not part of the modern administrative Brittany région is subject to debate. Nantes appeared during the Antiquity as a port on the Loire and it became the seat of a bishopric at the end of the Roman era, before being conquered by the Breton people in 851. Nantes was the residence of the dukes of Brittany in the 15th century. The French Revolution was a period of turmoil resulted in an economic decline. Nantes managed to develop a strong industry after 1850, chiefly in ship building, however, deindustrialisation in the second half of the 20th century pushed the city to reorient its economy towards services. In 2012, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Nantes as a Gamma- world city and it is the fourth highest ranking city in France after Paris, Lyon and Marseilles. The Gamma- category gathers other large cities such as Algiers, Orlando, Porto, Turin, Nantes has often been praised for its quality of life and it was awarded the European Green Capital Award in 2013. The settlement is mentioned in Ptolemys Geography as Κονδηούινϰον and Κονδιούινϰον, during the Gallo-Roman period, this name was latinised and adapted as Condevincum, Condevicnum, Condivicnum, Condivincum, etc. Condevincum seems to be related to the Gaulish word condate meaning confluence, at the end of the Roman period, Condevincum became known as Portus Namnetum and civitas Namnetum. This phenomenon can be observed on most of the ancient cities of France throughout the 4th century, for instance, Lutecia became Paris, city of the Parisii, Darioritum became Vannes, city of the Veneti. Portus Namnetum evolved in Nanetiæ and Namnetis in the 5th century, the name of the Namnetes people could either come from the Gaulish root *nant-, from the pre-Celtic root *nanto or from the other tribe name Amnites, which could mean men of the river. The name Nantes is pronounced and the city inhabitants are called Nantais, in Gallo, the romance dialect traditionally spoken in the region around Nantes, the city is called Naunnt or Nantt, according to the various spelling systems. The Gallo pronunciation is the same as the French one, although northern speakers pronounce it with a long, in Breton language, Nantes is known as Naoned or An Naoned. The latter, meaning the Nantes, is common and reflects the fact that articles are more frequent in Breton toponyms than in French ones
17.
American Revolution
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The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval
18.
Tower Hill
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Tower Hill is an elevated spot northwest of the Tower of London, in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets in the East End of London, just outside the City of London boundary. It was formerly an area known as Great Tower Hill. Historically it was the site of public executions and today it is notable for being the site of the Tower Hill Memorial. The area is served by Tower Gateway DLR station and Tower Hill tube station, a road named Tower Hill forms a short stretch of the A3211 route between Byward Street in the west and a junction with Minories and Tower Hill Terrace in the east. A nearby church, All Hallows-by-the-Tower, is known for fragments of Romanesque architecture dating back to AD680, in 1855 the area became part of the district of the Metropolitan Board of Works. The District of Tower became part of the Whitechapel District, under the authority of the Whitechapel District Board of Works and this was ambiguous and The Great Tower Hill Act 1869 was required to explicitly interpret it as Old Tower Without, including within it Great Tower Hill. The Tower Liberty was abolished in 1894 and incorporated into the County of London
19.
Consul general
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A consul is distinguished from an ambassador, the latter being a representative from one head of state to another. In Classical Greece, some of the functions of the modern consul were fulfilled by a proxenos, unlike the modern position, this was a citizen of the host polity. The proxenos was usually a rich merchant who had ties with another city. The position of proxenos was often hereditary in a particular family, modern honorary consuls fulfil a function that is to a degree similar to that of the ancient Greek institution. Consuls were the highest magistrates of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire, the term was revived by the Republic of Genoa, which, unlike Rome, bestowed it on various state officials, not necessarily restricted to the highest. The Consolat de mar was an institution established under the reign of Peter IV of Aragon in the fourteenth century and it was primarily a judicial body, administering maritime and commercial law as Lex Mercatoria. Although the Consolat de mar was established by the Corts General of the Crown of Aragon and this distinction between consular and diplomatic functions remains to this day. Modern consuls retain limited powers to settle disputes on ships from their country. The Consulado de mercaderes was set up in 1543 in Seville as a merchant guild to control trade with Latin America, as such, it had branches in the principal cities of the Spanish colonies. The connection of consul with trade and commercial law is retained in French, in francophone countries, a juge consulaire is a non-professional judge elected by the chamber of commerce to settle commercial disputes in the first instance. Like the term embassy, the consulate may refer not only to the office of consul. The consulate may share premises with the embassy itself, a consul of the highest rank is termed a consul-general, and his or her office a consulate-general. He or she typically has one or several deputy consuls-general, consuls, vice-consuls, consulates-general need not have their offices in the capital city, but rather could have them in the most important/appropriate cities in terms of bilateral relations. In the United States, for example, most countries have a consulate-general in New York City, consuls of various ranks may have specific legal authority for certain activities, such as notarizing documents. As such, diplomatic personnel with other responsibilities may receive consular letters patent, aside from those outlined in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, there are few formal requirements outlining what a consular official must do. Nonetheless, consulates proper will be headed by consuls of various ranks, and although it is never admitted publicly, consulates, like embassies, may also gather intelligence information from the assigned country. Contrary to popular belief, although many of the staff of consulates may be career diplomats, in practice, the extension and application of consular privileges and immunities can be subject to wide discrepancies from country to country. Consulates are more numerous than diplomatic missions, such as embassies, ambassadors are posted only in a foreign nations capital
20.
All Hallows-by-the-Tower
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Founded in 675, it is one of the oldest churches in London, and contains inside a 7th-century Anglo-Saxon arch with recycled Roman tiles, the oldest surviving piece of church fabric in the city. All Hallows-by-the-Tower was first established in 675 by the Anglo-Saxon Abbey at Barking and was for many years named after the abbey, the church was built on the site of a former Roman building, traces of which have been discovered in the crypt. It was expanded and rebuilt several times between the 11th and 15th centuries, the tower was rebuilt in 1658, the only example of work carried out on a church during the Commonwealth era of 1649–1660. During the Great Fire, Samuel Pepys climbed the churchs spire to watch the progress of the blaze, restored in the late 19th century, All Hallows was gutted by German bombers during the Blitz in World War II and required extensive reconstruction, only being rededicated in 1957. Many portions of the old church survived the War and have been sympathetically restored and its outer walls are 15th-century, with a 7th-century Saxon arch doorway surviving from the original church, which is the oldest piece of church material in London. Many brasses remain in the interior, in 1999 the AOC Archaeology Group excavated the cemetery and made many significant discoveries. The church has a museum called the Undercroft Museum, containing portions of a Roman pavement which together with many artefacts was discovered many feet below the church in 1926. The exhibits focus on the history of the church and the City of London, laud remained buried in a vault in the chapel for over 20 years, it was moved during the Restoration to St Johns College, Oxford. The altar in the crypt is of stone from the castle of Richard I at Athlit in The Holy Land. All Hallows-by-the-Tower has been the Guild church of Toc H since 1922, the church was designated a Grade I listed building on 4 January 1950. The Church also has a Carillon which was back to working order in the 1970s by Philip Blewett, then a priest at the church. This was presumably lost during the English Civil War, an organ was installed in 1675 by Thomas and Renatus Harris. In 1720 a new case was built by Gerard Smith, the organ was restored and improved by George Pike England in 1813, Bunting in 1872 and 1878, and Gray and Davison in 1902. There was further work by Harrison and Harrison in 1909 and 1928, after destruction in 1940, a new organ by Harrison and Harrison was installed in 1957
21.
