1.
Boston City Council
–
The Boston City Council is the legislative branch of government for the city of Boston, Massachusetts. It is made up of 13 members,9 district representatives and 4 at-large members, Councillors are elected to two-year terms and there is no limit on the number of terms an individual can serve. Boston uses a form of government in which the city council acts as a check against the power of the executive branch. The leader of the City Council is the president and is elected each year by the Council, a majority vote is necessary to elect a councilor to president. When the mayor out of state or is removed from office. The president leads Council meetings and appoints councillors to committees, by law Boston municipal elections are nonpartisan in that candidates do not represent a specific political party. However, most city councillors have been members of the Democratic party, John W. Sears was the first Republican elected to the Council, in 1980. Chuck Turner, previous Councilman for District 7, was a member of the Green-Rainbow Party, the City Council currently has the following committees, City Councillors are currently paid an annual salary of $99,500. The salary for councillors is half of the salary, currently $199,500. Every four years, the Council votes on whether or not to raise the mayors salary, when the Boston city charter was rewritten in 1909, the Board of Aldermen and the Common Council were replaced by a nine-member City Council. All nine councillors were elected at-large for terms lasting two years, the new charter also gave the Mayor the power to veto all acts of the City Council. The first council meeting as a unicameral body occurred on February 7,1910, the procedure was changed again by Chapter 356 of the Acts of 1951, which provided for the election of nine city councillors, all at large, for two-year terms. In November 1981, Boston voters approved changing the composition of the Council. However, the referendum did not indicate how the lines would be drawn, only that the districts be of approximately equal population. The Council created a committee to propose several different possible district maps. Langone, Dapper ONeil, and John W. Sears as the three members, all of whom opposed district representation. Contention centered around Dorchester and the South End, Dorchester, Bostons largest neighborhood, needed to be split into at least two districts. A simple split in half would create either a north and a district or an east
2.
United States House of Representatives
–
The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
3.
Massachusetts
–
It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
4.
Massachusetts's 9th congressional district
–
Massachusetts 9th congressional district is located in eastern Massachusetts. It is represented by Democrat William R. Keating, redistricting after the 2010 census eliminated Massachusettss 10th congressional district and moved many of the districts communities here. The district also added some Plymouth County communities from the old 4th district and it eliminated a few easternmost Norfolk County communities and northernmost Plymouth county communities. All of Barnstable County, Dukes County, and Nantucket County. The following municipalities in Bristol County, Acushnet, Dartmouth, Fairhaven, Fall River, Wards 1-3, Ward 6, Precincts A and B in Ward 4, Precincts A and B in Ward 5, New Bedford, and Westport. 1893, Boston, Wards 1,2,3,6,7,8,12,16,17,18,19,1916, In Middlesex County, Everett, Malden, Somerville. In Suffolk County, Chelsea, Revere, Winthrop,1953, Counties, Barnstable, Dukes, and Nantucket. Bristol County, City of Fall River, ward 6, and city of New Bedford, towns of Acushnet, Dartmouth, Fairhaven,1977, Norfolk County, Towns of Canton, Dedham, Dover, Needham, Norwood, Walpole, and Westwood. Suffolk County, City of Boston, Wards 3,4, 6—14,19,1985, Bristol County, City of Taunton. Towns of Dighton, Easton, and Raynham, Norfolk County, Towns of Canton, Dedham, Needham, Norwood, Stoughton, and Westwood. Plymouth County, Towns of Bridgewater, Halifax, Lakeville, Suffolk County, City of Boston, Wards 3, 6-14,19, and 20. In Norfolk County, Avon, Braintree, Canton, Dedham, Holbrook, Medfield, Milton, Needham, Norwood, Randolph, Stoughton, Walpole, in Plymouth County, Bridgewater, Brockton, East Bridgewater, Hanson, Precincts 1 and 3, West Bridgewater, Whitman. The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress, the Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts
5.
John William McCormack
–
McCormack was born in Boston to Joseph H. McCormack, a hod carrier and native of Prince Edward Island, Canada, and his wife Mary Ellen McCormack of Boston. He said he was one of 12 children, several of whom died as children or young adults, in fact, Mary Ellen McCormack carried eight children to term, and six lived long enough to be counted in he census or included in other records. John McCormacks older siblings Patrick, Catherine, and James died at ages 24,19 and 17 and his brother Edward died in Boston in 1963 at age 67. McCormacks brother Donald died in Texas in 1966 at the age of 65, McCormack also had a half brother named Harry from his fathers first marriage, Harry died on Prince Edward Island at age 18 in 1902. He died in 1929, and was buried in a grave at Waldoboro Rural Cemetery. McCormack attended the John Andrew Grammar School through the eighth grade and he then left school to help support his family, initially working for $3 a week as an errand boy for a brokerage firm. McCormack and his brothers managed a large newspaper delivery route for $11 a week. He later left the brokerage for the office of attorney William T. Way and he began to study law with Way and passed the Massachusetts bar exam at age 21, despite not having gone to high school or college. As a young man, McCormack began his involvement in politics by making speeches on behalf of other Democratic candidates. In May 1917, McCormack was elected to serve as a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1917, in 1917, McCormack enlisted in the United States Army for World War I. He was posted to Fort Devens, Massachusetts and Fort Lee, Virginia, after the war McCormack practiced law and resumed his political career. In 1926 he made a primary election run against incumbent Congressman James A. Gallivan. McCormack made an impression in a losing cause, leaving him well positioned for a future race. He resumed practicing law, and built a career as a trial attorney. McCormacks opportunity came after Gallivan died in 1928 and that November McCormack won both the special election to complete Gallivans term in the U. S. House as well as the general election for a full term. He was reelected 20 times, initially from the 12th District, McCormack usually won reelection without difficulty, and he served in the House from November 6,1928 to January 3,1971. He did not run for reelection in 1970, during his House career, McCormack served on the Committee on Territories, and the Committee on Ways and Means. He was chairman of the Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration in the 85th Congress, Speaker John Nance Garner appointed McCormack to the powerful Ways and Means Committee in his second term, and he served there until 1941
6.
Joe Moakley
–
John Joseph Joe Moakley was an American politician who served as the United States Representative for Massachusettss 9th congressional district from 1973 until his death in 2001. Moakley won the seat from incumbent Louise Day Hicks in a 1972 rematch, Moakley was the last chairman of the U. S. House Committee on Rules before Republicans took control of the chamber in 1995. Moakley was born in South Boston, Massachusetts, April 27,1927, lying about his age, he enlisted in the United States Navy during World War II and was involved in the War in the Pacific from 1943 to 1946. After returning home, Moakley attended the University of Miami in Coral Gables, Florida from 1950 to 1951, Moakley was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1953 to 1961 and a member of the Massachusetts Senate from 1965 to 1971. He was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention of 1968 and he was a Boston City Councilman from 1971 to 1973. In 1972, however, Moakley ran as an independent against Hicks and he had let it be known that he would serve as a Democrat if elected, and was sworn in as a Democrat on January 3,1973. He was reelected 14 times, never facing substantive opposition and he only faced Republican challengers six times, the other times he was either completely unopposed or faced only minor-party opposition. In 2001, Joe Moakley announced that he would not be running for re-election for his 17th term in 2002, Moakley died on May 28,2001, in Bethesda, Maryland. His body was interred in Blue Hill Cemetery, Braintree, Massachusetts, the Hematological Cancer Research Investment and Education Act, enacted in 2002, establishes the Joe Moakley Research Excellence Program for expanded and coordinated blood cancer research programs. He was succeeded in office by Stephen Lynch, Moakley was prominent in the opposition to the legislative veto, which became an increasingly popular device in the 1970s. He held up in committee a bill proposed by Rep. Elliott Levitas that proposed to institute the legislative veto as a general feature of legislation. His position was vindicated when the Supreme Court held in INS v. Chadha that the legislative veto violated the bicameralism, Moakley led a special panel that investigated the 1989 deaths of six Jesuit priests and two women in El Salvador. The United States ended its aid to El Salvador in part because of the Moakley Commissions report implicating several high-ranking Salvadoran military officials in the murders. Joe Moakley chaired the Committee on Rules in the 101st Congress through 103rd Congresses, Moakley managed to have a bridge in Boston named for his wife, Evelyn Moakley, after her death. The Evelyn Moakley Bridge is next to a U. S. Courthouse, moakleys efforts led to the acquisition by Bridgewater State College of a US$10 million grant. The John Joseph Moakley Center for Technological Applications provides training in the use of technology for students, teachers, the three-story building houses a large computer lab, a television studio, an auditorium, and numerous classrooms
7.
Boston
–
Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
8.
