1.
Upper Canada Rebellion
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The Upper Canada Rebellion was an insurrection against the oligarchic government of the British colony of Upper Canada in December 1837. While public grievances had existed for years, it was the Rebellion in Lower Canada that emboldened rebels in Upper Canada to openly revolt soon after and they launched the Patriot War in 1838-39. Some historians argue that the rebellions in 1837 should be viewed in the context of the late 18th. The United Kingdoms Chartists sought similar democratic goals, the Upper Canada Rebellion is sometimes dismissed as a farmers revolt, an opportunistic action by misled backwoodsmen. The rebellion was, rather, the consequence of a sophisticated political movement that copied the organizational forms of the British reform movement. The British Reform movement, organized as Political Unions, had achieved the Great Reform Bill of 1832 which broadened the electoral franchise, the Upper Canada Central Political Union was organized in 1832-3 by Dr Thomas David Morrison while William Lyon Mackenzie was in England. This union collected 19,930 signatures on a petition protesting Mackenzies unjust expulsion from the House of Assembly by the Family Compact and this union was reorganized as the Canadian Alliance Society in 1835. It shared a meeting space in the market buildings with the Mechanics Institute. The Canadian Alliance Society adopted much of the platform of the Owenite National Union of the Working Classes in London, England, in pursuit of this democratic goal, the Chartists eventually staged a similar armed rebellion, the Newport Rising, in Wales in 1839. The Canadian Alliance Society was reborn as the Constitutional Reform Society in 1836, the Reformers experienced a disaster at the 1836 elections for the 13th Parliament of Upper Canada, and the Society took its final form as the Toronto Political Union in 1837. It was this group of the disenfranchised that began organizing local Vigilance Committees to elect delegates to a so-called Constitutional Convention in July 1837 and this became the organizational structure for the Rebellion, most of the rebel organizers were elected Constitutional Convention delegates. The first of those meetings to select delegates to the convention were held at Doels Brewery in Toronto on July 28 and 31. The second meeting was called to order by Samuel Hughes, a member of the Children of Peace, the meeting appointed Hughes, Samuel Lount, Nelson Gorham, Silas Fletcher, Jeremiah Graham and John McIntosh, M. P. P. as delegates to the convention. Immediately preceding the Mackenzie rebellion John Doels house and brewery were prominent gathering places for the Reformers, the large meetings were usually held in the brewery while smaller meetings of the leaders were held in the home. Mackenzie’s planned to take foundry-men and axe-makers and seize arms, ammunition, and they would then arouse the citizens of the town and country to proclaim a provincial government. Mr. Doel objected to the plan and there was a fight between Mackenzie, Doel, and Morrison, the meeting was broken up and Mackenzie left the house forever. From this point forward John Doel, his brewery, and his home were not longer part of the rebellion. The meetings in the Home District met with an amount of Orange Order violence, so that the reformers began to protect themselves
2.
Patriot War
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The Patriot War was a conflict along the Canada–United States border where bands of raiders attacked the British colony of Upper Canada more than a dozen times between December 1837 and December 1838. This so-called war was not a conflict between nations, it was a war of ideas fought by like-minded people against the greatest military power of the time. Participants in the conflict were members of an association, the “Hunter’s Lodge”. The Republic of Canada was also short-lived. S, the organizations were made up of grass-roots armed militants whose goal was to overthrow British rule in Canada. Their dispersal involved the largest deployment of U. S. troops against their own citizens since the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794, while the initial rebellion in Upper Canada ended quickly with the Battle of Montgomerys Tavern, many of the rebels fled to the United States. Mackenzie established a short-lived Republic of Canada on Navy Island in the Niagara River, even before the Battle of Montgomerys Tavern, a large meeting in Buffalo met on 5 December 1837 and appointed a committee of 13 to organize support for the rebels. On the 11 Dec. Mackenzie arrived in Buffalo, where he was met by Thomas Jefferson Sutherland, Sutherland convinced Rensselaer van Rensselaer to become Commander in chief of the Patriot forces. Van Rensselaer was a West Point graduate who had fought with Bolivar in South America, on Dec.13 they proceeded to Navy Island in the Niagara River, but initially found only 24 men to accompany them. Navy Island lay in Canadian waters and hence did not implicate the United States in the military actions, the encampment was to launch an attack in support of the Duncombe uprising in the London District. Here, Mackenzie declared the government of the Republic of Canada. Three hundred acres of government land was offered to each volunteer, over the month of December, large supportive meetings were held in towns along the border, including Burlington, Albany, Rochester, Buffalo, Cleveland and Detroit and aid was promised. By the end of the month, up to 500 volunteers had joined Mackenzie on the island, however, with the failure of Duncombes revolt, the main purpose of seizing Navy Island disappeared and it was evacuated on Jan. 14, ending the short lived republic, the steamship Caroline, captained by Gilman Appleby, carried supplies between Buffalo and Mackenzies encampment on Navy Island. The incident sparked an international outcry and this case is a basis for the principle of the preemptive strike. Thomas Jefferson Sutherland was sent by the leaders on Navy Island in the Niagara River to raise a force in Detroit in December 1837. Sutherland arrived to find that Henry S. Handy and Dr Edward A. Theller had already held public meetings, Handy was in Toronto in the fall of 1837 where he met Marshall Bidwell and learned of the rebellion from him. Handy and his brother-in-law Judge Orange Butler, then of the Michigan House of Representatives, dufort of Montreal in travelling to Detroit where they formed a “war council” of influential citizens. Men came to Detroit from as far away as Illinois and Kentucky to join the movement, on January 5,1838, the Detroit jail was raided and the Patriots seized the 450 muskets which had been stored there
3.