John Adams
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John Adams was an American patriot who served as the second President of the United States and the first Vice President. He was a lawyer, diplomat, statesman, political theorist, and, as a Founding Father and he was also a dedicated diarist and correspondent, particularly with his wife and closest advisor Abigail. He collaborated with his cousin, revolutionary leader Samuel Adams, Adams was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, where he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence. He assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776, as a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and acquired vital governmental loans from Amsterdam bankers. Adams was the author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780 which influenced American political theory. Adamss credentials as a revolutionary secured for him two terms as President George Washingtons vice president and also his own election in 1796 as the second president. In his single term as president, he encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the army, the major accomplishment of his presidency was a peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamiltons opposition. Due to his strong posture on defense, Adams is often called the father of the American Navy and he was the first U. S. president to reside in the executive mansion, now known as the White House. In 1800, Adams lost re-election to Thomas Jefferson and retired to Massachusetts and he eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson upon the latters own retirement by initiating a correspondence which lasted fourteen years. He and his wife established a family of politicians, diplomats, Adams was the father of John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States. He died on the anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Modern historians in the aggregate have favorably ranked his administration, John Adams was born on October 30,1735 to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston. He had two brothers, Peter and Elihu. Adams birthplace was then in Braintree, Massachusetts, and is preserved at Adams National Historical Park, Adams mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts. His father was a Congregationalist deacon, a farmer, a cordwainer, the Deacon also served as a selectman and supervised the building of schools and roads. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship, though raised in modest surroundings, Adams felt an acute responsibility to live up to his familys heritage of reverence. Journalist Richard Brookhiser wrote that Adams Puritan ancestors believed they lived in the Bible, England under the Stuarts was Egypt, they were Israel fleeing
22.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
23.
Frederick, Maryland
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Frederick is a city and the county seat of Frederick County in the U. S. state of Maryland. It is part of the Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area. C. and it is a part of the Washington-Arlington-Alexandria, DC-VA-MD-WV Metropolitan Statistical Area, which is part of a greater Washington-Baltimore-Arlington, DC-MD-VA-WV-PA Combined Statistical Area. The citys population was 65,239 people at the 2010 United States Census, located where Catoctin Mountain meets the rolling hills of the Piedmont region, the Frederick area became a crossroads even before European explorers and traders arrived. The earliest European settlement was north of Frederick in Monocacy. Daniel Dulany—a land speculator—laid out Frederick Town by 1745, three years earlier, All Saints Church had been founded on a hilltop near a warehouse/trading post. In 1742, Marylands General Assembly made Frederick the county seat of Frederick County, the current towns first house was built by a young German Reformed schoolmaster from the Rhineland Palatinate named Johann Thomas Schley, who led a party of immigrants to the Maryland colony. The Palatinate settlers bought land from Dulany on the banks of Carroll Creek, Schleys settlers also founded a German Reformed Church. Probably the oldest house standing in Frederick today is Schifferstadt, built in 1756 by German settler Joseph Brunner. Schleys group was among the many Pennsylvania Dutch who migrated south, another important route continued along the Potomac River from near Frederick, to Hagerstown, where it split. One branch crossed the Potomac River near Martinsburg, West Virginia, the other continued west to Cumberland, Maryland and ultimately crossed the Appalachian Mountains into the watershed of the Ohio River. Thus, British General Edward Braddock marched his troops west in 1755 through Frederick on the way to their fateful ambush near Fort Duquesne during the French, however, the British after the Proclamation of 1763 restricted that westward migration route until after the American Revolutionary War. Other German settlers in Frederick were Evangelical Lutherans, led by Rev. Henry Muhlenberg and they moved their mission church from Monocacy to what became a large complex a few blocks further down Church Street from the Anglicans and the German Reformed Church. Frederick also had a Catholic mission, to which Rev, jean DuBois was assigned in 1792, which became St. John the Evangelist Church. To control this crossroads during the American Revolution, the British garrisoned a German Hessian regiment in the town, afterward, many former Hessians stayed on and married into the towns families, strengthening the towns German identity. As the county seat for Western Maryland, Frederick not only was an important market town, although Montgomery County and Washington County were split off from Frederick County in 1776, Frederick remained the seat of the smaller county. Important lawyers who practiced in Frederick included John Hanson, Francis Scott Key, Frederick was also known during the nineteenth century for its religious pluralism, with one of its main thoroughfares, Church Street, hosting about a half dozen major churches. In 1793, All Saints Church hosted the first confirmation of an American citizen and that original colonial building was replaced in 1814 by a brick classical revival structure. It still stands today, although the principal worship space has become a larger brick gothic church joining it at the back
24.
Rock Creek Cemetery
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It is across the street from the historic Soldiers Home and the Soldiers Home Cemetery. It also is home to the InterFaith Conference of Metropolitan Washington, on August 12,1977, Rock Creek Cemetery and the adjacent church grounds were listed on the National Register of Historic Places as, Rock Creek Church Yard and Cemetery. The cemetery was first established in 1719, under the British colony of the Province of Maryland, as a churchyard within the glebe of St. Pauls Episcopal Church, Rock Creek Parish. An expanded cemetery was landscaped in the garden style, to function as both a cemetery and a public park. It is a ministry of St. Pauls Episcopal Church, Rock Creek Parish, with sections for St. Johns Russian Orthodox Church, the park-like setting of Rock Creek Cemetery has many notable mausoleums, sculptures, and tombstones. The best known is the Adams Memorial, a contemplative, androgynous bronze sculpture seated before a block of granite that was created by Augustus Saint-Gaudens and Stanford White. It marks the graves of Marian Hooper Clover Adams and her husband, Henry Adams, and sometimes, mistakenly, Saint-Gaudens entitled it The Mystery of the Hereafter and The Peace of God that Passeth Understanding. Wheeler, American Democratic politician and U. S, - Museums & Historic Places Map of Rock Creek Cemetery
25.
St Petersburg, Russia
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Saint Petersburg is Russias second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in 2012, and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is politically incorporated as a federal subject, situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 271703. In 1914, the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, in 1924 to Leningrad, between 1713 and 1728 and 1732–1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia. In 1918, the government bodies moved to Moscow. Saint Petersburg is one of the cities of Russia, as well as its cultural capital. The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Saint Petersburg is home to The Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. A large number of consulates, international corporations, banks. Swedish colonists built Nyenskans, a fortress, at the mouth of the Neva River in 1611, in a then called Ingermanland. A small town called Nyen grew up around it, Peter the Great was interested in seafaring and maritime affairs, and he intended to have Russia gain a seaport in order to be able to trade with other maritime nations. He needed a better seaport than Arkhangelsk, which was on the White Sea to the north, on May 1703121703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great captured Nyenskans, and soon replaced the fortress. On May 271703, closer to the estuary 5 km inland from the gulf), on Zayachy Island, he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress, which became the first brick and stone building of the new city. The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia, tens of thousands of serfs died building the city. Later, the city became the centre of the Saint Petersburg Governorate, Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712,9 years before the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 ended the war, he referred to Saint Petersburg as the capital as early as 1704. During its first few years, the city developed around Trinity Square on the bank of the Neva, near the Peter. However, Saint Petersburg soon started to be built out according to a plan, by 1716 the Swiss Italian Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be located on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by a rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed, but is evident in the layout of the streets, in 1716, Peter the Great appointed French Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond as the chief architect of Saint Petersburg. In 1724 the Academy of Sciences, University and Academic Gymnasium were established in Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great, in 1725, Peter died at the age of fifty-two. His endeavours to modernize Russia had met opposition from the Russian nobility—resulting in several attempts on his life
26.