West Roxbury
–
West Roxbury is separated from Roxbury by Jamaica Plain and Roslindale. Founded in 1630, West Roxbury was originally part of the town of Roxbury and was used as farmland. West Roxbury seceded from Roxbury in 1851, and was annexed by Boston in 1874, the town included the neighborhoods of Jamaica Plain and Roslindale. West Roxburys main commercial thoroughfare is Centre Street, the neighborhood has some two-family houses but mostly single family homes, many of Bostons civil servants live there. The Needham Branch of the MBTA Commuter Rail network has three stations in West Roxbury, several MBTA bus lines run through and/or terminate in West Roxbury. A large Veterans Affairs hospital is located opposite the Charles River on the VFW Parkway near the Dedham line, West Roxbury is home to several places of worship, including three Catholic parishes, churches of various Protestant denominations, and a Jewish synagogue. Until the 2000 census West Roxburys population had been recorded as declining slightly and this could be due to more rigorous counting procedures instituted by the City of Boston and Massachusetts in an unsuccessful attempt to avoid losing the states tenth congressional seat. In the twentieth century, upwardly mobile Irish Americans moved to the neighborhood from elsewhere in Boston, by the first decade of the 21st century, an influx of new residents contributed to increased ethnic diversity in the neighborhood. The Irish Social Club of Boston, founded in Dorchester in 1945, moved its headquarters to West Roxbury in 1978, the club closed in 2011 due to financial troubles and declining membership. Support from the city council and state allowed the club to obtain a liquor license and reopen. At Centre and Corey Streets, the Theodore Parker Church features seven stained glass made by the Tiffany Studios between 1894 and 1927. The original church, designed in 1890 by Alexander Wadsworth Longfellow, henry Seaver designed the current church in 1900. Theodore Parker, an advocate of religious ideas, abolitionism. Westerly Burying Ground, also known as Westerly Burial Ground, was established in 1683 to permit local burial of residents of Jamaica Plain, when West Roxbury was still part of Roxbury, the towns first burial place was what is today Eliot Burying Ground, near Dudley Square. This was a distance to travel for the inhabitants of West Roxbury. A conflict between the rural and more urbanised parts of the led to the split of West Roxbury from Roxbury proper in 1851. West Roxbury became part of the City of Boston on 5 January 1874, Westerly Burying Ground served as this communitys burial place well into the 19th century. The oldest graves contain many of the towns earliest and most prominent families, eight veterans of the American Revolution and fifteen veterans of the American Civil War are also buried here
9.
Democratic Party (United States)
–
The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
10.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
11.
Simmons College
–
Simmons College, established in 1899, is a private women focused undergraduate college and private co-educational graduate school in Boston, in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Simmons was founded in 1899 with a bequest by John Simmons, Simmons founded the college based on the belief that women ought to live independently by offering a Liberal Arts education for undergraduate women to integrate into professional work experience. Simmons absorbed Garland Junior College in 1976, Simmons graduated its first African American student in 1914. Furthermore, Simmons was one of the few private colleges not to impose quotas on Jewish students for the first half of the 1900s. The undergraduate program is women-centered, with approximately 1800 students enrolled in the 2012-2013 academic year, the graduate schools are coed, and have about 3,000 students. The schools MBA program is the first in the world designed specifically for women, government documentation of gender is not required. Graduate programs are co-educational, so gender identity is not of concern, the original site of the Simmons College Graduate School of Social Work is featured on the Boston Womens Heritage Trail. Simmons College currently consists of two campuses located near the Back Bay Fens in Boston, The Academic Campus is located at 300 The Fenway in the Longwood Medical Area. It is immediately adjacent to the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum and the Boston Latin School and it is near the Landmark Center and the Fenway and Longwood MBTA stations. The residence campus is separated from the campus by Emmanuel College. The mascots are the Sharks and the colors are blue and yellow, Simmons has made several significant sustainability efforts. Former President Susan Scrimshaw signed the American College and University Presidents Climate Commitment as a commitment to eliminate campus greenhouse gas emissions over time. Furthermore, the School of Management is addressing sustainability in its curriculum as well as in building, Simmons environmental efforts earned the school a C on the College Sustainability Report Card 2010, published in Fall 2009 by the Sustainable Endowments Institute. Nancy Bond, winner of a Newbery Honor, taught at the Simmons College Center for the Study of Childrens Literature from 1979 to 2001, gregory Maguire, author, professor and co-director at the Simmons College Center for the Study of Childrens Literature from 1979-1985. Isadore Gilbert Mudge, librarian, part-time lecturer Simmons College Center for the Study of Childrens Literature Simmons College official website Simmons College official athletics website
12.
Wheelock College
–
Wheelock College was founded in 1888 by Lucy Wheelock as Miss Wheelocks Kindergarten Training School to improve the quality of early childhood education. Wheelock is located in Boston, and is a member of the Colleges of the Fenway, Wheelock is a member of the Association of Independent Colleges and Universities in Massachusetts and led by President David J. Chard. The College offers five varsity teams and six varsity women’s teams. In addition to athletics, Wheelock College offers many clubs and organizations that allow students to become involved on campus,1888, Lucy Wheelock began a kindergarten teacher training class at the former Chauncy-Hall School. 1892, Wheelock Alumnae Association- Lucy Wheelock travels nationally and internationally, lecturing widely on the subject of kindergarten and she is elected to the Kindergarten Committee of the National Education Association, which established the International Kindergarten Union. The Wheelock Alumnae Association is formed, with Ella Smith Wheelock 92 as President,1895, The one-year program extends to two years. From the beginning, observation of children and practice teaching are central to the Wheelock School program, Service to the communities of immigrant children and families in the many settlement houses of Boston becomes another core part of the program and every student participates. Lucy becomes the IKU’s second President,1896, The Wheelock School becomes an independent school and moves to 284 Dartmouth Street, a dormitory system begins with three students. 1930, Name changes from Miss Wheelocks Kindergarten Training School to The Wheelock School, A Training School for Teachers of Nursery School, Kindergarten,1939, Lucy Wheelock retires after 50 years as director. Wheelock School incorporated as nonprofit Wheelock College, authorized to grant Bachelor of Science degree. 1940, The Lucy Wheelock Child Center opens in Roxbury, Dr. Winifred E. Bain is appointed the Principal of Wheelock College by the Board of Trustees. 1946, Lucy Wheelock passes away on October 1, the first graduate students are admitted in 1953. 1955, Dr. Winifred Bain retires and is succeeded by Dr. Frances McClellan Mayfarth,1962, President Mayfarth retires, and Dr. James E. Conner is appointed as President of Wheelock College. 1964, 75th Anniversary 75th anniversary of the founding of Wheelock College, Wheelock is accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. 1967, The college adopts a trimester schedule and men are admitted to the undergraduate program,1971, Dr. Merry resigns, and Dr. Donald R. Cruickshank becomes President. 1972, Dr. William L. Irvine is named Acting President,1973, Dr. Gordon L. Marshall is appointed President. 1974, The Towne Art Gallery and Little Theatre are created from a donation by alumna Marion Hartog Towne. 1975 Division of Continuing Education is created with Dr. Edgar Klugman as Director,1980, Sally Reeves Edmonds,55, becomes the first woman Chair of the Board of Trustees
13.
Brookline, Massachusetts
–
Brookline /ˈbrʊkˌlaɪn/ is a town in Norfolk County, Massachusetts, in the United States, and is a part of Greater Boston. Brookline borders six of Bostons neighborhoods, Brighton, Allston, Fenway–Kenmore, Mission Hill, Jamaica Plain, the city of Newton lies to the west of Brookline. At the 2010 census, the population of the town was 58,732, Brookline was first settled in 1638 as a hamlet in Boston, but was incorporated as a separate town in 1705. Brookline is especially notable as the birthplace and hometown of John F. Kennedy, Brookline was known as the hamlet of Muddy River and was considered part of Boston until the Town of Brookline was independently incorporated in 1705. It is said that the name derives from a farm once owned by Judge Samuel Sewall. According to the United States Census Bureau, Brookline has an area of 6.8 sq mi. The northern part of Brookline, roughly north of the D-line tracks, is urban in character, as highly walkable, Brookline borders Newton to the west and Boston in all other directions, it is therefore non-contiguous with any other part of Norfolk County. Brookline separates the bulk of the city of Boston from its westernmost neighborhoods of Allston–Brighton, Brookline falls under the USDA 6b Plant Hardiness zone. As of the census of 2010, there were 58,732 people,24,891 households, the population density was 8,701.0 people per square mile. There were 26,448 housing units at a density of 3,889.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 73. 3% White,3. 4% Black or African American,0. 12% Native American,15. 6% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,1. 01% from other races, and 3. 0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5. 0% of the population,36. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.18 and the family size was 2.86. In the town, the population was out with 16. 6% under the age of 18,11. 7%, from 18 to 24,37. 3% from 25 to 44,21. 9% from 45 to 64. The median age was 34 years, for every 100 females there were 82.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.1 males, the median income for a household in the town was $66,711, and the median income for a family was $92,993. Males had an income of $56,861 versus $43,436 for females. The per capita income for the town was $44,327
14.