Seminole Wars
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Taken together, the Seminole Wars were the longest and most expensive Indian Wars in United States history. The First Seminole War began with General Andrew Jacksons excursions into West Florida, the governments of Britain and Spain both expressed outrage over the invasion. However, Spain was unable to defend its territory, and the Spanish Crown agreed to cede Florida to the United States in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. According to the Treaty of Moultrie Creek of 1823, the Seminoles were required to leave northern Florida and were confined to a reservation in the center of the Florida peninsula. The U. S. government enforced the treaty by building a series of forts and trading posts in the territory, mainly along the Gulf and Atlantic coasts. The war resulted in most of the Seminole population in Florida being killed in battle, ravaged by starvation and disease, a few hundred Seminoles were allowed to remain in an unofficial reservation in southwest Florida. An estimated 100 Seminoles still refused to leave and retreated deep into the Everglades to live on land that was unwanted by white settlers, raids from the newly- established English Province of Carolina beginning in the mid-1600s began another steep decline in the indigenous population. In the first decade of the 18th century,10,000 –12,000 Indians were taken as slaves according to the governor of La Florida and by 1710, observers noted that north Florida was virtually depopulated. The few remaining natives fled west to Pensacola and beyond or east to the vicinity of St. Augustine. When Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain as part of the Treaty of Paris in 1763, during the mid-1700s, small bands from various Native American tribes from the southeastern United States began moving into the unoccupied lands of Florida. In 1715, the Yamasee moved into Florida as allies of the Spanish, Creek people, at first primarily the Lower Creek but later including Upper Creek, also started moving into Florida from the area of Georgia. The Mikasuki, Hitchiti-speakers, settled around what is now Lake Miccosukee near Tallahassee, another group of Hitchiti speakers, led by Cowkeeper, settled in what is now Alachua County, an area where the Spanish had maintained cattle ranches in the 17th century. One of the best-known ranches was Rancho de la Chua, the region became known as the Alachua Prairie. The Spanish in Saint Augustine began calling the Alachua Creek Cimarrones and this was the probable origin of the term Seminole. This name was applied to the other groups in Florida. Escaped African and African-American slaves who could reach the fort were essentially free, many were from Pensacola, some were free citizens though others had escaped from United States territory. The Spanish offered the freedom and land in Florida, they recruited former slaves as militia to help defend Pensacola. Other escaped slaves joined various Seminole bands as free members of the tribe, while most of the former slaves at Fort Mose went to Cuba with the Spanish when they left Florida in 1763, others lived with or near various bands of Indians
4.
Battle of Saint-Eustache
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After the victory at Saint-Charles, the British were in a position to prepare attacks on Patriote camps to the north, including those at Saint-Benoît and Saint-Eustache. The Patriote organization was primitive, many members did not even have firearms and they thought they could get 800 combatants, but eventually fielded only 201 men, led by Jean-Olivier Chénier and Amury Girod. They lay barricaded in the convent, the church, the rectory, Amury Girod left as the skirmish was sparked, supposedly to get reinforcements at Saint-Benoît. Suspected of treason, fellow Patriotes went after him, and he would commit suicide. At the battle site, Colborne placed his troops around the village and had his soldiers advance systematically to tighten the vice on the defenders. Towards noon, he ordered the artillery to fire on the centre of the village and then to advance up the main street and break down the doors of the church. Two companies of the 1st Regiment of Foot were able to take the rectory nearby, the grenadiers of the 1st Regiment of Foot then took the manor and set it on fire as well. They were then able to enter the church through the vestry, caught in the burning church, the Patriotes tried to get out by jumping from the windows, where Jean-Olivier Chénier finally attempted an escape. The British fired at the rebels as they jumped out the windows to escape the fire, at this point the British troops made a final assault in a merciless struggle. This disastrous battle for the Patriotes lasted at least 4 hours,70 Patriotes were killed, in the days that followed, soldiers and volunteers terrorized the county of Deux-Montagnes. Saint-Eustache and Saint-Benoît were looted and burned, in Saint-Joachim, Sainte-Scholastique and Sainte-Thérèse, the army burned the houses of the rebellions leaders. Some of the tried to make it to the Canada–US border. Patriote leaders Dr. Wolfred Nelson and the journalist Jean-Philippe Boucher-Belleville were among them, some were taken to the penal colony of New South Wales in Australia. The suburb of Canada Bay in Sydney is named for these prisoners who helped build the area, buck Choquette The church was burnt and destroyed, except for the facade, which still exists. The rest of the church has been rebuilt, the facade still shows the marks of British cannon impacts. The British Strike North of Montreal
5.
Lower Canada
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The Province of Lower Canada was a British colony on the lower Saint Lawrence River and the shores of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It covered the portion of the modern-day Province of Quebec, Canada. Other parts of New France ceded to Britain became the Colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, the prefix lower in its name refers to its geographic position farther downriver from the headwaters of the St. Lawrence River than its contemporary Upper Canada, present-day southern Ontario. The colony/province was abolished in 1841, when it and the adjacent Upper Canada were united into the Province of Canada, like Upper Canada, there was significant political unrest. Twenty-two years after the invasion by the Americans in the War of 1812, an abortive attempt by revolutionary Robert Nelson to declare a Republic of Lower Canada was quickly thwarted. The provinces of Lower Canada and Upper Canada were combined as the United Province of Canada in 1841 and their separate legislatures were combined into a single parliament with equal representation for both constituent parts, even though Lower Canada had a greater population. Traveling around Lower Canada was made mainly by water along the St. Lawrence River, on land the only main route was the Chemin du Roy or Kings Highway, built in the 1730s by New France. The Kings Highway remained as a means of travel until the challenge of steamboats. A History of the Late Province of Lower Canada, Quebec City, T. Cary/R
6.