Smolensky Lutheran Cemetery
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The Smolenskoye Cemetery is a Lutheran cemetery on Dekabristov Island in Saint Petersburg, Russia. It is one of the largest and oldest non-orthodox cemeteries in the city, until the early 20th century it was one of the main burial grounds for ethnic Germans. The Lutheran cemetery on Dekabristov Island is known to have existed in 1747, the Smolenka River divides it from the Smolensky Orthodox Cemetery on Vasilievsky Island. This cemetery contained the burials of the parishioners of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Saint Katarina, some tombstones of notable people were transferred to the necropolis of famous people at Alexander Nevsky Lavra. Among them are Thomas de Thomon, Euler, Betancourt, in the last perestroika years of the Soviet Union two parts of the cemetery were destroyed. The first was a section in the far north west corner of the cemetery which was entirely flattened to make way for a building for a local fire department in 1985. The second was a section at the entrance which was replaced with a petrol station in the early 1990s. The person who has done the most work in investigating the current status of the cemetery is Robert Leinonen and he has published a two-volume book on the cemetery detailing its history. The second volume contains an index of all buried there whose graves are still standing today. The publications are used by genealogists for family research in pre-revolutionary Russia, historians use them to research the social histories of the city. The information relating to this cemetery is towards the bottom of the entry
27.
Imperial Russia
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
28.
Ghent
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Ghent is a city and a municipality in the Flemish Region of Belgium. It is the capital and largest city of the East Flanders province and it is a port and university city. With 240,191 inhabitants in the beginning of 2009, Ghent is Belgiums second largest municipality by number of inhabitants, the current mayor of Ghent, Daniël Termont, leads a coalition of the Socialistische Partij Anders, Groen and Open VLD. The ten-day-long Ghent Festival is held every year and attended by about 1–1.5 million visitors, archaeological evidence shows human presence in the region of the confluence of Scheldt and Leie going back as far as the Stone Age and the Iron Age. Most historians believe that the name for Ghent, Ganda, is derived from the Celtic word ganda which means confluence. Other sources connect its name with a deity named Gontia. There are no records of the Roman period, but archaeological research confirms that the region of Ghent was further inhabited. When the Franks invaded the Roman territories from the end of the 4th century and well into the 5th century, they brought their language with them and Celtic, around 650, Saint Amand founded two abbeys in Ghent, St. Peters and Saint Bavos Abbey. The city grew from several nuclei, the abbeys and a commercial centre, around 800, Louis the Pious, son of Charlemagne, appointed Einhard, the biographer of Charlemagne, as abbot of both abbeys. In 851 and 879, the city was attacked and plundered twice by the Vikings. Within the protection of the County of Flanders, the city recovered and flourished from the 11th century, by the 13th century, Ghent was the biggest city in Europe north of the Alps after Paris, it was bigger than Cologne or Moscow. Within the city walls lived up to 65,000 people, the belfry and the towers of the Saint Bavo Cathedral and Saint Nicholas Church are just a few examples of the skyline of the period. The rivers flowed in an area where land was periodically flooded. These rich grass meersen were ideally suited for herding sheep, the wool of which was used for making cloth, during the Middle Ages Ghent was the leading city for cloth. The wool industry, originally established at Bruges, created the first European industrialized zone in Ghent in the High Middle Ages, the mercantile zone was so highly developed that wool had to be imported from Scotland and England. This was one of the reasons for Flanders good relationship with Scotland and England, Ghent was the birthplace of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. Trade with England suffered significantly during the Hundred Years War, the city recovered in the 15th century, when Flanders was united with neighbouring provinces under the Dukes of Burgundy. High taxes led to a rebellion and eventually the Battle of Gavere in 1453, around this time the centre of political and social importance in the Low Countries started to shift from Flanders to Brabant, although Ghent continued to play an important role
29.
James Monroe
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James Monroe was an American statesman who served from 1817 to 1825 as the fifth President of the United States. Monroe was the last president among the Founding Fathers of the United States as well as the Virginian dynasty, born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, Monroe was of the planter class and fought in the American Revolutionary War. He was wounded in the Battle of Trenton with a ball to his shoulder. After studying law under Thomas Jefferson from 1780 to 1783, he served as a delegate in the Continental Congress. He took a part in the new government, and in 1790 he was elected to the Senate of the first United States Congress. He gained experience as an executive as the Governor of Virginia and rose to prominence as a diplomat in France. During the War of 1812, Monroe served in roles as Secretary of State. As president, he sought to ease tensions, embarking on a tour of the country that was well received. As nationalism surged, partisan fury subsided, and the Era of Good Feelings ensued, until the Panic of 1819 struck, and a dispute over the admission of Missouri embroiled the country in 1820. Monroe supported the founding of colonies in Africa for freed slaves that would form the nation of Liberia, whose capital. His presidency concluded the first period of American presidential history before the beginning of Jacksonian democracy, following his retirement in 1825, Monroe was plagued by financial difficulties. He died in New York City on July 4,1831 and he has been ranked in the aggregate by scholars as the 16th most successful president. James Monroe was born on April 28,1758, in his parents house located in a area of Westmoreland County. The marked site is one mile from the community known today as Monroe Hall. The James Monroe Family Home Site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979 and his father Spence Monroe was a moderately prosperous planter who also practiced carpentry. His mother Elizabeth Jones married Spence Monroe in 1752 and they had several children and his paternal great-grandfather Patrick Andrew Monroe emigrated to America from Scotland in the mid-17th century. In 1650 he patented a large tract of land in Washington Parish, Westmoreland County, also among James Monroes ancestors were French Huguenot immigrants, who came to Virginia in 1700. First tutored at home by his mother Elizabeth, between the ages of 11 and 16, the young Monroe studied at Campbelltown Academy, a run by Reverend Archibald Campbell of Washington Parish
30.
U.S. Secretary of State
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Secretary of State is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule and thus earns the salary prescribed for that level. The current Secretary of State is former ExxonMobil CEO Rex Tillerson and those that remain include storage and use of the Great Seal of the United States, performance of protocol functions for the White House, and the drafting of certain proclamations. The Secretary also negotiates with the individual States over the extradition of fugitives to foreign countries, under Federal Law, the resignation of a President or of a Vice President is only valid if declared in writing, in an instrument delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. Accordingly, the resignations of President Nixon and of Vice-President Spiro Agnew, domestic issues, were formalized in instruments delivered to the Secretary of State, six Secretaries of State have gone on to be elected President. Former Secretaries of State retain the right to add the title Secretary to their surnames, as the head of the United States Foreign Service, the Secretary of State is responsible for management of the diplomatic service of the United States. The foreign service employs about 12,000 people domestically and internationally, the U. S. Secretary of State has the power to remove any foreign diplomat from U. S. soil for any reason. The nature of the means that Secretaries of State engage in travel around the world. The record for most countries visited in a secretarys tenure is 112, second is Madeleine Albright with 96. The record for most air miles traveled in a secretarys tenure is 1.380 million miles, second is Condoleezza Rices 1.059 million miles and third is Clintons 956,733 miles. S
31.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
32.