Bachelor of Science
–
A Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years. Whether a student of a subject is awarded a Bachelor of Science degree or a Bachelor of Arts degree can vary between universities. For one example, a degree may be given as a Bachelor of Arts by one university but as a B. Sc. by another. Some liberal arts colleges in the United States offer only the BA, even in the natural sciences, in both instances, there are historical and traditional reasons. Northwestern Universitys School of Communication grants B. Sc. degrees in all of its programs of study, including theater, dance, the first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Science was the University of London in 1860. Prior to this, science subjects were included in the B. A. bracket, notably in the cases of mathematics, physics, physiology, in Argentina and Chile, most university degrees are given as a license in a field or discipline. For instance, besides the courses, biochemistry and biology require 1–2 years hands-on training either in a clinical laboratory plus a final exam or in a research laboratory plus a thesis defense. The degrees are term licenses in the field of study or profession i. e. biology, nutrition, physical therapy or kinesiology, etc. However, a masters degree requires 2-3 more years of specific training, engineering and medical degrees are also different and are six-year programs of specific classes and training starting immediately after high school. No intermediate degrees count towards the admission examination or even exist, medical degrees are complemented with a 3–4 years of hospital residence plus 1–2 years of specialization training. In Australia, the B. Sc. is generally a three-four year degree, an honours year or a Master of Science is required to progress on to the Doctor of Philosophy. In New Zealand, in cases, the honours degree comprises an additional postgraduate qualification. In South Africa, the B. Sc. is taken three years, while the postgraduate B. Sc. Entails an additional year of study, admission to the honours degree is on the basis of a sufficiently high average in the B. Sc. major, an honours degree is required for M. Sc. Level study, and admission to a doctorate is via the M. Sc, commonly in British Commonwealth countries and Ireland graduands are admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Science after having completed a programme in one or more of the sciences. These programmes may take different lengths of time to complete, note that in British English, no full stops are used in the title, hence BSc, not B. Sc. A Bachelor of Science receives the designation BSc or BS for a major/pass degree, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland an honours degree is typically completed over a three-year period, though there are a few intensified two-year courses. Bachelors degrees were typically completed in two years for most of the twentieth century, in Scotland, where access to university is possible after one less year of secondary education, degree courses have a foundation year making the total course length four years
15.
Boston University
–
Boston University is a private research university located in Boston, Massachusetts. The university is nonsectarian, and is affiliated with the United Methodist Church. The university has more than 3,900 faculty members and nearly 33,000 students and it offers bachelors degrees, masters degrees, and doctorates, and medical, dental, business, and law degrees through 17 schools and colleges on two urban campuses. The main campus is situated along the Charles River in Bostons Fenway-Kenmore and Allston neighborhoods, BU is categorized as an R1, Doctoral University in the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. BU is a member of the Boston Consortium for Higher Education, the University was ranked 39th among undergraduate programs at national universities, and 32nd among global universities by U. S. News & World Report in its 2017 rankings. In 1876, BU professor Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone in a BU lab, American Civil Rights Movement leader and 1964 Nobel Peace Prize winner Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. received his PhD in Theology from BU in 1955. The Boston University Terriers compete in the NCAAs Division I, BU athletic teams compete in the Patriot League, and Hockey East conferences, and their mascot is Rhett the Boston Terrier. Boston University is well known for hockey, in which it has won five national championships. The University organized formal Centennial observances both in 1939 and 1969, on April 24–25,1839 a group of Methodist ministers and laymen at the Old Bromfield Street Church in Boston elected to establish a Methodist theological school. Set up in Newbury, Vermont, the school was named the Newbury Biblical Institute, in 1847, the Congregational Society in Concord, New Hampshire, invited the Institute to relocate to Concord and offered a disused Congregational church building with a capacity of 1200 people. Other citizens of Concord covered the remodeling costs, one stipulation of the invitation was that the Institute remain in Concord for at least 20 years. The charter issued by New Hampshire designated the school the Methodist General Biblical Institute, with the agreed twenty years coming to a close, the Trustees of the Concord Biblical Institute purchased 30 acres on Aspinwall Hill in Brookline, Massachusetts, as a possible relocation site. The institute moved in 1867 to 23 Pinkney Street in Boston, in 1869, three Trustees of the Boston Theological Institute obtained from the Massachusetts Legislature a charter for a university by name of Boston University. These three were successful Boston businessmen and Methodist laymen, with a history of involvement in educational enterprises and they were Isaac Rich, Lee Claflin, and Jacob Sleeper, for whom Boston Universitys three West Campus dormitories are named. Lee Claflins son, William, was then Governor of Massachusetts, on account of the religious opinions he may entertain, provided, nonetheless, that this section shall not apply to the theological department of said University. Every department of the new university was open to all on an equal footing regardless of sex, race. The Boston Theological Institute was absorbed into Boston University in 1871 as the BU School of Theology, in January 1872 Isaac Rich died, leaving the vast bulk of his estate to a trust that would go to Boston University after ten years of growth while the University was organized. Most of this bequest consisted of real estate throughout the core of the city of Boston and was appraised at more than $1.5 million, Kilgore describes this as the largest single donation to an American college or university to that time
16.
Juris Doctor
–
The Juris Doctor degree, also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence degree, is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. It is earned by completing law school in Australia, Canada and the United States and it has the academic standing of a second-entry, professional baccalaureate degree in Canada, a masters degree in Australia and a professional doctorate in the United States. The degree was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th century and was created as a version of the old European doctor of law degree. Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the study of law. It involves a program in most jurisdictions. To be authorized to practice law in the courts of a state in the United States. Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar of the court before they are authorized to practice in that court. Admission to the bar of a district court includes admission to the bar of the related bankruptcy court. In the United States, the doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor and at some law schools Doctor of Law. Juris Doctor literally means Teacher of Law, while the Latin for Doctor of Jurisprudence—Jurisprudentiae Doctor—literally means Teacher of Legal Knowledge, the J. D. is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor. In institutions where the latter can be earned, e. g. D, the LL. D. is invariably an honorary degree in the United States. The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the school in that city. This served as the model for law schools of the Middle Ages. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees were introduced in Paris, the nature of the J. D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes, the universities taught only civil and canon law but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, by the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the role grew tremendously. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades
17.
Boston University School of Law
–
Boston University School of Law is a nationally recognized law school located in the heart of Boston Universitys campus on Commonwealth Avenue in Boston, Massachusetts. Consistently ranked among the top American law schools, U. S. News, three specialties are in the top 10, including Health Law, Tax Law, and Intellectual Property Law. Princeton Review ranks it 1st place nationally in Best Professors and 8th place for Best Classroom Experience, for the class of 2018, the median student LSAT score was 164 and median GPA was 3.68. BU was one of the first law schools in the country to students regardless of race or gender, the second-oldest law school in Massachusetts. Nearly 700 students are enrolled in the full-time J. D. degree program, the School offers more than 200 classes and seminars,21 study abroad opportunities, and 17 dual degree programs. Students learn critical legal theory and doctrine in classes that average a 10, BU also pioneered a clinic to represent victims of human trafficking in Boston. BU Laws most recent entering class comes from 32 states and the District of Columbia and these students represent 16 countries and 124 undergraduate institutions. Admission to Boston University School of Law is very competitive, there were 257 students who matriculated in the fall of 2016 out of a pool of 4,804 J. D. applicants. The 25th and 75th LSAT percentiles for the 2016 entering class were 161 and 165, the 25th and 75th undergraduate GPA percentiles were 3.42 and 3.74, respectively, with a median of 3.65. Boston University School of Law ranks #20 among American law schools in the 2016 list of best law schools compiled by U. S. News & World Report. U. S. News also ranks the Schools Health Law Program #2, Tax Law #7, on September 13,2012, media executive and former BU Law lecturer Sumner Redstone donated $18 million to expand the School’s facilities. Opened in 2014 alongside the Law Tower, the 100, 000-square-foot, five-story building houses most of the law schools classrooms, which are equipped with state-of-the-art technology. The Redstone Building welcomes visitors into the glass-enclosed Robert T. Butler Atrium on the first floor and it also provide new facilities to support clinical, transactional and professional training programs. Student locker facilities, lounges, a dining facility, and other student function. The materials, color and exterior detailing of the Redstone Building have been calibrated to respect and complement the architecture of the five original Josep Lluis Sert buildings at BU. As the new law school entry, the Redstone Building faces a paved entry forecourt off the main east-west pedestrian path, which has been re-graded, paved and landscaped with new trees and plantings. The open area to the north and east of the Law Tower has been restored and replanted to reinforce the existing character of the area and of the Alpert Mall to the east. The space between the Law Tower and Pappas Library has been redesigned to emphasize the connection between the original and the new entrances to the school
18.