Quebec
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Quebec is the second-most populous province of Canada and the only one to have a predominantly French-speaking population, with French as the sole provincial official language. Quebec is Canadas largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division and it also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Quebec is Canadas second-most populous province, after Ontario, most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. Approximately half of Quebec residents live in the Greater Montreal Area, the Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples. Even in central Quebec at comparatively southerly latitudes winters are severe in inland areas, Quebec independence debates have played a large role in the politics of the province. Parti Québécois governments held referendums on sovereignty in 1980 and 1995, in 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a symbolic motion recognizing the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada. These many industries have all contributed to helping Quebec become an economically influential province within Canada, early variations in the spelling of the name included Québecq and Kébec. French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the seat for the French colony of New France. The province is sometimes referred to as La belle province, the Province of Quebec was founded in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the Treaty of Paris formally transferred the French colony of Canada to Britain after the Seven Years War. The proclamation restricted the province to an area along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, the Treaty of Versailles ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. After the Constitutional Act of 1791, the territory was divided between Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with each being granted an elected legislative assembly, in 1840, these become Canada East and Canada West after the British Parliament unified Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. This territory was redivided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario at Confederation in 1867, each became one of the first four provinces. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament passed the first Quebec Boundary Extension Act that expanded the provincial boundaries northward to include the lands of the aboriginal peoples. This was followed by the addition of the District of Ungava through the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912 that added the northernmost lands of the Inuit to create the modern Province of Quebec. In 1927, the border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador was established by the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Located in the part of Canada, and part of Central Canada. Its topography is very different from one region to another due to the composition of the ground, the climate. The Saint Lawrence Lowland and the Canadian Shield are the two main regions, and are radically different
7.
The Canadas
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The Canadas is the collective name for Upper Canada and Lower Canada, two British historical colonies in present-day Canada. They were both created by the Constitutional Act of 1791 and abolished in 1841 with the union of Upper and Lower Canada, the northern part of the current provinces of Ontario and Quebec was at that time part of Ruperts Land. The British colony of the Province of Quebec was divided by the Constitutional Act of 1791 into two provinces, with the Ottawa River forming a part of the border. The creation of Upper Canada was in response to the desire expressed by recently arrived United Empire Loyalist settlers for British institutions and laws, especially British laws of land tenure. The political structure of the colonies was changed after Lord Durhams 1838 Report on the Affairs of British North America recommended they be merged into a colonial province. Lower Canada, Upper Canada and their legislatures were abolished by the British Act of Union 1840 of July 23,1840 and united as one political entity, the Californias The Carolinas The Dakotas The Floridas The Virginias
8.
Province of Canada
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The United Province of Canada, or the Province of Canada, or the United Canadas was a British colony in North America from 1841 to 1867. Its formation reflected recommendations made by John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham in the Report on the Affairs of British North America following the Rebellions of 1837–38, in the aftermath of the Rebellions of 1837–1838, unification of the two Canadas was driven by two factors. Firstly, Upper Canada was near bankruptcy because it lacked stable tax revenues, and secondly, unification was an attempt to swamp the French vote by giving each of the former provinces the same number of parliamentary seats, despite the larger population of Lower Canada. Although Durhams report had called for the Union of the Canadas and for Responsible Government, the new government was to be led by an appointed Governor General accountable only to the British Crown and the Kings Ministers. Responsible Government was not to be achieved until the second LaFontaine-Baldwin ministry in 1849, the Province of Canada ceased to exist at Canadian Confederation on July 1,1867, when it was redivided into the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec. Upper Canada was primarily English-speaking, whereas Lower Canada was primarily French-speaking, the Province of Canada was divided into two parts, Canada East and Canada West. Canada East was what became of the colony of Lower Canada after being united into the Province of Canada. It became the province of Quebec after confederation, Canada West was what became of the former colony of Upper Canada after being united into the Province of Canada. It became the province of Ontario after confederation, the location of the capital city of the Province of Canada changed six times in its 26-year history. The first capital was in Kingston, the capital moved to Montreal until rioters, spurred by a series of incendiary articles published in The Gazette, protested the Rebellion Losses Bill and burned down Montreals parliament buildings. It moved to Quebec City from 1852 to 1856, then Toronto for one year before returning to Quebec City from 1859-1866, in 1857, Queen Victoria chose Ottawa as the permanent capital of the Province of Canada, initiating construction of Canadas first parliament buildings, on Parliament Hill. The first stage of construction was completed in 1865, just in time to host the final session of the last parliament of the Province of Canada before Confederation. The Governor General remained the head of the administration of the colony, appointed by the British state. He was aided by the Executive Council and the Legislative Council, the Executive Council aided in administration, and the Legislative Council reviewed legislation produced by the elected Legislative Assembly. Sydenham came from a family of timber merchants, and was an expert in finance. He was promised a barony if he could implement the union of the Canadas, and introduce a new form of municipal government. Sydenham was a Whig who believed in government, not responsible government. In order to implement his plan, he utilized widespread electoral violence through the Orange Order, Bagot was appointed after the unexpected death of Thomson, with the explicit instructions to resist calls for Responsible Government
9.
John Colborne, 1st Baron Seaton
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Field Marshal John Colborne, 1st Baron Seaton GCB GCMG GCH PC was a British Army officer and Colonial Governor. He then commanded the 2nd Battalion of the 66th Regiment of Foot and, later, after that he was high commissioner of the Ionian Islands and then Commander-in-Chief, Ireland. Born in Lyndhurst in the New Forest, the son of Samuel Colborne and Cordelia Anne Colborne, Colborne was educated at Christs Hospital in London. He was commissioned as an ensign in the 20th Regiment of Foot on 10 July 1794 securing all subsequent steps in his regimental promotion without purchase. Promoted to brevet captain on 12 January 1800, he took part in Sir Ralph Abercrombys expedition to Egypt in August 1801 and was wounded again. Colborne was deployed with his regiment to Italy where he distinguished himself at the Battle of Maida in July 1806 during the War of the Third Coalition. He became military secretary to General Henry Fox in 1806 and then became secretary to Sir John Moore with the rank of major on 21 January 1808. In this capacity he accompanied Moore to Sweden in May 1808 and to Portugal in 1808 and served him at the Battle of Benavente in December 1808. It was Moores dying request that Colborne should be given a lieutenant colonelcy, after transferring to the command of the 52nd Regiment of Foot he took part in the Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo in January 1812 where he was badly injured and had to be invalided back to England. He returned to the 52nd Regiment of Foot and commanded it at the Battle of Orthez in February 1814 and at the Battle of Toulouse in April 1814 and he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 4 January 1815. At the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815 during the Hundred Days, at the critical moment of the battle, when the French Imperial Guard attacked Welligtons weakened centre, Colborne made a decisive intervention. As soon as General Sir Frederick Adam saw what Colborne was doing, Colborne drove forward towards La Haye Sainte, while Wellington rode back to main line to order the general advance. He was appointed a Knight of the Austrian Military Order of Maria Theresa on 2 August 1815, after the War he remained with his regiment as part of the Army of Occupation. Colborne became Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey in July 1821 and was promoted to major-general on 27 May 1825, as Lieutenant Governor, Colborne increased the population of the province by 70% by initiating an organised system of immigration to bring in settlers from Britain. He also aided settlement by expanding the communication and transportation infrastructure through a campaign to build roads and he brought changes to the structure of the legislative council, increased fiscal autonomy and encouraged greater independence in the judiciary. In 1829 he founded Upper Canada College as a school based on the Elizabeth College, during Colbornes period of office as commander-in-chief, the Family Compact promoted resistance to the political principle of responsible government. At the end of its lifespan, the Compact would be condemned by Lord Durham as a petty corrupt insolent Tory clique, in January 1836 Colborne became commander-in-chief of all the armed forces in British North America. He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant general on 8 July 1836
10.