United States Capitol
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The United States Capitol, often called the Capitol Building or Capitol Hill, is the home of the United States Congress, and the seat of the legislative branch of the U. S. federal government. It sits atop Capitol Hill at the end of the National Mall in Washington. Though not at the center of the Federal District, the Capitol forms the origin point for the Districts street-numbering system. The original building was completed in 1800 and was subsequently expanded, like the principal buildings of the executive and judicial branches, the Capitol is built in a distinctive neoclassical style and has a white exterior. Both its east and west elevations are referred to as fronts, though only the east front was intended for the reception of visitors. In 2014, scaffolding was erected around the dome for a project scheduled to be completed by early 2017. All exterior scaffolding was removed by the end of summer 2016, prior to establishing the nations capital in Washington, D. C. the United States Congress and its predecessors had met in Philadelphia, New York City, and a number of other locations. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress brought together delegates from the colonies in Philadelphia, followed by the Second Continental Congress, Congress requested that John Dickinson, the Governor of Pennsylvania, call up the militia to defend Congress from attacks by the protesters. In what became known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, Dickinson sympathized with the protesters and refused to remove them from Philadelphia. As a result, Congress was forced to flee to Princeton, New Jersey, on June 21,1783, and met in Annapolis, Maryland, the United States Congress was established upon ratification of the United States Constitution and formally began on March 4,1789. New York City remained home to Congress until July 1790, when the Residence Act was passed to pave the way for a permanent capital. As part of the legislation, Philadelphia was chosen as a capital for ten years, until the nations capital in Washington. Pierre Charles LEnfant was given the task of creating the city plan for the new capital city, in reviewing LEnfants plan, Thomas Jefferson insisted the legislative building be called the Capitol rather than Congress House. The word Capitol comes from Latin and is associated with the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on Capitoline Hill, the connection between the two is not, however, crystal clear. In spring 1792, United States Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson proposed a competition to solicit designs for the Capitol and the Presidents House. The prize for the competition was $500 and a lot in the Federal City, the most promising of the submissions was by Stephen Hallet, a trained French architect. However, Hallets designs were overly fancy, with too much French influence, a late entry by amateur architect William Thornton was submitted on January 31,1793, to much praise for its Grandeur, Simplicity, and Beauty by Washington, along with praise from Thomas Jefferson. Thornton was inspired by the east front of the Louvre, as well as the Paris Pantheon for the portion of the design
33.
Abigail Adams
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Abigail Adams was the closest advisor and wife of John Adams, as well as the mother of John Quincy Adams. John frequently sought the advice of Abigail on many matters, and their letters are filled with discussions on government. Her letters also serve as eyewitness accounts of the American Revolutionary War home front, Abigail Adams was born at the North Parish Congregational Church in Weymouth, Massachusetts, to William Smith and Elizabeth Smith. On her mothers side she was descended from the Quincy family, through her mother she was a cousin of Dorothy Quincy, wife of John Hancock. Adams was also the great-granddaughter of John Norton, founding pastor of Old Ship Church in Hingham, Massachusetts, the only remaining 17th-century Puritan meetinghouse in Massachusetts. Smith married Elizabeth Quincy in 1742, and together they had four children and their only son, born in 1746, died of alcoholism in 1787. As with several of her ancestors, Adamss father was a liberal Congregationalist minister, Smith did not focus his preaching on predestination or original sin, instead he emphasized the importance of reason and morality. In July 1775 his wife Elizabeth, with whom he had married for 33 years. In 1784, at age 77, Smith died, Abigail did not receive formal schooling, she was frequently sick as child, which may have been a factor which prevented her from receiving an education. Later in life, Adams would also consider that she was deprived an education because females were given such an opportunity. Her grandmother, Elizabeth Quincy, also contributed to Adams education, as she grew up, Adams read with friends in an effort to further her learning. As an intellectually open-minded woman for her day, Adams ideas on womens rights and government would play a major role, albeit indirectly. She became one of the most erudite women ever to serve as First Lady, as third cousins, Abigail and John had known each other since they were children. In 1762, John accompanied his friend Richard Cranch to the Smith household, Cranch was engaged to Adams older sister, Mary, and they would be the parents of federal judge William Cranch. John was quickly attracted to the petite, shy, 17-year-old brunette who was bent over some book. He was surprised to learn she knew so much poetry, philosophy. Smith, Abigails father, presided over the marriage of John Adams, after the reception, the couple mounted a single horse and rode off to their new home, the small cottage and farm John had inherited from his father in Braintree, Massachusetts. Later they moved to Boston, where his law practice expanded, the couple welcomed their first child nine months into their marriage
34.
United First Parish Church
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United First Parish Church is a Unitarian Universalist congregation in Quincy, Massachusetts, established as the parish church of Quincy in 1639. The current building was constructed in 1828 by noted Boston stonecutter Abner Joy to designs by Alexander Parris. It is called the Church of the Presidents because two American Presidents, John Adams and John Quincy Adams, attended the church along with their wives, Abigail Adams, all four are interred beneath the church in a family crypt. The pew in which they sat is marked with a plaque and it was a Puritan congregationalist church when first established, but since the mid-18th century has been Unitarian, in spirit if not in name. The 1828 church is constructed of locally quarried granite, and is one of the finest Greek Revival church buildings in New England and it has a Greek temple front, supported by four monolithic granite columns which may have been the largest set in the United States at the time. Each column is 25 feet tall and weighs an estimated 25 tons, above the main facade rises a two-stage tower. Its lower section is oblong and unadorned, while the stage is stepped back. It has clock faces on each side, and is topped by a cupola with eight columns. President John Adams financed the construction through a land donation. However, the pillars are from local quarry, as the Adams quarry was not deep enough for a full-height pillar. Its original bell was cast by Paul Revere, but was melted down, the unusual domed ceiling represents a passion flower surrounded by lotuses. The fine mahogany altar is original, both John Adams and his son John Quincy Adams, together with their first ladies, are buried in a family vault in the churchs basement. Only one other church in the United States contains a presidential tomb, the Washington National Cathedral in Washington, D. C. where the remains of President Woodrow Wilson are interred
35.
Quincy, Massachusetts
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Quincy is the largest city in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, United States. It is a part of Metropolitan Boston and is Bostons immediate southern suburb. Its population in 2010 was 92,271, making it the 8th largest city in the state, first settled in 1625, Quincy was briefly part of Dorchester and Boston before becoming the north precinct of Braintree in 1640. In 1792, Quincy was split off from Braintree, the new town was named after Colonel John Quincy, maternal grandfather of Abigail Adams, Quincy became a city in 1888. For more than a century, Quincy was home to a thriving industry, the city was also the site of the Granite Railway. Shipbuilding at the Fore River Shipyard was another key part of the citys economy, in the 20th century, both Howard Johnsons and Dunkin Donuts were founded in the city. It was visited in 1621 by Plymouth Colony commander Myles Standish and Squanto, four years later, a party led by Captain Wollaston established a post on a low hill near the south shore of Quincy Bay east of present-day Blacks Creek. The settlers found the area suitable for farming, as Chickatawbut and this settlement was named Mount Wollaston in honor of the leader, who left the area soon after 1625, bound for Virginia. The Wollaston neighborhood in Quincy still retains Captain Wollastons name, upon the departure of Wollaston, Thomas Morton took over leadership of the post, and the settlement proceeded to gain a reputation for debauchery with Indian women and drunkenness. In 1627, Morton was arrested by Standish for violating the code of conduct in a way harmful to the colony and he was sent back to England, only to return and be arrested by Puritans the next year. The area of Quincy now called Merrymount is located on the site of the original English settlement of 1625, the area was first incorporated as part of Dorchester in 1630 and was briefly annexed by Boston in 1634. The area became Braintree in 1640, bordered along the coast of Massachusetts Bay by Dorchester to the north and Weymouth to the east, beginning in 1708, the modern border of Quincy first took shape as the North Precinct of Braintree. Following the American Revolution, Quincy was officially incorporated as a town named for Col. John Quincy in 1792. In 1845 the Old Colony Railroad opened, the Massachusetts Historical Commission stated that the railroad was the beginning of a trend toward suburbanization, Quincy became as accessible to Boston as was Charlestown. The first suburban land company, Bellevue Land Co. had been organized in northern Quincy in 1870, Quincys population grew by over 50 percent during the 1920s. Among the citys several firsts was the Granite Railway, the first commercial railroad in the United States, Quincy granite became famous throughout the nation, and stonecutting became the citys principal economic activity. Quincy was also home to the first iron furnace in the United States, in the 1870s, the city gave its name to the Quincy Method, an influential approach to education developed by Francis W. Parker while he served as Quincys superintendent of schools. Parker, a proponent of progressive education, put his ideas into practice in the citys underperforming schools, four years later
36.