South Boston
–
South Boston is a densely populated neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, located south and east of the Fort Point Channel and abutting Dorchester Bay. South Boston, most popularly known as Southie, was once a working class Irish Catholic community. South Boston contains Dorchester Heights, where George Washington forced British troops to evacuate during the American Revolutionary War, South Boston has undergone gentrification, and consequently, its real estate market has seen property values join the highest in the city. South Boston has also left its mark on history with Boston busing desegregation, South Boston is also home to the St. Patricks Day Parade, a celebration of the Irish-American culture and the Evacuation Day observance. Geographically, Dorchester Neck was an isthmus, a strip of land that connected the mainland of the colonial settlement of Dorchester with Dorchester Heights. South Boston gained an identity separate from Dorchester, but the two were annexed by Boston in pieces, from 1804 to 1870. During the American Revolutionary War, George Washington placed a cannon on Dorchester Heights, the British evacuated Boston and Fort William and Mary for Halifax, Nova Scotia. Fort William and Mary was replaced with a fortification known as Fort Independence. That fort was replaced by a granite fortification prior to the American Civil War, edgar Allan Poe was stationed at Castle Island for five months in 1827 and was inspired to write The Cask of Amontillado based on an early Castle Island legend. During the 1970s, South Boston received national attention for its opposition to court-mandated school desegregation by busing students to different neighborhoods. In the early 21st century, property values, especially in the City Point neighborhood near Castle Island, the City Point area of South Boston, labeled East Side by realtors, has seen a major increase in property values due to its close proximity to downtown Boston and gentrification. Additionally, the West Side is home to the first green residence in Boston — the Macallen Building which was featured in the movie The Greening of Southie. The City of Boston is investing in the West Side through developments like the ~150, the Harrison house is a mansion located in Southie. It was used as a residence until 1913. At that time it was purchased by the Roman Catholic Church to use the space as a convent, since 1987, its current owner has converted it into apartment style housing. The house located at 789 East Broadway is full of rich history and it is associated with Harrison Loring, who owned and operated one of the first South Boston shipyards. The history behind the South Boston, Saint Patricks Day Parade is General John Henry Knox brought 55 cannons captured at Fort Ticonderoga, in March, the troops positioned the cannons on Dorchester Heights. They had cut trees to cannon size, hollowed them out
19.
NAACP
–
Du Bois, Mary White Ovington and Moorfield Storey. Its mission in the 21st century is to ensure the political, educational, social and their national initiatives included political lobbying, publicity efforts, and litigation strategies developed by their legal team. The group enlarged its mission in the late 20th century by considering issues such as police misconduct, the status of foreign refugees. Its name, retained in accordance with tradition, uses the common term colored people. The NAACP bestows annual awards to people of color in two categories, Image Awards are for achievement in the arts and entertainment, and Spingarn Medals are for outstanding achievement of any kind and its headquarters is in Baltimore, Maryland. The NAACP is headquartered in Baltimore, with regional offices in New York, Michigan, Georgia, Maryland, Texas, Colorado. Each regional office is responsible for coordinating the efforts of state conferences in that region, local, youth, and college chapters organize activities for individual members. In the U. S. the NAACP is administered by a 64-member board, julian Bond, Civil Rights Movement activist and former Georgia State Senator, was chairman until replaced in February 2010 by health-care administrator Roslyn Brock. For decades in the first half of the 20th century, the organization was led by its executive secretary. James Weldon Johnson and Walter F. White, who served in that role successively from 1920 to 1958, were more widely known as NAACP leaders than were presidents during those years. Departments within the NAACP govern areas of action, local chapters are supported by the Branch and Field Services department and the Youth and College department. The Legal department focuses on cases of broad application to minorities, such as systematic discrimination in employment, government. The Washington, D. C. bureau is responsible for lobbying the U. S. government, the goal of the Health Division is to advance health care for minorities through public policy initiatives and education. As of 2007, the NAACP had approximately 425,000 paying and non-paying members, the NAACPs non-current records are housed at the Library of Congress, which has served as the organizations official repository since 1964. The records held there comprise approximately five million items spanning the NAACPs history from the time of its founding until 2003, in 1905, a group of thirty-two prominent African-American leaders met to discuss the challenges facing people of color and possible strategies and solutions. They were particularly concerned by the Southern states disenfranchisement of blacks starting with Mississippis passage of a new constitution in 1890, through 1908, southern legislatures dominated by white Democrats ratified new constitutions and laws creating barriers to voter registration and more complex election rules. In practice, this caused the exclusion of most blacks and many whites from the political system in southern states. Black voter registration and turnout dropped markedly in the South as a result of such legislation, men who had been voting for thirty years in the South were told they did not qualify to register
20.
Racial segregation in the United States
–
Legal segregation of schools was stopped in the U. S. by federal enforcement of a series of Supreme Court decisions after Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. All legally enforced public segregation was abolished by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and it passed after demonstrations during the Civil Rights Movement resulted in public opinion turning against enforced segregation. De facto segregation—segregation in fact, without sanction of law—persists in varying degrees to the present day, the contemporary racial segregation seen in the United States in residential neighborhoods has been shaped by public policies, mortgage discrimination, and redlining, among other factors. Hypersegregation is a form of segregation that consists of the geographical grouping of racial groups. Most often, this occurs in cities where the residents of the city are African Americans. As a result, Federal occupation troops in the South assured blacks the right to vote, the Reconstruction amendments asserted the supremacy of the national state and the formal equality under the law of everyone within it. However it did not prohibit segregation in schools, when the Republicans came to power in the Southern states after 1867, they created the first system of taxpayer-funded public schools. Southern Blacks wanted public schools for their children but they did not demand racially integrated schools, almost all the new public schools were segregated, apart from a few in New Orleans. After the Republicans lost power in the mid-1870s, conservative whites retained the school systems. Almost all private academies and colleges in the South were strictly segregated by race, the American Missionary Association supported the development and establishment of several historically black colleges, such as Fisk University and Shaw University. In this period, a handful of northern colleges accepted black students, Northern denominations and their missionary associations especially established private schools across the South to provide secondary education. They provided an amount of collegiate work. Tuition was minimal, so churches supported the colleges financially, in 1900 churches—mostly based in the North—operated 247 schools for blacks across the South, with a budget of about $1 million. They employed 1600 teachers and taught 46,000 students, prominent schools included Howard University, a federal institution based in Washington, Fisk University in Nashville, Atlanta University, Hampton Institute in Virginia, and many others. Most new colleges in the 19th century were founded in northern states, Jim Crow segregation began somewhat later, in the 1880s. Disfranchisement of the began in the 1890s. By 1910, Segregation was firmly established across the South and most of the border region, the legitimacy of laws requiring segregation of blacks was upheld by the U. S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson,163 U. S.537. Plessy thus allowed segregation, which became standard throughout the southern United States, everyone was supposed to receive the same public services, but with separate facilities for each race
21.
Working class
–
The working class are the people employed for wages, especially in manual-labour occupations and in skilled, industrial work. Working-class occupations include blue-collar jobs, some jobs, and most service-work jobs. As with many terms describing social class, working class is defined and used in different ways. The most general definition, used by Marxists and socialists, is that the class includes all those who have nothing to sell but their labor-power. When used non-academically in the United States, however, it refers to a section of society dependent on physical labor. For certain types of science, as well as scientific or journalistic political analysis, for example. Working-class occupations are then categorized into four groups, Unskilled laborers, artisans, outworkers, a common alternative, sometimes used in sociology, is to define class by income levels. The cut-off between working class and middle class here might mean the line where a population has discretionary income, some researchers have suggested that working-class status should be defined subjectively as self-identification with the working-class group. This subjective approach allows people, rather than researchers, to define their own social class, in feudal Europe, the working class as such did not exist in large numbers. Instead, most people were part of the class, a group made up of different professions, trades. A lawyer, craftsman and peasant were all considered to be part of the social unit. Similar hierarchies existed outside Europe in other pre-industrial societies, the social position of these laboring classes was viewed as ordained by natural law and common religious belief. This social position was contested, particularly by peasants, for example during the German Peasants War, wealthy members of these societies created ideologies which blamed many of the problems of working-class people on their morals and ethics. In The Making of the English Working Class, E. P, starting around 1917, a number of countries became ruled ostensibly in the interests of the working class. Since then, four major states have turned towards semi-market-based governance. Other states of this sort have either collapsed, or never achieved significant levels of industrialization or large working classes, since 1960, large-scale proletarianisation and enclosure of commons has occurred in the third world, generating new working classes. Additionally, countries such as India have been slowly undergoing social change, karl Marx defined the working class or proletariat as individuals who sell their labour power for wages and who do not own the means of production. He argued that they were responsible for creating the wealth of a society and he asserted that the working class physically build bridges, craft furniture, grow food, and nurse children, but do not own land, or factories
22.
Irish Americans
–
Irish Americans are an ethnic group comprising Americans who have full or partial ancestry from Ireland, especially those who identify with that ancestry, along with their cultural characteristics. About 33.3 million Americans—10. 5% of the total population—reported Irish ancestry in the 2013 American Community Survey conducted by the U. S. Census Bureau and this compares with a population of 6.4 million on the island of Ireland. Three million people identified as Scots-Irish, whose ancestors were Ulster Scots who emigrated from Ireland to the United States. An estimated 250,000 migrated to the United States during the colonial era, only 20,000 immigrants of these immigrants from Ireland were Catholics—English, Irish or a few Germans. Catholics numbered 40,000 or 1. 6% of the population of 2.5 million in 1775. The Scots-Irish settled mainly in the back country of the Appalachian Mountain region. Irish Americans signed the documents of the United States—the Declaration of Independence. The early Ulster immigrants and their descendants at first usually referred to simply as Irish. However, most descendants of the Scots-Irish continued to consider themselves Irish or American rather than Scots-Irish, however, beginning in the early 19th century, many Irish migrated individually to the interior for work on large-scale infrastructure projects such as canals and, later in the century, railroads. During the colonial period, Scots-Irish settled in the southern Appalachian backcountry, by the 19th century, through intermarriage with settlers of English and German ancestry, the descendants of the Scots-Irish lost their identification with Ireland. This generation of pioneers. was a generation of Americans, not of Englishmen or Germans or Scots-Irish, in 1820 Irish-born John England became the first Catholic bishop in the mainly Protestant city of Charleston, South Carolina. During the 1820s and 30s, Bishop England defended the Catholic minority against Protestant prejudices, in 1831 and 1835, he established free schools for free African American children. Inflamed by the propaganda of the American Anti-Slavery Society, a mob raided the Charleston post office in 1835, England led Charlestons Irish Volunteers to defend the school. Soon after this, however, all schools for blacks were closed in Charleston. The Irish Catholics concentrated in a few medium-sized cities, where they were visible, especially in Charleston, Savannah. After secession in 1861, the Irish Catholic community supported the Confederacy and 20,000 served in the Confederate Army, civilian leaders of the Irish and the South did embrace the Confederate national project and most became advocates of a hard-war policy. Although most began as unskilled laborers, Irish Catholics in the South achieved average or above average economic status by 1900, the large Erie Canal project was one such example where Irishmen were many of the laborers. Small but tight communities developed in growing such as Philadelphia, Boston, New York
23.