Charles Stephen Gore
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General Sir Charles Stephen Gore GCB KH, also styled as the Honorable Charles Gore, was a British general. Gore was the son of Arthur Gore, 2nd Earl of Arran and he entered the army in 1808. During the Peninsular War, he fought in Siege of Badajoz and he served in Canada and fought in the Battle of Saint-Denis during the Lower Canada Rebellion. He was Colonel of the 91st Regiment of Foot from 1855 to 1861, transferring in 1861 to the 6th Regiment of Foot, in 1824, Gore married Sarah Rachel Fraser from Nova Scotia and went on to have six children. He is buried in Brompton Cemetery in London near the end of the central colonnades. The community of Gore, Nova Scotia is named after him when he served in Nova Scotia
11.
George Augustus Wetherall
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General Sir George Augustus Wetherall GCB, KH was a senior British Army officer. As the son of General Sir Frederick Wetherall, George Augustus Wetherall was educated in the department of the Royal Military College. For his services, Wetherall was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath and he was deputy adjutant-general in Canada from 1843 to 1850. In 1854 he was made Adjutant-General to the Forces, which post he held until 1860 when he took command of the Northern District of England, at the expiration of his services in 1865 he was appointed Governor of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. He became colonel of the 84th regiment in 1854, was knighted in 1856, made a lieutenant general in 1857, and appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in 1865. The Memorials to Governors in the Chapel of the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst includes, In Memory of General Sir George Augustus Wetherall, died 8th April,1868, aged 80 years. He was Governor of this College from 1866 to 1868
12.
Thomas Storrow Brown
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Thomas Storrow Brown was a journalist, writer, orator, and revolutionary in Lower Canada. Born in St. Andrews, New Brunswick, the son of Henry Barlow Brown and Rebecca Appleton, as a man he moved to Montreal. Once there, he found work and with his savings eventually went into the hardware business and his operation encountered financial difficulties and closed leaving Brown to find other employment. Brown also worked to improve social conditions through aid to the poor, following the death of founder Daniel Tracey, OCallaghan had been appointed the papers new editor and with Brown, they continued to espouse the former owners radical views. Their attacks were especially harsh against the Governor of the Colony, in 1833, Browns wife, Jane Hughes, died. By this time, Brown had moved firmly from a moderate who sought to reform the political system, to a radical wanting to fundamentally alter Canadian society. In 1837 he participated in the Lower Canada Rebellion and was head of the faction of the rebel group, the Société des Fils de la Liberté. Defeated, he escaped to the United States where he worked as a journalist in Florida, in 1844, he was granted an amnesty and returned to Montréal where Charles Wilson gave him a job in his hardware store. Brown married Hester Livingston in 1860 and a more than a year later was given administrative posts in the government. Thomas Storrow Brown died at his home in Montreal in 1888 at the age of eighty-five, university of Toronto and Université Laval
13.
Robert Nelson (insurrectionist)
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Robert Nelson was an Anglo-Quebecer physician and a leading figure in the Lower Canada Rebellion in 19th century Quebec. Nelson was born in Sorel to William Nelson, an immigrant to Colonial America from Newsham and his mother, Jane Dies, was a teacher and daughter of an important land owner in the New York area. He studied medicine in Montreal and later at Harvard University, in the state of Massachusetts, during the War of 1812, he was surgeon for the Deschambault Corps and the Indian Braves Corps. In 1827, Robert Nelson entered politics at the invitation of his brother, Wolfred Nelson, also a doctor, on November 24,1837, Nelson was arrested with other politicians. He was freed soon after, not being involved with the rebels, unlike his brother, Wolfred and his arrest, however, led him to join with the rebels who fled to the United States. The leaders of the Patriotes voted for the establishment of a provisional government. Some important Patriotes voted against this idea, including Louis-Joseph Papineau, Robert Nelson was made General of the army and elected future President of the Republic of Lower Canada. On February 28,1838, Nelson encamped at Alburg, Vermont with some 300 men and he proclaimed the independence of the Republic of Lower Canada and distributed copies of a declaration of independence. Soon after, they were arrested by the U. S. Army for violation of the law of neutrality of the United States, a jury, sympathetic to the Patriotes cause, acquitted him and others. After this failed attempt, Robert Nelson and other insurrectionists decided to take the time to organize a new strike, a second invasion started on November 3,1838. Things didnt go as planned and the forces were forced to retreat. Nelson and others were granted amnesty by the British colonial government. Robert Nelson died in 1873 at the age of 78 in Staten Island and he was interred in the Notre-Dame-des-Neiges Cemetery in Montreal. Dictionnaire des parlementaires du Québec de 1792 à nos jours, the Frères Chasseurs Canada, A Peoples History, CBC Television, accessed 2008-02-29 Georges Aubin. Déclaration dindépendance et autres écrits, Montréal, Comeau & Nadeau,90 pages Mélissa Blais, Nelson, Robert, in Les Patriotes de 1837@1838, May 20,2000 Mary Soderstrom. The Words on the Wall, Robert Nelson & the Rebellion of 1837, Ottawa, Oberon Press,1998,348 pages
14.