C-SPAN
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C-SPAN, an acronym for Cable-Satellite Public Affairs Network, is an American cable and satellite television network that was created in 1979 by the cable television industry as a public service. C-SPAN televises many proceedings of the United States federal government, as well as public affairs programming. Its coverage of political and policy events is unedited, thereby providing viewers with unfiltered information about politics, non-political coverage includes historical programming, programs dedicated to non-fiction books, and interview programs with noteworthy individuals associated with public policy. The network operates independently, and neither the cable industry nor Congress has control of the content of its programming, Congress and other public affairs event and policy discussions. Lamb shared his idea with several executives, who helped him launch the network. Among them were Bob Rosencrans who provided $25,000 of initial funding in 1979 and John D. Evans who provided the wiring and access to the headend needed for the distribution of the C-SPAN signal. C-SPAN was launched on March 19,1979, in time for the first televised session made available by the House of Representatives, upon its debut, only 3.5 million homes were wired for C-SPAN, and the network had just three employees. The second C-SPAN channel, C-SPAN2, followed on June 2,1986 when the U. S. Senate permitted itself to be televised, C-SPAN Radio began operations on October 9,1997, covering similar events as the television networks and often simulcasting their programming. The station broadcasts on WCSP in Washington, D. C. is also available on XM Satellite Radio channel 120 and is streamed live at c-span. org and it was formerly available on Sirius Satellite Radio from 2002 to 2006. Lamb semi-retired in March 2012, coinciding with the channels 33rd anniversary, on January 12,2017, the online feed for C-SPAN1 was interrupted and replaced by a feed from the Russian television network RT for approximately 10 minutes. C-SPAN announced that they were troubleshooting the incident and were operating under the assumption that it was an internal routing issue, C-SPAN celebrated its 10th anniversary in 1989 with a three-hour retrospective, featuring Lamb recalling the development of the network. Five years later, the series American Presidents, Life Portraits, in 2004, C-SPAN celebrated its 25th anniversary, by which time the flagship network was viewed in 86 million homes, C-SPAN2 was in 70 million homes and C-SPAN3 was in eight million homes. Also included in the 25th anniversary was an essay contest for viewers to write in about how C-SPAN has influenced their life regarding community service. For example, one essay contest winner wrote about how C-SPANs non-fiction book programming serves as a resource in his mission to record non-fiction audio books for people who are blind. The network also had an essay contest, the winner of which was invited to host an hour of the broadcast from C-SPANs Capitol Hill studios. C-SPAN continues to expand its coverage of government proceedings, with a history of requests to government officials for greater access, in December 2009, Lamb wrote to leaders in the House and Senate, requesting that negotiations for health care reform be televised by C-SPAN. Committee meetings on health care were broadcast subsequently by C-SPAN and may be viewed on the C-SPAN website, in November 2010, Lamb wrote to incoming House Speaker John Boehner requesting changes to restrictions on cameras in the House. In particular, C-SPAN asked to add some of its own robotically operated cameras to the existing government-controlled cameras in the House chamber, in February 2011, Boehner denied the request
37.
First Spouse Program
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The Presidential $1 Coin Program, was the release by the United States Mint of $1 coins with engravings of relief portraits of U. S. presidents on the obverse. From 2007 to 2011, presidential $1 coins were minted for circulation in large numbers, from 2012 to 2016, new coins in the series were minted only for collectors. Senate Bill 1047, the Presidential $1 Coin Act of 1995, was introduced on May 17,2005 and it was reported favorably out of the U. S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs without amendment on July 29,2005. The Senate passed it with an amendment, by unanimous consent on November 18,2005. The House of Representatives passed it on December 13,2005, the engrossed bill was presented to president George W. Bush on December 15,2005, and he signed it into law on December 22,2005. The program began on January 1,2007, and like the 50 State Quarters program, was not scheduled to end until every eligible subject was honored. The program was to issue coins featuring each of four presidents per year on the obverse, to be eligible, a President must have been deceased for at least two years prior to the time of minting. The U. S. Mint called it the Presidential $1 Coin Program, the reverse of the coins bears the Statue of Liberty, the inscription $1 and the inscription United States of America. The legend Liberty is absent from the coin altogether, since the decision was made that the image of the Statue of Liberty on the reverse of the coin was sufficient to convey the message of liberty. The text of the act does not specify the color of the coins, the George Washington $1 coin was first available to the public on February 15,2007, in honor of Presidents Day, which was observed on February 19. This marked the first time since the St. Gaudens Double Eagle that the United States had issued a coin with edge lettering for circulation, edge-lettered coins date back to the 1790s. The process was started to discourage the shaving of gold coin edges, in December 2007, Congress passed H. R.2764, moving In God We Trust to either the obverse or reverse of the coins. This is the bill that created a program that will include quarters for Washington. Puerto Rico, Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, the U. S. Virgin Islands, the act had been introduced because of the failure of the Sacagawea $1 coin to gain widespread circulation in the United States. The act sympathized with the need of the private sector for a $1 coin. The law states that at least one in three issued dollars must be a Sacagawea dollar, furthermore, the Sacagawea design is required to continue after the Presidential Coin program ends. In that event, the Federal Reserve indicated that it would recommend that Congress reassess the one-third requirement. The one-third requirement was changed to one-fifth by the Native American $1 Coin Act
38.
Presidential $1 Coin Act
–
The Presidential $1 Coin Program, was the release by the United States Mint of $1 coins with engravings of relief portraits of U. S. presidents on the obverse. From 2007 to 2011, presidential $1 coins were minted for circulation in large numbers, from 2012 to 2016, new coins in the series were minted only for collectors. Senate Bill 1047, the Presidential $1 Coin Act of 1995, was introduced on May 17,2005 and it was reported favorably out of the U. S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs without amendment on July 29,2005. The Senate passed it with an amendment, by unanimous consent on November 18,2005. The House of Representatives passed it on December 13,2005, the engrossed bill was presented to president George W. Bush on December 15,2005, and he signed it into law on December 22,2005. The program began on January 1,2007, and like the 50 State Quarters program, was not scheduled to end until every eligible subject was honored. The program was to issue coins featuring each of four presidents per year on the obverse, to be eligible, a President must have been deceased for at least two years prior to the time of minting. The U. S. Mint called it the Presidential $1 Coin Program, the reverse of the coins bears the Statue of Liberty, the inscription $1 and the inscription United States of America. The legend Liberty is absent from the coin altogether, since the decision was made that the image of the Statue of Liberty on the reverse of the coin was sufficient to convey the message of liberty. The text of the act does not specify the color of the coins, the George Washington $1 coin was first available to the public on February 15,2007, in honor of Presidents Day, which was observed on February 19. This marked the first time since the St. Gaudens Double Eagle that the United States had issued a coin with edge lettering for circulation, edge-lettered coins date back to the 1790s. The process was started to discourage the shaving of gold coin edges, in December 2007, Congress passed H. R.2764, moving In God We Trust to either the obverse or reverse of the coins. This is the bill that created a program that will include quarters for Washington. Puerto Rico, Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, the U. S. Virgin Islands, the act had been introduced because of the failure of the Sacagawea $1 coin to gain widespread circulation in the United States. The act sympathized with the need of the private sector for a $1 coin. The law states that at least one in three issued dollars must be a Sacagawea dollar, furthermore, the Sacagawea design is required to continue after the Presidential Coin program ends. In that event, the Federal Reserve indicated that it would recommend that Congress reassess the one-third requirement. The one-third requirement was changed to one-fifth by the Native American $1 Coin Act
39.