African Americans
–
African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
24.
North End, Boston
–
The North End is a neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, United States. It has the distinction of being the citys oldest residential community, though small, only 0.36 square miles, the neighborhood has nearly one hundred establishments and a variety of tourist attractions. It is known for its Italian American population and fine Italian restaurants, the district is a pending Boston Landmark. The North End as a community of Boston was evident as early as 1646. Three years later, the area had a large population to support its own church. The construction of the building led to the development of the area now known as North Square. Increase Mather, the minister of the North Meeting House, was an influential and his home, the meeting house, and surrounding buildings were destroyed by a fire in 1676. The meeting house was soon afterwards. The Paul Revere House was later constructed on the site of the Mather House, part of Copps Hill was converted to a cemetery, called the North Burying Ground. The earliest grave markers located in the date back to 1661. The North End became a place to live in the 18th century. Wealthy families shared the neighborhood with artisans, journeymen, laborers, servants, two brick townhouses from this period still stand, the Pierce-Hichborn House and the Ebenezer Clough House on Unity Street. The Christ Church, now known as the Old North Church, was constructed during this time and it is the oldest surviving church building in Boston. In 1770, 11-year-old Christopher Seider was part of a crowd that attacked the home of a Customs Office employee. The employee, Ebenezer Richardson, fired a gun into the crowd, hitting, during the Siege of Boston, the North Meeting House was dismantled by the British for use as firewood. In the first half of the 19th century, the North End experienced a significant amount of commercial development and this activity was concentrated on Commercial, Fulton, and Lewis Streets. During this time the neighborhood also developed a red-light district, known as the Black Sea, by the late 1840s, living conditions in the crowded North End were among the worst in the city. Successive waves of immigrants came to Boston and settled in the neighborhood, beginning with the Irish and continuing with Eastern European Jews and Italians
25.
Italian Americans
–
Italian Americans are an ethnic group comprising Americans who have full or partial ancestry from Italy, especially those who identify with that ancestry, along with their cultural characteristics. Italian Americans are the fourth largest European ethnic group in the United States, about 5.5 million Italians immigrated to the United States from 1820 to 2004. Immigration began in earnest during the 1870s, when more than twice as many Italians immigrated than during the five previous decades altogether. The 1870s were followed by the greatest surge of immigration, which occurred in the period between 1880 and 1914 and brought more than 4 million Italians to America. This period of large scale immigration ended abruptly with the onset of the First World War in 1914 and, except for one year, further immigration would be greatly limited by a number of restrictive laws passed by Congress in the 1920s. Approximately 84% of the Italian immigrants came from Southern Italy and Sicily, after unification, the Italian government initially encouraged emigration to relieve economic pressures in the South. After the American Civil War, which resulted in over a million killed or wounded, immigrant workers were recruited from Italy. In the United States, most Italians began their new lives as manual laborers in Eastern cities, mining camps, Italian Americans gradually moved from the lower rungs of the economic scale in the first generation to a level comparable to the national average by 1970. By 1990, more than 65% of Italian Americans were managerial, professional, the Italian-American communities have often been characterized by strong ties with family, the Catholic Church, fraternal organizations and political parties. Today, over 17 million Americans claim Italian ancestry, third only to Brazil with 31 million, and Argentina, Italians and their descendants in America have helped to shape the country and, in turn, have adapted to it. They have gained prominence in politics, sports, the media, the arts, the culinary arts. Italian navigators and explorers played a key role in the discovery, exploration, christopher Columbus, the explorer who first reached the Americas in 1492–1504, was Italian. Another notable Italian explorer, Amerigo Vespucci, who explored the east coast of South America between 1499 and 1502, is the source of the name America. Englands claims in North America were based on the voyages of the Italian explorer John Cabot, in 1524 the Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European to map the Atlantic coast of todays United States, and to enter New York Bay. In 1539, Marco da Nizza, explored the territory later became the states of Arizona. In the 17th century, Henri de Tonti, together with the French explorer LaSalle, De Tonti founded the first European settlement in Illinois in 1679, and in Arkansas in 1683. With LaSalle, he co-founded New Orleans, and was governor of the Louisiana Territory for the next 20 years and his brother Alphonse de Tonty, with French explorer Antoine Cadillac, was the co-founder of Detroit in 1701, and was its acting colonial governor for 12 years. Spain and France were Catholic countries and sent many missionaries to convert the native population, included among these missionaries were numerous Italians
26.
White Anglo-Saxon Protestant
–
Scholars agree that the groups influence has waned since the end of World War II in 1945, with the growing influence of other ethnic groups. The term is used in Australia and Canada for similar elites. The term is used by sociologists to include all Americans of Northern European ancestry regardless of their class or power. People rarely call themselves WASPs, except humorously, the acronym is typically used by non-WASPs. Historically, Anglo-Saxon referred to the language of indigenous inhabitants of England before about 1150, since the 19th century it has been in common use in the English-speaking world, but not in Britain itself, to refer to Protestants of principally English descent. Anglo-Saxon carries Germanic connotations by its roots in the ancient territories of present-day Germany, Angeln, the former of which England and English is ultimately derived. The W and P were added in the 1950s to form a witty epithet with an undertone of waspishness and that is, they are wealthy, they are Anglo-Saxon in origin, and they are Protestants. To their Waspishness should be added the tendency to be located on the eastern seaboard or around San Francisco, to be school and Ivy League educated. The term was popularized by sociologist and University of Pennsylvania professor E. Digby Baltzell, himself a WASP, in his 1964 book The Protestant Establishment, Aristocracy and Caste in America. The concept of Anglo Saxon and especially Anglo Saxon Protestantism evolved in the late 19th century, historian Richard Kyle says, Protestantism had not yet split into two mutually hostile camps – the liberals and fundamentalists. Of great importance, evangelical Protestantism still dominated the cultural scene, American values bore the stamp of this Anglo-Saxon Protestant ascendancy. The political, cultural, religious, and intellectual leaders of the nation were largely of a Northern European Protestant stock, before WASP came into use in the 1960s the term Anglo Saxon filled some of the same purposes. Anglo-Saxons by 1900 was often used as a synonym for all people of English descent and sometimes more generally and it was often used in claims for the superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race, much to the annoyance of outsiders. For example, Josiah Strong boasted in 1890, In 1700 this race numbered less than 6,000,000 souls. In 1800, Anglo-Saxons had increased to about 20,500,000, like the newer term WASP, the old term Anglo-Saxon was used derisively by writers hostile to an informal alliance between Britain and the U. S. The negative use was common among Irish Americans and writers in France. It also remains in use in Ireland as a term for the British or English, Irish-American humorist Finley Peter Dunne popularized the ridicule of Anglo Saxon, even calling President Theodore Roosevelt one. To be genuinely Irish is to challenge WASP dominance, argues California politician Tom Hayden, the depiction of the Irish in the films of John Ford was a counterpoint to WASP standards of rectitude
27.