Wolfred Nelson
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Wolfred Nelson was from 1854 to 1856 the mayor of Montreal, Quebec. Nelson was born in Montreal the son of William Nelson, an immigrant to Colonial America from Newsham, North Yorkshire and his mother, Jane Dies, was a teacher and daughter of an important land owner in the New York area. Along with his younger brother Robert Nelson, he was known as a member of the Patriotes, Nelson studied at the school of his father in William Henry. He became a doctor in January 1811, and subsequently served in capacity with the British troops on the War of 1812. He moved to Saint-Denis-sur-Richelieu where he opened a distillery and he entered politics when elected in William Henry in 1827. In 1827, he was elected as a member of the Legislative Assembly and he became a Patriote leader in the region of the Richelieu River valley, and supported the use of arms at the Assemblée des Six-Comtés in 1837. A Column of Liberty was also erected in Saint-Charles Square, on 16 November 1837, he and 25 others were charged with high treason. It was around this time that Nelson exclaimed, The time has come, drawn from the American Declaration of Independence, the document listed the crimes that Great Britain had committed against Lower Canada, as well as the right to overthrow the government. Later, he led a group of armed citizens who resisted arrest by the British army at St-Denis, exiled to Bermuda in 1838, Nelson was granted amnesty by the British colonial government and came back to Montreal in 1842. In 1844, he was elected to the new Parliament of the Province of Canada, in 1854, he became mayor of Montreal, and he died in June 1863. He is interred in the Anglican cemetery in Sorel-Tracy and is commemorated by a park in Mercier-Hochelaga-Maisonneuve borough, dictionnaire des parlementaires du Québec de 1792 à nos jours. University of Toronto and Université Laval
15.
Louis-Joseph Papineau
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Louis-Joseph Papineau, born in Montreal, Quebec, was a politician, lawyer, and the landlord of the seigneurie de la Petite-Nation. He was the leader of the reformist Patriote movement before the Lower Canada Rebellion of 1837–1838 and his father was Joseph Papineau, also a politician in Quebec. Papineau was the eldest of eight children and was the grandfather of the journalist Henri Bourassa, Papineau was elected Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada on January 21,1815. The same year, he replaced Pierre-Stanislas Bédard as leader of the Parti Canadien, under his leadership, the party worked for the reform of Lower Canadas political institutions and strongly opposed the abuses of the appointed Legislative Council. In 1820, he refused a position on the Legislative Council offered by governor Dalhousie, Papineau was described as an energetic child. His arrival at the Seminary of Quebec in 1802 was highly anticipated, viger was for a time the assemblys agent in London and became one of Papineaus prominent supporters and close friends, but after the rebellion he was to follow Lafontaine. Papineaus later childhood was spent on the seigniory of la Petite Nation, located on the Ottawa river. During his time spent at the seigniory of La Petite Nation and he was then sent to study at the Seminary of Quebec, where he completed his secondary studies. In 1808 Papineau was elected member of parliament for Kent before being admitted to the Bar of Lower Canada in 1810, later, he served as a militia officer in the War of 1812. In 1822, he was sent to London with John Neilson to present a petition of 60,000 signatures against the Union project, while in the United Kingdom, he was replaced by Joseph-Rémi Vallières as Speaker. In 1826, he was leader of the Patriotes, a reformed. In 1831, he sponsored a law which granted full equivalent political rights to Jews,27 years before anywhere else in the British Empire, Louis-Joseph was part of the committee that wrote the Ninety-Two Resolutions passed by the Legislative Assembly on February 21,1834. The resolutions called for an elected Legislative Council and an Executive Council responsible before the house of the peoples representatives, after the arrival of the 92 Resolutions in Lower Canada on March 6,1837, he led the movement of protest and participated in numerous popular assemblies. He led the committee organized the boycott of essentially all British imports to Lower Canada. On November 15, he created the Conseil des patriotes with Edmund Bailey OCallaghan and he and OCallaghan fled Montreal for Saint-Denis-sur-Richelieu on November 16, after governor Lord Gosford ordered their arrest and that of 25 other Patriot leaders. Papineau and OCallaghan went to the home of Wolfred Nelson and he crossed the United States border on November 25. On February 8,1839, he parted to leave New York City for Paris where he hoped to get France involved, in May, he published the Histoire de linsurrection du Canada in the magazine Progrès. Despite meeting with politicians such as Lamartine and Lamennais, the France of Louis-Philippe also remained neutral
16.
Battle of Saint-Charles
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The Battle of Saint-Charles was fought on November 25,1837 between Great Britain and Patriote rebels. The camp was at that time defended by some 80 men of the parish of St-Charles, as they approached, the soldiers exchanged gunfire with small groups of combatants. Wetherall deployed his men some distance from the fortifications, then ordered them to charge, the fight was violent and unequal, caused several deaths, especially among the Patriotes, who could not prevent their barricades being overrun. When the Patriotes were being slaughtered, some retreated, but others stayed back to surrender to the British, thinking they had won, the British calmly walked up toward the Patriotes, but the Patriotes opened fire upon the British and killed 3 of them. At the end of battle the British had only three dead and 18 wounded, whereas the Patriotes had about 56 dead, lower Canada Rebellion British Crush Opposition at Saint-Charles 1837 and My Connection With It, by Thomas Storrow Brown
17.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
18.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
19.