United States Mint
–
The United States Mint produces circulating coinage for the United States to conduct its trade and commerce, as well as controlling the movement of bullion. It does not produce paper money, the Mint was created in Philadelphia in 1792, and soon joined by other centres, whose coins were identified by their own mint marks. There are currently four active coin-producing mints, Philadelphia, Denver, San Francisco, the Mint was created by Congress with the Coinage Act of 1792, and originally placed within the Department of State. Per the terms of the Coinage Act, the first Mint building was in Philadelphia, then the capital of the United States, today, the Mints headquarters are in Washington D. C. It operates mint facilities in Philadelphia, Denver, San Francisco, and West Point, New York and a bullion depository at Fort Knox, Kentucky. Official Mints were once located in Carson City, Nevada, Charlotte, North Carolina, Dahlonega, Georgia, New Orleans, Louisiana, Washington, D. C. and even in Manila. Originally part of the State Department, the Mint was made an independent agency in 1799 and it converted precious metals into standard coin for anyones account with no seigniorage charge beyond the refining costs. Under the Coinage Act of 1873, the Mint became part of the Department of the Treasury and it was placed under the auspices of the Treasurer of the United States in 1981. Legal tender coins of today are minted solely for the Treasurys account, the first Director of the United States Mint was renowned scientist David Rittenhouse from 1792 to 1795. The position was held most recently by Edmund C, moy until his resignation effective January 9,2011. Henry Voigt was the first Superintendent and Chief Coiner, and is credited with some of the first U. S. coin designs. Another important position at the Mint is that of Chief Engraver, the Mint has operated several branch facilities throughout the United States since the Philadelphia Mint opened in 1792, in a building known as Ye Olde Mint. With the opening of branch mints came the need for mint marks, the first of these branch mints were the Charlotte, North Carolina, Dahlonega, Georgia, and New Orleans, Louisiana branches. Both the Charlotte and Dahlonega Mints were opened to facilitate the conversion of gold deposits into coinage. The Civil War closed both these facilities permanently, the New Orleans Mint closed at the beginning of the Civil War and did not re-open until the end of Reconstruction in 1879. During its two stints as a facility, it produced both gold and silver coinage in eleven different denominations, though only ten denominations were ever minted there at one time. A new branch facility was opened in Carson City, Nevada, in 1870, it operated until 1893, like the Charlotte and Dahlonega branches, the Carson City Mint was opened to take advantage of local precious metal deposits, in this case, a large vein of silver. Though gold coins were produced there, no base metal coins were
40.
William Stephens Smith
–
William Stephens Smith was a United States Representative from New York. He married Abigail Nabby Adams, the daughter of President John Adams, and so was a brother-in-law of President John Quincy Adams, born in Suffolk County on Long Island, he graduated from the College of New Jersey in 1774, and studied law for a short time. He served in the Revolutionary Army as aide-de-camp to general John Sullivan in 1776 and he was on the staff of General Lafayette in 1780 and 1781, became an adjutant in the Corps of Light Infantry then transferred to the staff of George Washington. He was secretary of the Legation at London in 1784, while there, he met and courted John Adamss daughter Abigail, whom he married in 1786. He returned to America in 1788, Smith was appointed by President Washington to be the first United States Marshal for the District of New York in 1789, and later supervisor of revenue. He was one of the originators of the Society of the Cincinnati and he was appointed Surveyor of the Port of New York by President John Adams in 1800. During this period, the Smiths bought land in what was then the countryside outside of New York City, and planned to build an estate, which they called Mount Vernon, in honor of George Washington. They never lived there, but a house on the property was later converted to a hotel and is now operated as the Mount Vernon Hotel Museum. Colonel Smith raised private funds, procured weapons, and recruited soldiers of fortune to liberate Venezuela of Spanish colonial rule and this action was inspired by Smiths renewal of acquaintance with General Francisco de Miranda, whom Smith had first met when he was John Adamss secretary in London. On 2 February 1806, a force of 200 filibusters, including Smiths son William Steuben, set sail to Venezuela on a merchant vessel. In Jacmel, Haiti, Miranda acquired two ships, the Bacchus and the Bee. On April 28 after a landing attempt in Ocumare de la Costa resulted in two Spanish garda costas capturing the Bacchus and Bee. Sixty men were prisoners, including Smiths son, and put on trial in Puerto Cabello for piracy and their bodies were beheaded and quartered, with pieces sent to nearby towns as a warning. William Steuben Smith had survived, he escaped his captors. The Leander left Port of Spain on 24 July, together with HMS Express, HMS Attentive, HMS Prevost, and HMS Lilly, carrying some 220 officers and men. General Miranda decided to land in La Vela de Coro and the squadron anchored there on 1 August carrying a flag that Miranda had designed, nevertheless, the local support that he had hoped for failed to materialize when the fighting started. In the aftermath of the expedition, Colonel Smith and Ogden were indicted by a federal grand jury in New York for violating the Neutrality Act of 1794. Colonel Smith claimed his orders came from President Thomas Jefferson and Secretary of State James Madison, judge William Paterson of Supreme Court, ruled that the President cannot authorize a person to do what the law forbids
41.
Abigail Adams Smith
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Abigail Nabby Amelia Adams Smith was the firstborn of Abigail and John Adams, founding father and second President of the United States. She was named for her mother, at the age of 18, Nabby met and fell in love with Royall Tyler. Her father thought she was too young to have a suitor, at one point the two were even engaged to be married. But John Adams, then the U. S. minister to the Kingdom of Great Britain, eagerly called for his wife, for a time, Nabby maintained a long distance relationship with Tyler, but eventually broke off the engagement, leaving Tyler depressed. Shortly afterward Nabby met Colonel William Stephens Smith, who was serving as her fathers secretary and was 10 years her senior and they were married at the American ministers residence in London on June 12,1786. Nabbys observations of European life and customs, and of many of the statesmen of the day, were later published. Their children were, William Steuben Smith John Adams Smith Thomas Hollis Smith Caroline Amelia Smith In 1810, on October 8,1811 a mastectomy was performed by John Warren. The operation was performed by Warren and several assistants without any anesthesia in a room of the Adams home. Her mother, husband, and daughter Caroline were also on hand to assist, the exact details of the surgery are not known but it was described as a typical 19th century operation. Before the surgery began Dr. Warren strapped Nabby into a chair to restrain her, once the diseased breast was exposed, other physicians held her left arm back, so that Dr. Warren would have better access to the diseased tissue. He began the surgery by thrusting the large fork into her breast and he then sliced at the base of the breast until it was completely severed from her chest. After removing the breast, he saw that the cancer had spread to the nodes under Abigails arms. To stop Abigails bleeding, Dr. Warren applied the heated spatula to cauterize the open cuts, the surgery took around 25 minutes, but dressing the wounds took more than an hour. Warren and his assistants later expressed astonishment that Abigail endured the pain of the surgery and cauterization without crying out and they were so horrifying that they caused her mother, husband, and daughter to turn away. About seven months after the surgery, in 1812, Abigail finally started to feel well once more, so then she returned home to New York. But then she began feeling pain in her abdomen and spine, at first a local doctor in New York said that the pain was from rheumatism, but later in 1813 new tumors began to appear in the scar tissue as well as on the skin. This was because when Dr. Warren removed her breast, tiny malignant cancers were left behind, so in spring of 1813 her doctor diagnosed her yet again with cancer, except it spread everywhere in her body. She then wanted to return to her father and mothers house to die there, Nabby Adams Smith died on August 9,1813 at the age of 48
42.
Charles Francis Adams Sr.