Kevin White (mayor)
–
He presided as mayor during racially turbulent years in the late 1960s and the 1970s, and the start of desegregation of schools via court-ordered busing of school children in Boston. White won the office in the 1967 general election in a hard-fought campaign opposing the anti-busing. White was earlier elected Massachusetts Secretary of the Commonwealth in 1960 at the age of 31, White is credited with revitalizing the waterfront, downtown and financial districts of Boston, and transforming Quincy Market into a metropolitan and tourist destination. White was unsuccessful in his efforts to obtain higher office, Governor of Massachusetts, White himself was never indicted of wrongdoing. Kevin H. White was born in Jamaica Plain, Boston, on September 25,1929 to Joseph, White, and maternal grandfather, Henry E. Hagan, both served as Boston City Council presidents, Joseph White had also been a state legislator. Kevin White married Kathryn Galvin in 1956, the daughter of William J. Galvin, White was educated at Tabor Academy, Williams College, Boston College Law School and the Harvard Graduate School of Public Administration. White was first elected to the open office of Massachusetts Secretary of the Commonwealth in 1960 at the age of 31. The incumbent secretary, Joseph D. Ward, decided to run for governor that year, in the general election, White surpassed a rising Republican, Edward W. Brooke. In 1962, White was reelected to a second two-year term and he served in office through 1967, resigning on December 20,1967, after he won the Boston mayoral election that year. White successfully ran for the mayoral office in 1967, winning his first election with a coalition of Italian, liberal. White campaigned for rent control, one of his slogans was When landlords raise rents, rent control was implemented in Boston in 1970, after a Massachusetts enabling law for municipalities was enacted in 1970. The Boston mayoral election of 1967 had a primary and a general election, for the general election on November 7,1967, only White and Hicks were on the ballot. White narrowly defeated Boston School Board member Louise Day Hicks, who had taken a strong position as a member of the Boston School Committee. Hickss slogan was the coded You know where I stand, White won the general election with 53.25 percent of the vote, receiving 102,706 votes and only 12,552 votes more than the 90,154 votes Hicks received. S. House of Representatives John W. McCormack, and surpassing Joseph Moakley by 10% in the multi-candidate Democratic primary, in the 1971 mayoral election, White won a second term, again defeating Hicks, this time by a 40,000 vote margin. Hicks returned to Boston City Council in the 1973 election and remained on the council until she retired from office in 1981. In the 1975 mayoral election, White barely defeated State Senator Joe Timilty, the 1979 mayoral election was also close, against the same opponent. White did not run in the 1983 mayoral election, which was won by then-city councilor Raymond Flynn, in the fourth month of Whites first term, on April 4,1968, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated
28.
The Boston Globe
–
The Boston Globe is an American daily newspaper based in Boston, Massachusetts. Founded in 1872 by Charles H. Taylor, it was held until 1973. The company was acquired in 1993 by The New York Times Company, in 2011, a BostonGlobe. com subscription site was launched. In 2013, the newspaper and websites were purchased by John W. Henry, the Boston Globe has been awarded 26 Pulitzer Prizes since 1966, and its chief print rival is the Boston Herald. The Boston Globe was founded in 1872 by six Boston businessmen, including Charles H. Taylor and Eben Jordan, the first issue was published on March 4,1872, and cost four cents. Originally a morning daily, it began a Sunday edition in 1877, in 1878, The Boston Globe started an afternoon edition called The Boston Evening Globe, which ceased publication in 1979. By the 1890s, The Boston Globe had become a stronghold, in 1964, Tom Winship succeeded his father, Larry Winship, as editor. The younger Winship transformed The Globe from a local paper into a regional paper of national distinction. He served as editor until 1984, during which time the paper won a dozen Pulitzer Prizes, the Boston Globe was a private company until 1973 when it went public under the name Affiliated Publications. It continued to be managed by the descendants of Charles H. Taylor, in 1993, The New York Times Company purchased Affiliated Publications for US$1.1 billion, making The Boston Globe a wholly owned subsidiary of The New York Times parent. The Jordan and Taylor families received substantial New York Times Company stock, Boston. com, the online edition of The Boston Globe, was launched on the World Wide Web in 1995. Consistently ranked among the top ten websites in America, it has won numerous national awards. Under the helm of editor Martin Baron and then Brian McGrory, the Boston Globe is credited with allowing Peter Gammons to start his Notes section on baseball, which has become a mainstay in all major newspapers nationwide. In 2004, Gammons was selected as the 56th recipient of the J. G. Taylor Spink Award for outstanding baseball writing, given by the BBWAA, and was honored at the Baseball Hall of Fame on July 31,2005. In 2007, Charlie Savage, whose reports on President Bushs use of signing statements made national news, the Boston Globe has consistently been ranked in the forefront of American journalism. The Boston Globe hosts 28 blogs covering a variety of topics including Boston sports, local politics, on April 2,2009, The New York Times Company threatened to close the paper if its unions did not agree to $20,000,000 of cost savings. Some of the cost savings include reducing union employees pay by 5%, ending pension contributions, the Boston Globe eliminated the equivalent of fifty full-time jobs, among buy-outs and layoffs, it swept out most of the part-time employees in the editorial sections. The papers other three major unions had agreed to concessions on May 3,2009, after The New York Times Company threatened to give the government 60-days notice that it intended to close the paper
29.
National Organization for Women
–
The National Organization for Women is an American feminist organization founded in 1966. The organization consists of 550 chapters in all 50 U. S. states, both conferences were held in Washington, D. C. They thus gathered in Betty Friedan’s hotel room to form a new organization, on a paper napkin Friedan scribbled the acronym NOW. Salmond, Morag Simchak and Clara Wells, the founders were frustrated with the way in which the federal government was not enforcing the new anti-discrimination laws. NOW was created in order to mobilize women, give women’s rights advocates the power to put pressure on employers and the government, and to promote full equality of the sexes. It hoped to increase the number of women attending colleges and graduate schools, employed in professional jobs instead of domestic or secretarial work, NOWs Statement of Purpose, which was adopted at its organizing conference in Washington, D. C. NOW was also one of the first women’s organizations to include the concerns of women in their efforts. Betty Friedan and Pauli Murray wrote NOWs Statement of Purpose in 1966, also in 1966, Marguerite Rawalt became a member of NOW, and acted as their first legal counsel. There were many influences contributing to the rise of NOW, such influences included the Presidents Commission on the Status of Women, Betty Friedans book The Feminine Mystique, and passage and lack of enforcement of the Civil Right Act of 1964. The Presidents Commission on the Status of Women was established in 1961 by John F. Kennedy, in hopes of providing a solution to female discrimination in education, work force, Kennedy appointed Eleanor Roosevelt as the head of the organization. The goal of action was to compromise those wanting to advance womens rights in the workforce, the commission was in a way to settle the tension between opposing sides. Betty Friedan wrote The Feminine Mystique in response to her own experiences and she was a feminist long before her book, by educating herself and deviating from the domestic female paradigm. The books purpose was to fuel movement to a role outside of domestic environment. Acknowledging some satisfaction from raising children, cooking, rearranging house decor was not enough to suffice the deeper desire for women to achieve an education, in an interview, Friedan specifically notes, There was no activism in that cause when I wrote Feminine Mystique. But I realized that it was not enough just to write a book, There had to be social change. And I remember somewhere in that period coming off an airplane some guy was carrying a sign and it said, The first step in revolution is consciousness. Well, I did the consciousness with The Feminine Mystique, but then there had to be organization and there had to be a movement. And I helped organize NOW, the National Organization for Women and the National Womens Political Caucus and NARAL, the NOW bill of rights was included in the 1970 anthology Sisterhood is Powerful, An Anthology of Writings From The Womens Liberation Movement, edited by Robin Morgan
30.
Counterculture
–
A counterculture is a subculture whose values and norms of behavior differ substantially from those of mainstream society, often in opposition to mainstream cultural mores. A countercultural movement expresses the ethos and aspirations of a population during a well-defined era. When oppositional forces reach critical mass, countercultures can trigger dramatic cultural changes, John Milton Yinger originated the term contraculture in his 1960 article in American Sociological Review. Some scholars have attributed the counterculture to Theodore Roszak, author of The Making of a Counter Culture and it became prominent in the news media amid the social revolution that swept the Americas, Western Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand during the 1960s. Scholars differ in the characteristics and specificity they attribute to counterculture, mainstream culture is of course also difficult to define, and in some ways becomes identified and understood through contrast with counterculture. Counterculture might oppose mass culture, or middle-class culture and values, Counterculture is sometimes conceptualized in terms of generational conflict and rejection of older or adult values. Counterculture may or may not be explicitly political and it typically involves criticism or rejection of currently powerful institutions, with accompanying hope for a better life or a new society. It does not look favorably on party politics or authoritarianism, typically, a fringe culture expands and grows into a counterculture by defining its own values in opposition to mainstream norms. Countercultures tend to peak, then go into decline, leaving an impact on mainstream cultural values. Their life cycles include phases of rejection, growth, partial acceptance, during the late 1960s, hippies became the largest and most visible countercultural group in the United States. The cultural shadows left by the Romantics, Bohemians, Beats, the counterculture of the 1960s and early 1970s generated its own unique brand of notable literature, including comics and cartoons, and sometimes referred to as the underground press. In the United States, this includes the work of Robert Crumb and Gilbert Shelton, another such hippie/anarchist bookshop was Mushroom Books, tucked away in the Lace Market area of Nottingham. Some genres tend to challenge societies with their content that is meant to question the norms within cultures. More often than not, sources of these controversies can be found in art such as Marcel Duchamp whose piece Fountain was meant to be an attack on the most basic conventions of art in 1917. Instead of being a topic to fear, they have initiated subtle trends that other artists, in order to achieve such liberation, consciousness raising and direct action were employed. At the outset of the 20th century, homosexual acts were punishable offenses in these countries, the prevailing public attitude was that homosexuality was a moral failing that should be punished, as exemplified by Oscar Wildes 1895 trial and imprisonment for gross indecency. But even then, there were dissenting views, according to Charles Kaisers The Gay Metropolis, there were already semi-public gay-themed gatherings by the mid-1930s in the United States. There were also bars and bathhouses that catered to gay clientele, but homosexuality was typically subsumed into bohemian culture, and was not a significant movement in itself
31.