Upper Canada
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The new province remained, for the next fifty years of growth and settlement, the colonial government of the territory. Upper Canada existed from 26 December 1791 to 10 February 1841, the upper prefix in the name reflects its geographic position being closer to the headwaters of the Saint Lawrence River than that of Lower Canada to the northeast. The control the French had over Canada was handed over to Great Britain in 1763 when the Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years War in America. The territories of modern southern Ontario and southern Quebec were initially maintained as the single Province of Quebec, from 1763 to 1791, the Province of Quebec maintained its French language, cultural behavioural expectations, practices and laws. This region quickly became culturally distinct, while the act addressed some religious issues, it did not appease those used to English law. Upper Canada became an entity on December 26,1791 with the Parliament of Great Britains passage of the Constitutional Act of 1791. The act divided the Province of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada, the first lieutenant-governor was John Graves Simcoe. On February 1,1796, the capital of Upper Canada was moved from Newark to York, which was judged to be less vulnerable to attack by the Americans. Upper Canadas constitution was said to be the image and transcript of the British constitution. The Executive Council of Upper Canada had a function to the Cabinet in England but was not responsible to the Legislative Assembly. They held a position, however, and did not serve in administrative offices as cabinet ministers do. Members of the Executive Council were not necessarily members of the Legislative Assembly but were members of the Legislative Council. The Legislative branch of the government consisted of the parliament comprising legislative council, forces in the War of 1812, rebuilt, then burned again by accident. The site was abandoned for another, to the west. The Legislative Council of Upper Canada was the upper house governing the province of Upper Canada, although modelled after the British House of Lords, Upper Canada had no aristocracy. Members of the Legislative council, appointed for life, formed the core of the group, the Family Compact. The Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada functioned as the house in the Parliament of Upper Canada. Its legislative power was subject to veto by the appointed Lieutenant Governor, Executive Council, local government in the Province of Upper Canada was based on districts
20.
Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
21.
Parti canadien
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The Parti canadien or Parti patriote was a primarily francophone political party in what is now Quebec founded by members of the liberal elite of Lower Canada at the beginning of the 19th century. The British Government established two oligarchic governments, or councils, to rule what is today Quebec and Ontario, then called Lower and Upper Canada, Upper Canada ruled by the Family Compact and Lower Canada ruled by the Chateau Clique. Both groups exerted monopolistic, un-contested rule over economic and political life, English merchants and politicians in Canada pushed for an assemblage of the Canadas, which would lead to the assimilation of the French. Louis-Joseph Papineau rallied with the people of Lower Canada to sign a petition against the proposition. Papineau later sailed to Britain to propose the petition to the British Government, later, parliament created the Canada Land and Tenures Act which abolished the feudal and seigneurial systems in British North America. In July 1830, word of a revolution in France sparked the youth of Lower Canada as liberalism was non-existent in Canada at the time. Upper and Lower Canada governments tried and failed to resolve the recent uprising and tension, in 1806 the Parti canadien imitated its political adversaries, the Tory Château Clique, in founding a newspaper named Le Canadien. In 1810 Governor Craig had Bédard and some of his colleagues at the newspaper arrested and imprisoned without trial for a comment published in Le Canadien. In 1811 James Stuart became leader of the Parti canadien in the assembly and, in 1815, in 1826 the party took the name of Parti Patriote, reflecting a much stronger sense of French-Canadian nationalism and a change of strategy. The Patriotes largely favoured agriculture over commercialism and blocked many economic projects led by their adversaries, in 1834 Papineau and the Parti Patriote created the Ninety-Two Resolutions, an extensive list of demands for political reform which was sent to the British government. After the rebellions, many patriotes were exiled, hanged, or had their houses set ablaze, however many party members became active members in politics of the new Province of Canada. Le Canadien La Minerve The Canadian Vindicator Le Libéral LÉcho du Pays Ouellet, in Halpenny, Francess G. Dictionary of Canadian Biography. In Halpenny, Francess G. Dictionary of Canadian Biography, background of Discontent, in History of Canada OnLine,2012 Canadian Politics OnLine
22.
Family Compact
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It was the Upper Canadian equivalent of the Château Clique in Lower Canada. It was noted for its conservatism and opposition to democracy, the term Family Compact first appeared in a letter written by Marshall Spring Bidwell to William Warren Baldwin in 1828. Family did not mean relations by marriage, but rather a close brotherhood, Lord Durham noted in 1839 There is, in truth, very little of family connection among the persons thus united. The Family Compact emerged from the War of 1812 and collapsed in the aftermath of the Rebellions of 1837 and their resistance to the political principle of responsible government contributed to its short life. At the end of its lifespan, the Compact would be condemned by Lord Durham as a petty corrupt insolent Tory clique. Historians P. J. Cain and A. G. Hopkins have emphasized that the British empire at the mid-nineteenth century represented the extension abroad of the institutions and principles entrenched at home. ”Upper Canada, created in the very “image and transcript” of the British Constitution is but one example. Like the United Kingdom, the constitution of Upper Canada was established on the mixed monarchy model, mixed monarchy is a form of government that integrates elements of democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. Upper Canada, however, had no aristocracy, the methods pursued to create one were similar to that used in the United Kingdom itself. The result was the Family Compact, Cain and Hopkins point out that new money, the financiers rather than the industrial “barons”, were gradually gentrified through the purchase of land, intermarriage and the acquisition of titles. A similar pattern is seen in colonial empires, such as the Dutch Empire. This same process is seen in Upper Canada and they might even be called ‘entrepreneurs’, most of whose political views may have been highly conservative but whose economic outlook was clearly ‘developmental’. ”The Family Compacts role in the Welland Canal is one example. It is through the pursuit of gentility that the Family Compact was born, Upper Canada did not have a hereditary nobility. In its place, senior members of Upper Canada bureaucracy, the Executive Council of Upper Canada and Legislative Council of Upper Canada and these men sought to solidify their personal positions into family dynasties and acquire all the marks of gentility. They used their government positions to extend their business and speculative interests, the origins of the Family Compact lie with overlapping appointments made to the Executive and Legislative Council of Upper Canada. The Councils were intended to operate independently, section 38 of the Constitutional Act of 1791 referred to the independence of the offices indirectly. Governor Sir Francis Bond Head, the influence of the Family Compact could be limited as well. Members ensured their conservative friends held the important administrative and judicial positions in the colony through political patronage, the centre of the Compact was York, the capital. Its most important member was Bishop John Strachan, many of the members were his former students
23.