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Charles Francis Adams Sr. was an American historical editor, politician and diplomat. He was a son of President John Quincy Adams and grandson of President John Adams and that meant conducting dialogue with both sides and monitoring the British connection in the supply of commerce raiders. He became an overseer of Harvard University, and built Adams National Historical Park and he was born in Boston and attended Boston Latin School and Harvard College, where he graduated in 1825. He then studied law with Daniel Webster and practiced in Boston and he wrote numerous reviews of works about American and British history for the North American Review. Charles Adams and his brothers, John and George, were all rivals for the woman, their cousin, Mary Catherine Hellen. In 1828 John married Mary Hellen at a ceremony in the White House, from the 1840s Adams became one of the finest historical editors of his era. He developed his expertise in part because of the example of his father, the senior Adams began a life of his father, John Adams, but wrote only a few chapters before resuming his political career in 1830 with his election to the US House of Representatives. The edition, titled The Works of John Adams, Esq and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1857. As a Republican, Adams was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1858, where he chaired the Committee on Manufactures. He was re-elected in 1860, but resigned to become U. S. minister to the Court of St Jamess, powerful Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner had wanted the position and became alienated from Adams. Part of his duties included correspondence with British civilians including Karl Marx, back in Boston, Adams declined the presidency of Harvard University but became one of its overseers in 1869. In 1870 he built the first presidential library in the United States to honor his father John Quincy Adams, the Stone Library includes over 14,000 books written in twelve languages. The library is located on the property of the Old House at Adams National Historical Park in Quincy, Adams served as U. S. arbiter on the 1871–72 international commission to settle the Alabama claims that met in Geneva. He is considered one of the contributors on this seminal work in forwarding the concept of world law through arbitration. During the 1876 electoral college controversy, Adams sided with Democrat Samuel J. Tilden over Republican Rutherford B. Hayes for the presidency and he was the last surviving child of John Quincy Adams. Abigails health and spirits worsened after her husbands death and she died at Peacefield June 6,1889, butterfield, L. H. et al. eds. Multivolume letterpress edition of all letters to and from members of the Adams family, plus their diaries. Donald, Aida Dipace and Donald, David Herbert, eds, Charles Francis Adams Sr. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
43.
Crowninshield family
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The Crowninshield family is an American family that has been prominent in seafaring, political and military leadership, and the literary world. The founder of the American family emigrated from what is now Germany in the late 17th century, the family is one of several known collectively as Boston Brahmins. Johann Caspar Richter was an Old Saxon landowner and shipper-trader originally from the south of Denmark and he moved to the German village of Kronenschieldt, near Leipzig, during the Thirty Years War and married Maria Hahn, from Annaburg in Saxony-Anhalt. The family adopted the name as their surname. Their son, Johannes Caspar Richter von Kronenschieldt, was born in Leipzig circa 1661, after being educated briefly at the University of Leipzig, he moved to Boston, Massachusetts in about 1688. He anglicized his name to John Caspar Crowninshield and married Elizabeth Allen on December 5,1694 in Lynn, Massachusetts and their children began the Crowninshield family known today. His great-granddaughter Mary Crowinshield was the wife of Senator Nathaniel Silsbee, although the familys roots are Danish and German, most of the more recent lines of the Crowninshield family in Massachusetts are primarily of English stock. Shortly after moving to Essex County, Massachusetts, and especially the town of Salem and they helped settle Salem and led it to seafaring prominence, helping turn it into an important seaport as well as a settlement for affluent families by the late 18th century. George Crowninshield founded the Crowninshield & Sons shipping business with his five sons, in Salem, the family built Crowninshields Wharf, one of three major town wharfs at the time. As a result, the Crowninshields became highly influential in the trade in tea, cod, molasses, Madeira wine, Valencia oranges, Málaga grapes, salt, iron. The family was responsible for starting the first major sea trade. The earlier pepper trade between Asia and Europe had been land-based, lieutenant Benjamin Crowninshield served from 17 October 1778 on the American privateer Black Prince during the American Revolution, which raided Fishguard and disrupted British merchant shipping. He was a son of Jacob Crowninshield and Hannah Carlton, a son of George Crowninshield, sea adventurer George Crowninshield Jr. built and sailed the yacht Cleopatras Barge, named after the ancient ship used by Cleopatra VII. It became the first yacht to cross the Atlantic Ocean, although the familys prominence was originally gained via seafaring, Crowninshields later became most noted for the public service, primarily in politics and the military. The early Crowninshields were Republicans and were noted for their support of Thomas Jefferson. The Crowninshields were particularly praised for their naval leadership, representative Jacob Crowninshield was appointed to be the second person to hold the position by Thomas Jefferson, but did not serve due to his ill health. His grandson Arent S. Crowninshield served as an admiral in the United States Navy, william Crowninshield Endicott was United States Secretary of War during Grover Clevelands first term as President of the United States. During the late 19th and 20th centuries, the Crowninshields were mostly visible in the arts, frank Crowninshield created and edited Vanity Fair magazine, while Francis Boardman Crowninshield became an accomplished painter and architect
44.
John Quincy Adams II
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John Quincy Adams II was an American lawyer and politician. Adams was the son of Charles Francis Adams and Abigail Brown Brooks, the grandson and namesake of president John Quincy Adams and he graduated from Harvard University in 1853, studied law, attained admission to the bar, and practiced in Boston. He later established a model farm near Quincy, Massachusetts. Adams married Frances Cadwalader Crowninshield, daughter of George and Harriet Sears Crowninshield of the politically powerful Crowninshield family, during the Civil War he served on the staff of Governor John Andrew with the rank of Colonel. Adams served in local offices in Quincy, including town meeting moderator, school board chairman. He was elected to the Massachusetts state legislature as a Republican, in 1873 he was the unsuccessful nominee for lieutenant governor. Adams received one vote for the Democratic nomination for President of the United States at the 1868 Democratic National Convention, in 1872 the faction of Democrats that refused to support Horace Greeley nominated Charles OConor for president and John Quincy Adams II for vice-president on the straight Democratic ticket. They declined, but their names remained on the ballot in some states, after losing an election for lieutenant governor in 1876, Adams refused most further involvement in politics, though he was considered by Grover Cleveland for a cabinet position in 1893. In 1877 he was made a member of the Harvard Corporation, Adams died at age 60 in Quincy on August 24,1894. He was buried at Mount Wollaston Cemetery in Quincy, George Caspar Adams Charles Francis Adams III, United States Secretary of the Navy Frances C. Adams Arthur Adams Abigail Adams Adams, John Quincy, 2d
45.
Charles Francis Adams Jr.
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Charles Francis Adams Jr. was a member of the prominent Adams family, and son of Charles Francis Adams Sr. He served as a colonel in the Union Army during the American Civil War, after the war, he was a railroad regulator and executive, an author of historical works, and a member of the Massachusetts Park Commission. Adams was born into a family with a legacy in American public life. He was the great-grandson of United States President John Adams, and his father Charles Francis Adams Sr. was a lawyer, politician, diplomat, and writer. Adams graduated from Harvard University in 1856, Adams served in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He was commissioned as a first lieutenant in the 1st Massachusetts Volunteer Cavalry on December 28,1861 and he was promoted to captain on December 1,1862. He fought with distinction during the Gettysburg Campaign, where his company was engaged at the Battle of Aldie. When the regiments 3-years enlistment ended it was reduced to a battalion, on September 8,1864 he was commissioned as the lieutenant colonel of the 5th Massachusetts Cavalry. He was promoted to colonel and assumed command of the regiment on March 14,1865, when he assumed command, the regiment was assigned guarding Confederate prisoners of war at Point Lookout, Maryland. Adams, who wished to lead his regiment in combat, was able to get horses for his regiment and had it reassigned to front line duty during the days of the campaign against Richmond. Adams wrote in his autobiography that he regretted having his unit reassigned since he came to the conclusion that the black soldiers were ill suited for combat duty. He led his regiment into Richmond shortly after it was captured in April 1865, Adams returned to Massachusetts in May due to illness and resigned from the Army on August 1,1865. S. Senate confirmed the award on July 23,1866, Adams was a Veteran Companion of the Massachusetts Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. On November 8,1865, he married Mary Elizabeth Ogden, daughter of Abram Ogden of New York City, following the Civil War, he was appointed to the Massachusetts Railroad Commission. There he attempted to persuade railroads into compliance with accepted business norms and it was in this vein that he wrote Chapters of Erie. However, true to his philosophy, he favored the protection of businessmen over that of the consumers. He saw regulation as necessary to protect investors and other businessmen from the capriciousness of a public or the machinations of other unscrupulous stock jobbers. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, congress distrusted the Union Pacific Railroad and in 1884 forced it to hire Adams as the new president
46.