Joseph Alsop
–
Joseph Wright Alsop V was an American journalist and syndicated newspaper columnist from the 1930s through the 1970s. His influential journalism and status as a top insider in Washington was prominent from 1945 to the late 1960s, Alsop was born on October 10,1910, in Avon, Connecticut, to Joseph Wright Alsop IV and Corinne Douglas Robinson. Through his mother, he was related to Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, both of Alsops parents were active in Republican politics. Alsop graduated from the Groton School, a boarding school in Groton, Massachusetts, in 1928. After college, Alsop became a reporter, then a career for someone with an Ivy League diploma. Because of his ties to the Roosevelts, Alsop soon became well-connected in Franklin D. Roosevelts Washington. By 1936 the Saturday Evening Post had awarded him a contract to write about politics with fellow journalist Turner Catledge, two years later, the North American Newspaper Alliance contracted Alsop and Robert E. Kintner to write a nationally syndicated column on a daily basis. His first book The 168 Days, covering Roosevelts unsuccessful campaign to enlarge the Supreme Court, in 1940 Alsop and Kintner moved from NANA to the New York Herald Tribune. In 1941, after it had become clear that the United States would soon enter World War II, Alsop and Kintner suspended their column and volunteered for the armed forces. After the war, Alsop resumed his career, now working with his brother Stewart Alsop to produce a thrice-weekly piece called Matter of Fact for the Herald Tribune. The use of the word fact reflected Alsops pride in producing a column based on reporting, while his brother Stewart remained headquartered in Washington to cover domestic politics, Joseph traveled the world, covering foreign affairs. Their partnership lasted from 1945 until 1958, when Joseph became the author of Matter of Fact until his retirement in 1974. The Alsops once described themselves as Republicans by inheritance and registration, Alsop was a vocal supporter of Americas involvement in Vietnam, which led to bitter breaks with many of his liberal friends and a decline in the influence of his column. While on a mission for Chennault late in the fall of 1941. Unable to secure passage out of the city, Alsop was eventually taken into custody as an enemy alien and he traveled back to the states on the neutral liner Gripsholm. He returned to China as a civilian Lend-lease administrator in the fall of 1942 and he eventually rejoined Chennault in Kunming, China and served with him for the remaining months of the war. In subsequent years, Alsop also helped the Central Intelligence Agency in its intelligence-gathering activities, in 1953, Alsop covered the Philippine elections at the CIAs request. In 1961 he married Susan Mary Jay Patten, a descendent of John Jay and the widow of William Patten, by this marriage he had two stepchildren, William and Anne
32.
Joseph McCarthy
–
Joseph Raymond Joe McCarthy was an American politician who was a U. S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957, beginning in 1950, McCarthy became the most visible public face of a period in which Cold War tensions fueled fears of widespread Communist subversion. He was noted for alleging large numbers of Communists and Soviet spies and sympathizers inside the federal government, ultimately, the controversy he generated led him to be censured by the U. S. Senate. The term McCarthyism, coined in 1950 in reference to McCarthys practices, was applied to similar anti-communist activities. Today, the term is used in reference to what are considered demagogic, reckless, born in Grand Chute, Wisconsin, McCarthy commissioned in to the Marine Corps in 1942, where he served as an intelligence briefing officer for a dive bomber squadron. Following the end of World War II, he attained the rank of major and he volunteered to fly twelve combat missions as a gunner-observer, acquiring the nickname Tail-Gunner Joe. Some of his claims of heroism were later shown to be exaggerated or falsified, McCarthy successfully ran for the U. S. Senate in 1946, defeating Robert M. He also used various charges of communism, communist sympathies, disloyalty, or sex crimes to attack a number of politicians and this included a concurrent Lavender Scare against suspected homosexuals. With the highly publicized Army–McCarthy hearings of 1954, and following the suicide of Wyoming Senator Lester C. Hunt that same year, McCarthys support and popularity faded. On December 2,1954, the Senate voted to censure Senator McCarthy by a vote of 67–22, McCarthy died at Bethesda Naval Hospital in Bethesda, Maryland on May 2,1957, at the age of 48. The official cause of death was acute hepatitis, some biographers say this was caused or exacerbated by alcoholism. S. During the 1940s and 1950s was larger than many suspected and these suggestions have been the subject of dispute. McCarthy was born in 1908 on a farm in the Town of Grand Chute in Outagamie County, Wisconsin and his mother, Bridget, was from County Tipperary, Ireland. His father, Timothy McCarthy, was born in the United States, the son of an Irish father, McCarthy dropped out of junior high school at age 14 to help his parents manage their farm. He entered Little Wolf High School, in Manawa, Wisconsin and he attended Marquette University from 1930 to 1935. McCarthy worked his way through college, studying first engineering, then law, McCarthy was admitted to the bar in 1935. While working at a law firm in Shawano, Wisconsin, he launched a campaign for district attorney as a Democrat in 1936. In 1939, McCarthy had better success when he ran for the elected post of 10th District circuit judge
33.
Pollyanna
–
Also, the subconscious bias towards the positive is often described as the Pollyanna principle. The book was such a success that Porter soon produced a sequel, eleven more Pollyanna sequels, known as Glad Books, were later published, most of them written by Elizabeth Borton or Harriet Lummis Smith. Further sequels followed, including Pollyanna Plays the Game by Colleen L. Reece, Pollyanna has been adapted for film several times. Some of the best known are Disneys 1960 version starring child actress Hayley Mills, who won a special Oscar for the role, Pollyannas philosophy of life centers on what she calls The Glad Game, an optimistic and positive attitude she learned from her father. The game consists of finding something to be glad about in every situation and it originated in an incident one Christmas when Pollyanna, who was hoping for a doll in the missionary barrel, found only a pair of crutches inside. Making the game up on the spot, Pollyannas father taught her to look at the side of things—in this case. Aunt Polly, too—finding herself helpless before Pollyannas buoyant refusal to be downcast—gradually begins to thaw, eventually, however, even Pollyannas robust optimism is put to the test when she is struck by an automobile and loses the use of her legs. At first she doesnt realize the seriousness of her situation, after that, she lies in bed, unable to find anything to be glad about. When you look for the bad in mankind expecting to find it and it is sometimes used pejoratively, referring to someone whose optimism is excessive to the point of naïveté or refusing to accept the facts of an unfortunate situation. The word pollyanna may also be used colloquially to denote a holiday gift exchange more typically known as Secret Santa, especially in Philadelphia, Pollyanna is still available in reprint editions. At the height of her popularity, Pollyanna was known as The Glad Girl, and Parker Brothers even created The Glad Game, a board game. The Glad Game, a type of Parcheesi, was made and sold from 1915 to 1967 in various versions, the board game was later licensed by Milton Bradley but has been discontinued for many years. A Broadway adaptation was mounted in 1916 titled Pollyanna Whittier, The Glad Girl, Chilton at the end of the story. Glad Clubs appear to have been popular for a while, however, Glad Clubs may have been simply a means to popularize The Glad Game as a method for coping with the vicissitudes of life such as loss, disappointment, and distress. Nevertheless, at least one glad club existed as recently as 2008, in Denver, in 2002 the citizens of Littleton, New Hampshire unveiled a bronze statue in honour of Eleanor H. Porter, author of the Pollyanna books and one of the towns most famous residents. The statue depicts a smiling Pollyanna, arms flung wide in greeting, Littleton also hosts a festival known as The Official Pollyanna Glad Day every summer. The video game series Mother and Super Smash Bros. series feature a song in every game entitled Pollyanna, the song is a reference to the novel, a lyrical version produced and released on a soundtrack CD reinforces the reference in the lyrics. The 1920 American silent melodrama/comedy film Pollyana starred Mary Pickford and was directed by Paul Powell and it was Pickfords first motion picture for United Artists
34.
Adolf Hitler
–
Adolf Hitler was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party, Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and Führer of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945. As dictator of the German Reich, he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was central to the Holocaust, Hitler was born in Austria, then part of Austria-Hungary, and raised near Linz. He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I and he joined the German Workers Party, the precursor of the NSDAP, in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923 he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power, the failed coup resulted in Hitlers imprisonment, during which he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf. Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy, by 1933, the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag, which led to Hitlers appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933. Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post-World War I international order dominated by Britain, Hitler sought Lebensraum for the German people in Eastern Europe. His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe. He directed large-scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland, resulting in British, in June 1941, Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union. By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe, failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats. In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time lover, on 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned. Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians, in addition,29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare, Hitlers father Alois Hitler Sr. was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. The baptismal register did not show the name of his father, in 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Aloiss mother Maria Anna. Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedlers brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler, in 1876, Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Aloiss father. Alois then assumed the surname Hitler, also spelled Hiedler, Hüttler, the Hitler surname is probably based on one who lives in a hut. Nazi official Hans Frank suggested that Aloiss mother had been employed as a housekeeper by a Jewish family in Graz, and that the familys 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois. No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenbergers existence, Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary, close to the border with the German Empire. He was one of six born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl
35.