George Ramsey, Earl of Dalhousie
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General George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie GCB, styled Lord Ramsay until 1787, was a Scottish soldier and colonial administrator. He was Governor of Nova Scotia from 1816 to 1820, Governor General of British North America from 1820 to 1828, Dalhousie was born at Dalhousie Castle, Midlothian, the son of George Ramsay, 8th Earl of Dalhousie, and Elizabeth, daughter of Andrew Glen. He was educated at the Royal High School, Edinburgh, and he joined the 2nd battalion of the 1st Foot in January 1791, and purchased the rank of major in the 2nd Foot in June 1792. He travelled with the regiment to Martinique, as its commander and he was severely wounded in 1795 and returned to Britain. In 1798 he served in the Irish Rebellion, and in 1799 throughout the Flanders campaign, in 1803 he served as a brigadier-general on the staff in Scotland, and was appointed Major-General in April 1805. During the later stages of the Peninsular War Dalhousie commanded the 7th Division under the Duke of Wellington, with Clinton and William Stewart he displayed insubordination during the retreat from Burgos. Wellington ordered them down a road, but they decided it “was too long and too wet. This brought them to a bridge which was blocked so that they could not cross, here, eventually, Wellington found them, waiting. What, Wellington was asked, did he say to them, ‘Oh by God, it was too serious to say anything. ’ ‘What a situation is mine. ’ he complained to London later. ‘It is impossible to prevent incapable men from being sent to the army. ’” and he was appointed lieutenant-general, and colonel of the 13th Foot in 1813. He led his division in the Battle of the Pyrenees where it was lightly engaged, after the previous commander was wounded at the Battle of Orthez in February 1814, Dalhousie briefly led the 7th Division again. He occupied the city of Bordeaux and thus missed the final Battle of Toulouse, William Kemley was said to have saved the life of Ramsay in battle, by holding a flag over his body. In doing so he suffered a wound from a ball that left him with a permanent hole in the palm of his hand. His grandson, Peter Gordon Kemley, used to tell how he could put his finger through the palm of his grandfathers hand, for his actions, William Kemley was given a house on the Dalhousie Estate at Brechin Castle, rent-free for life. His daughter, Caroline Kemley, was born under a gun carriage the evening before the Battle of Quatre Bras and her mother was one of six wives per regiment permitted to accompany their husbands. In 1815 he was created Baron Dalhousie, of Dalhousie Castle in the County of Edinburgh, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom and he was Governor of Nova Scotia from 1816 to 1820, Governor General of British North America from 1820 to 1828 and later Commander-in-Chief in India. Lord Dalhousie married Christian, daughter of Charles Broun, of Coalstoun in East Lothian, Scotland and they had three sons, the two elder of whom died early. He died at Dalhousie Castle in March 1838, aged 67, and was succeeded by his youngest son, James, lady Dalhousie died in January 1839
24.
John Neilson
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John Neilson was a Scots-Quebecer editor of the newspaper La Gazette de Québec/The Quebec Gazette and a politician. Born in Dornal, Scotland, Neilson arrived in Quebec City, Lower Canada in 1791 to work for his uncles printing company, elected to the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada in a partial election in 1818, he was re-elected until 1830 and supported the Parti canadien. In 1823, he accompanied Louis-Joseph Papineau to London to lobby against the Union project in the name of the majority of the MPs in the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada. Again, in 1828 he was part of a delegation sent to London to present his partys demands for reform, in 1830, he took his distance from the Parti patriote, which he considered to be too radical. He opposed the Ninety-Two Resolutions of 1834, a rewrite of the 1828 demands for reform with a radical tone, in 1837, he was named to the Executive Council and Legislative Council. Nielson was a member of the Special Council that administered Lower Canada after the Lower Canada Rebellion and he opposed the Union after its enactment. In 1841, he was elected to the 1st Parliament of the Province of Canada in the riding of Quebec County and he was elected speaker, but in 1844, hewas appointed to the Legislative Council. He died at Cap-Rouge in 1848, aux electeurs du comté de Quebec/To the Electors of the County of Quebec,1820 Letter from L. J. Papineau and J. Neilson, Esqs. Addressed to His Majestys Under Secretary of State on the Subject of the Proposed Union of the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada,10, to Visit the United States Penitentiaries,1835 First report. Col. Alexander Joseph Wolff a British soldier who established in Valcartier, dictionnaire des parlementaires du Québec de 1792 à nos jours. Limprimerie Neilson, Montréal, Université de Montréal,23 p. Audet, john Neilson, in Mémoires de la société Royale du Canada. Troisième Série, Vol. XXII, Ottawa,1928, p. 81-97 Timeline of Quebec history Lower Canada Rebellion
25.
Jean-Jacques Lartigue
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Jean-Jacques Lartigue, S. S. was a Canadian Sulpician, who served as the first Catholic Bishop of Montreal. Lartigue was born to a noted Montreal family, the son of Jacques Larthigue, a surgeon. He attended the Collège Saint-Raphaël, followed by two years at an English school run by the Sulpicians, receiving a solid education and he then clerked for three years with a Montreal law firm where he developed a lifelong interest in the politics of Lower Canada. In this he followed the example of his three uncles who were members of the Canadian legislature, including Joseph Papineau and Denis Viger, in 1797, Lartigue gave up a promising career in the legal profession and turned toward the Catholic priesthood. On 21 September 1800, Lartigue was ordained a priest by Bishop Denaut at the Church of Saint-Denis on the banks of the Richelieu River, Denaut then appointed him as his secretary. Lartigue helped not only in the affairs of the diocese, but in the pastoral duties at Longueuil. Despite his poor health, he made pastoral visits on behalf of the bishop to the Maritimes, part of the diocese and he joined the Sulpician community of the Seminary, the first native Canadian to enter the Society. He was assigned to help in the Parish of Notre-Dame which was attached to the Seminary, in 1819 the Seminary faced a legal challenge from the British governor of the province to its holding of various seigneuries in Quebec, which were its primary means of support. Lartigue was entrusted with the superior of the Seminary with a mission to London to present their case directly to the government in England, the superior chose Lartigue as being particularly qualified for the mission because of his knowledge of the law and his mastery of English. They sailed for London on 3 July 1819 on the George Symes and he returned to Canada, believing his mission a failure. Nothing, however, came of the Canadian governors efforts to seize the Seminarys holdings, Plessis failied to obtain the permission of the Crown to divide his diocese. A compromise was struck, though, by which he would be allowed to be given four auxiliary bishops to govern the far-flung diocese. He already had Lartigue in mind for one of these positions, becoming aware of this, Lartigue was reluctant to accept, which would have meant leaving the life of the Sulpician community. The Superior General of the Society in Paris left the decision to the Superior of the Seminary and he was given the major responsibility for administering the various and many Catholic institutions of the city and region. One of his first actions was to establish a seminary in the new bishops palace, called the Séminaire Saint-Jacques. He placed a trusted associate, Ignace Bourget, in charge of the new facility and its goal was to provide a well-trained clergy for the diocese. Lartigue and Bourget shared a belief in that supreme authority of the papacy in the life of the Catholic Church. Thus the school became a center of ultramontanism decades before this position was proclaimed an essential element of Catholic belief at the First Vatican Council, in this, he came into conflict with his own Sulpician community, as well as various sectors of the Catholic population
26.