Henry Adams
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Henry Brooks Adams was an American historian and member of the Adams political family, being descended from two U. S. Presidents. After the American Civil War, he became a political journalist who entertained America’s foremost intellectuals at his homes in Washington and Boston. In his lifetime, he was best known for his History of the United States During the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, a 9-volume work, praised for its literary style. His posthumously published memoirs, The Education of Henry Adams, won the Pulitzer Prize and he was born in Boston, the son of Charles Francis Adams, Sr. and Abigail Brooks into one of the countrys most prominent families. After his graduation from Harvard University in 1858, he embarked on a tour of Europe. He was initiated into the Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity as honorary member at the 1893 Columbian Exposition by Harris J. Ryan, through that organization, he was a member of the Irving Literary Society. He tried his hand again at law, taking employment with Judge Horace Grays Boston firm, Henry shouldered the responsibility reluctantly and with much self-doubt. Had little to do, he reflected later, and knew not how to do it rightly, during this time, Adams was the anonymous Washington correspondent for Charles Hales Boston Daily Advertiser. On March 19,1861, Abraham Lincoln appointed Charles Francis Adams, Henry accompanied his father to London as his private secretary. He also became the anonymous London correspondent for the New York Times, the two Adamses were kept very busy, monitoring Confederate diplomatic intrigues and trying to obstruct the construction of Confederate commerce raiders by British shipyards. Henrys writings for the Times argued that Americans should be patient with the British, while in Britain, Adams was befriended by many noted men, including Charles Lyell, Francis T. Palgrave, Richard Monckton Milnes, James Milnes Gaskell, and Charles Milnes Gaskell. He worked to introduce the young Henry James to English society, with the help of his closest and lifelong friend Charles Milnes Gaskell, while in Britain, Henry read and was taken with the works of John Stuart Mill. Henry wrote to his brother Charles that Mill demonstrated to him that democracy is still capable of rewarding a conscientious servant and his years in London led Adams to conclude that he could best provide that knowledgeable and conscientious leadership by working as a correspondent and journalist. In 1868, Henry Adams returned to the United States and settled in Washington, DC, Adams saw himself as a traditionalist longing for the democratic ideal of the 17th and 18th centuries. Accordingly, he was keen on exposing political corruption in his journalism, Adams said, I think that Lee should have been hanged. It was all the worse that he was a good man and its always the good men who do the most harm in the world. In 1870, Adams was appointed professor of history at Harvard. As an academic historian, Adams is considered to have been the first to conduct historical seminar work in the United States, among his students was Henry Cabot Lodge, who worked closely with Adams as a graduate student
47.
Marian Hooper Adams
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Marian Clover Hooper Adams was an American socialite, active society hostess, and arbiter of Washington, DC, and an accomplished amateur photographer. Clover, who has cited as the inspiration for writer Henry Jamess Daisy Miller. After her suicide, he commissioned the famous Adams Memorial, which features an enigmatic androgynous bronze sculpture by Augustus Saint-Gaudens, to stand at the site of her, and his, grave. After Clovers death, Adams destroyed all the letters that she had written to him and rarely, if ever. She was also omitted from his The Education of Henry Adams, however, in letters to her friend Anne Palmer Fell, he opened up about his 12 years of happiness with Clover and his difficulty in dealing with her loss. She was born in Boston, Massachusetts, the third and youngest child of Robert William Hooper and her siblings were Ellen Sturgis Nella Hooper, who married professor Ephraim Whitman Gurney, and Edward William Ned Hooper. The Hooper family was wealthy and prominent, Clovers birthplace and childhood home in Boston, was at 114 Beacon Street, Beacon Hill. When she was five years old, her mother, a Transcendentalist poet, died and she was privately educated at a girls school in Cambridge, which was run by Elizabeth and Louis Agassiz. Clover Hooper volunteered for the Sanitary Commission during the Civil War and she defied convention by insisting on watching the review of William Tecumseh Sherman and Ulysses S. Grants armies in 1865. In 1866, she traveled abroad, where she is said to have met fellow Bostonian Henry Adams in London and her father and she were living at their home in Beverly, Massachusetts, in July 1870. On June 27,1872, Adams and she were married in Boston, upon their return, he taught at Harvard and their home at 91 Marlborough Street, Boston, became a gathering place for a lively circle of intellectuals. In 1877, they moved to Washington, DC, where their home on Lafayette Square, across from the White House, Clover remained close to her father, writing him regularly. In June 1880, Dr. Hooper was living at his household on Beacon Street in Boston, in 1883, Clover became active in photography and was one of the earliest portrait photographers. Familiarizing herself with the chemicals, she did all her own developing and these images provide insights into 19th-century America and a womans place in it. And the references in her letters and her work was widely admired, although her husband apparently would not allow her to become professional and discouraged any publication of her photographs. The Adams letters reveal their household to be a normal and happy one, in the beginning, he confessed himself absurdly in love, and she spoke again and again of Henrys utter devotion. Clover and her husband hired architect H. H, after Dr. Hoopers death, she sank into bouts of overwhelming depression. While awaiting the completion of the house, they rented one nearby on H Street, Clover documented the construction of the houses with her camera
48.
Brooks Adams
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Peter Chardon Brooks Adams was an American historian, political scientist and a critic of capitalism. He graduated from Harvard University in 1870 and studied at Harvard Law School in 1870 and 1871, Adams believed that commercial civilizations rise and fall in predictable cycles. First, masses of people together in large population centers. As their desire for wealth grows, they discard spiritual and creative values and their greed leads to distrust and dishonesty, and eventually the society crumbles. In The Law of Civilization and Decay, Adams noted that as new population centers emerged in the west and he predicted in Americas Economic Supremacy that New York would become the center of world trade. His maternal grandfather was Peter Chardon Brooks, the wealthiest man in Boston at the time of his death and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1918. The 1900 US Census shows Brooks Adams as living in Quincy, the Census report also shows he married Evelyn Davis around 1890. The census does not show the couple having any children, the Emancipation of Massachusetts, The Dream and the Reality, Houghton Mifflin Company,1919. The Gold Standard, An Historical Study, Alfred Mudge & Son,1894, the Law of Civilization and Decay, An Essay on History, The Macmillan Company,1895. Americas Economic Supremacy, The Macmillan Co.1900, the New Empire, The Macmillan Company,1902. Railways as Public Agents, A Study in Sovereignty, Boston,1910, theory of Social Revolutions, The Macmillan Company,1913. The Spanish War and the Equilibrium of the World, The Forum 25, the New Struggle for Life Among Nations, McClures Magazine 12, April 1899. Englands Decadence in the West Indies, The Forum, June 1899, War and Economic Competition, Scribners 31, March 1902. John Hay, McClures Magazine 19, June 1902, Legal Supervision of the Transportation Tax, The North American Review, September 1904. Nature of Law, Methods and Aim of Legal Education, in, Centralization and the Law, Scientific Legal Education. Boston, Little, Brown & Company,1906, in, Centralization and the Law, Scientific Legal Education. Boston, Little, Brown & Company,1906, a Problem in Civilization, The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. CVI,1910. The Collapse of Capitalistic Government, The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. CXI,1913, Henry Adams, The Degradation of the Democratic Dogma, with an introduction by Brooks Adams
First Lady Louisa Adams, C‑SPAN[6]