Bull Connor
–
Theophilus Eugene Connor, known as Bull Connor, was an American politician who served as an elected Commissioner of Public Safety for the city of Birmingham, Alabama, for more than two decades. He strongly opposed activities of the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s, under the city commission government, Connor had responsibility for administrative oversight of the Birmingham Fire Department and the Birmingham Police Department, which also had their own chiefs. He became an symbol of institutional racism. Bull Connor directed the use of hoses and police attack dogs against civil rights activists. These tactics to continue white supremacy were covered by media and broadcast on national television. The outrages served as catalysts for social and legal change in the Southern United States. Connor was born in 1897 in Selma, Alabama, the son of Molly and Hugh King Connor, Connor entered politics as a Democrat in 1934, winning a seat in the Alabama House of Representatives. As a legislator, he supported populist measures and pro-union issues for white people and he voted for extending the poll tax, which served as a barrier to voter registration by poor blacks and whites, and against an anti-sedition bill intended to stifle union activity. He did not stand for a term in 1936, instead running for Commissioner of Public Safety for the City of Birmingham. In 1936, Connor was elected to the office of Commissioner of Public Safety of Birmingham, Connors first term ended in 1952, but he was re-elected in 1956, serving to 1963. In 1938, Connor ran as a candidate for Governor of Alabama, in 1948, Connors officers arrested the U. S. Senator from Idaho, Glen H. Taylor and he was the running mate of Progressive Party presidential candidate Henry Wallace, former Democratic Vice President. Taylor, who had attempted to speak to the Southern Negro Youth Congress, was arrested for violating Birminghams racial segregation laws. Connors effort to enforce the law was sparked by the groups reported communist philosophy, with Connor noting at the time, Theres not enough room in town for Bull and the Commies. During the 1948 Democratic National Convention, Connor led the Alabama delegation in a walkout when the party included a civil rights plank in its platform. The offshoot States Rights Democratic Party nominated Strom Thurmond for president at its convention in Birminghams Municipal Auditorium, Connors second run for governor fell flat in 1954. He was the center of controversy that year by pushing through a city ordinance in Birmingham that outlawed communism, before returning to office in 1956, Connor quickly resumed his brutal approach to dealing with perceived threats to the social order. His forces raided a meeting at the house of African-American activist, Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth, Connor feared that the Montgomery Bus Boycott underway would spread to Birmingham, in an effort to integrate city buses
36.
Birmingham, Alabama
–
Birmingham is the most populous city in the U. S. state of Alabama and the county seat of Jefferson County. The citys population was 212,237 in the 2010 United States Census, the Birmingham-Hoover Metropolitan Statistical Area had a population of about 1,128,047 according to the 2010 Census, which is approximately one quarter of Alabamas population. Birmingham was founded in 1871, during the post-Civil War Reconstruction period and it was named for Birmingham, England, one of the UKs major industrial cities. The Alabama city annexed smaller neighbors and developed as an industrial and railroad center, based on mining, the new iron and steel industry. Most of the settlers who founded Birmingham were of English ancestry. From its founding through the end of the 1960s, Birmingham was an industrial center of the southern United States. Its growth from 1881 through 1920 earned its nicknames as The Magic City and its major industries were iron and steel production, plus a major component of the railroading industry. Rails and railroad cars were manufactured in Birmingham. The two primary hubs of railroading in the Deep South have been nearby Atlanta and Birmingham, since the 1860s, the economy has diversified since industrial restructuring in the latter half of the 20th century. Banking, telecommunications, transportation, electrical transmission, medical care, college education. Except for coal mining, the industry has declined in the Birmingham area, Birmingham ranks as one of the most important business centers in the Southeastern United States and as one of the largest banking centers in the nation. In higher education, Birmingham has been the location of the University of Alabama School of Medicine, since that time it has also gained the University of Alabama at Birmingham, one of three main campuses of the University of Alabama System. It is also home to three institutions, Samford University, Birmingham-Southern College, and Miles College. In total, the Birmingham area has major colleges of medicine, dentistry, optometry, physical therapy, pharmacy, law, engineering, the city has three of the states five law schools, Cumberland School of Law, Birmingham School of Law, and Miles Law School. Birmingham is also the headquarters of the Southwestern Athletic Conference, and Southeastern Conference, Birmingham was founded on June 1,1871, by the Elyton Land Company, whose investors included cotton planters, bankers and railroad entrepreneurs. It sold lots near the crossing of the Alabama & Chattanooga and South & North Alabama railroads. The first business at that crossroads was the trading post and country store operated by Marre, the site of the railroad crossing was notable for its proximity to nearby deposits of iron ore, coal, and limestone – the three main raw materials used in making steel. Birmingham is the only place worldwide where significant amounts of all three minerals can be found in close proximity, from the start the new city was planned as a center of industry
37.
Alabama
–
Alabama is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Alabama is the 30th-most extensive and the 24th-most populous of the U. S. states. At nearly 1,500 miles, Alabama has one of the nations longest navigable inland waterways, Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, after the state bird. Alabama is also known as the Heart of Dixie and the Cotton State, the state tree is the longleaf pine, and the state flower is the camellia. The largest city by population is Birmingham, which has long been the most industrialized city, the oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana. From the American Civil War until World War II, Alabama, like many states in the southern U. S. suffered economic hardship, like other southern states, Alabama legislators disenfranchised African Americans and many poor whites at the turn of the century. Following World War II, Alabama grew as the economy changed from one primarily based on agriculture to one with diversified interests. The state economy in the 21st century is based on management, automotive, finance, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, in the Alabama language, the word for a person of Alabama lineage is Albaamo. The word Alabama is believed to have come from the Alabama language, the words spelling varies significantly among historical sources. As early as 1702, the French called the tribe the Alibamon, other spellings of the name have included Alibamu, Alabamo, Albama, Alebamon, Alibama, Alibamou, Alabamu, Allibamou. Sources disagree on the words meaning, some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw alba and amo. The meaning may have been clearers of the thicket or herb gatherers, the state has numerous place names of Native American origin. However, there are no correspondingly similar words in the Alabama language, an 1842 article in the Jacksonville Republican proposed it meant Here We Rest. This notion was popularized in the 1850s through the writings of Alexander Beaufort Meek, experts in the Muskogean languages have not found any evidence to support such a translation. Indigenous peoples of varying cultures lived in the area for thousands of years before the advent of European colonization, trade with the northeastern tribes by the Ohio River began during the Burial Mound Period and continued until European contact. The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 AD, with one of its major centers built at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama. This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois, Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex. Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no links to Mesoamerican culture
38.
Newsweek
–
Newsweek is an American weekly news magazine founded in 1933. It was published in four English language editions and 12 global editions written in the language of the circulation region, between 2008 and 2012, Newsweek underwent internal and external contractions designed to shift the magazines focus and audience while improving its finances. Instead, losses accelerated, revenue dropped 38 percent from 2007 to 2009, in November 2010, Newsweek merged with the news and opinion website The Daily Beast, forming The Newsweek Daily Beast Company, after negotiations between the owners of the two publications. Tina Brown, The Daily Beasts editor-in-chief, served as the editor of both publications, Newsweek was jointly owned by the estate of the late Harman and the diversified American media and Internet company IAC. Newsweek ceased print publication with the December 31,2012, issue and transitioned to an all-digital format, IBT Media relaunched a print edition of Newsweek on March 7,2014. In 2003, worldwide circulation was more than 4 million, including 2.7 million in the U. S, Newsweek publishes editions in Japanese, Korean, Polish, Spanish, Rioplatense Spanish, Arabic, and Turkish, as well as an English language Newsweek International. Russian Newsweek, published since 2004, was shut in October 2010, the Bulletin incorporated an international news section from Newsweek. Based in New York City, the magazine claimed 22 bureaus in 2011, New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago/Detroit, Dallas, Miami, Washington, D. C. Boston and San Francisco, and others overseas in London, Paris, Berlin, Moscow, Jerusalem, Baghdad, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Beijing, South Asia, Cape Town, Mexico City and Buenos Aires. News-Week was launched in 1933 by Thomas J. C. Martyn and he obtained financial backing from a group of U. S. stockholders which included Ward Cheney, of the Cheney silk family, John Hay Whitney, and Paul Mellon, son of Andrew W. Mellon. Paul Mellons ownership in Newsweek apparently represented the first attempt of the Mellon family to function journalistically on a national scale, the group of original owners invested around $2.5 million. Other large stockholders prior to 1946 were public utilities investment banker Stanley Childs, journalist Samuel T. Williamson served as the first editor-in-chief of Newsweek. The first issue of the magazine was dated 17 February 1933, seven photographs from the weeks news were printed on the first issues cover. In 1937 News-Week merged with the weekly journal Today, which had founded in 1932 by future New York Governor and diplomat W. Averell Harriman. In 1937 Malcolm Muir took over as president and editor-in-chief and he changed the name to Newsweek, emphasized interpretive stories, introduced signed columns, and launched international editions. Over time the magazine developed a spectrum of material, from breaking stories and analysis to reviews. The magazine was purchased by The Washington Post Company in 1961, osborn Elliott was named editor of Newsweek in 1961 and became the editor in chief in 1969. The women won, and Newsweek agreed to allow women to be reporters, edward Kosner became editor from 1975 to 1979 after directing the magazine’s extensive coverage of the Watergate scandal that led to the resignation of President Richard Nixon in 1974