Assembly of the Six Counties
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Presided by Wolfred Nelson, it is the most famous of the various public assemblies held during that year protesting the Russell Resolutions. It is a prelude to the Lower Canada Rebellion of 1837, the six counties refer to Richelieu, Rouville, Saint-Hyacinthe, Chambly, Verchères and LAcadie. The Ninety-Two Resolutions of the Patriotes had demanded Great Britain democratic reforms for Lower Canada and they had been mostly denied by the Russell Resolutions, which sparked a number of assemblies of protest in 1837. The Saint-Charles assembly was attended by 13 members of the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada, on the field, a column, the Colonne de la liberté, had been raised with the inscription À Papineau ses compatriotes reconnaissants. A replica, inaugurated in 1982, stands today on the site and it saw the speeches of the likes of Louis-Joseph Papineau and Wolfred Nelson. Papineau advocated the pursuit of the struggle through economic boycotts of British products while Nelson. I claim the time has come to melt our spoons to make bullets, Étienne Parent also spoke and supported non-forceful methods. The assembly voted a number of resolutions, as did the other 1837 assemblies and they notably proclaimed human rights, refused to recognize the new Executive Council of Lower Canada and approved the Société des fils de la liberté. They did not mention the use of force and this event prompted the negative reaction of the Lower Canada Church. Three weeks after the assembly, an arrest warrant for Patriote leaders was issued by the government,23 et 24 octobre 1837 - LAssemblée des Six-Comtés à Saint-Charles, in Les Patriotes de 1837@1838, March 10,2000 Jean-Paul Bernard
27.
William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne
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William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne, PC, FRS, usually addressed as Lord Melbourne, was a British Whig statesman who served as Home Secretary and Prime Minister. He is best known for his intense and successful mentoring of Queen Victoria, at ages 18–21, but he was kind, honest and not self-seeking. Melbourne was dismissed by King William IV in 1834, the last British prime minister to be dismissed by a monarch. Born in London in 1779 to an aristocratic Whig family, William Lamb was the son of The 1st Viscount Melbourne and Elizabeth, Viscountess Melbourne, though his paternity was questioned. He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he fell in with a group of Romantic Radicals that included Percy Bysshe Shelley, against the background of the Napoleonic Wars, Lamb served at home as captain and major in the Hertfordshire Volunteer Infantry. In 1805 he succeeded his brother as heir to his fathers title and married Lady Caroline Ponsonby. The next year he was elected to the British House of Commons as the Whig MP for Leominster, for the election in 1806 he was moved to the seat of Haddington Burghs and for the 1807 election he successfully stood for Portarlington. The resulting scandal was the talk of Britain in 1812, eventually the two reconciled and, though they separated in 1825, her death in 1828 affected him considerably. In 1816 Lamb was returned for Peterborough by Whig grandee Lord Fitzwilliam and he told Lord Holland that he was committed to the Whig principles of the Glorious Revolution but not to a heap of modern additions, interpolations, facts and fictions. He therefore spoke against parliamentary reform and voted for the suspension of habeas corpus in 1817 when sedition was rife, lambs hallmark was finding the middle ground. Though a Whig, he accepted the post of Chief Secretary for Ireland in the moderate Tory governments of George Canning and Lord Goderich. Upon the death of his father in 1828 and his becoming The 2nd Viscount Melbourne, of Kilmore in the County of Cavan and he had spent 25 years in the Commons as a backbencher and was not politically well known. When the Whigs came to power under Lord Grey in November 1830 Melbourne became Home Secretary in the new government, during the disturbances of 1830–32 he acted both vigorously and sensitively, and it was for this function that his reforming brethren thanked him heartily. The disturbances over reform in 1831–32 were countered with the enforcement of the usual laws, after Lord Grey resigned as Prime Minister in July 1834, the King was forced to appoint another Whig to replace him, as the Tories were not strong enough to support a government. Melbourne was the man most likely to be acceptable to the King and hold the Whig party together. Melbourne hesitated after receiving from Grey the letter from the King requesting him to him to discuss the formation of a government. Melbourne thought he would not enjoy the work that accompanied the office of Premier but he did not want to let his friends. According to Charles Greville, Melbourne said to his secretary, Tom Young, I am in many minds as to what to do
28.
Martial law
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It is usually imposed temporarily when the government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively. Martial law can be used by governments to enforce their rule over the public, such incidents may occur after a coup détat, when threatened by popular protest, to suppress political opposition, or to stabilize insurrections or perceived insurrections. Martial law may be declared in cases of natural disasters, however, most countries use a different legal construct. Martial law has also been imposed during conflicts, and in cases of occupations, examples of this form of military rule include post World War II reconstruction in Germany and Japan as well as the Southern Reconstruction following the U. S. Civil War. Civilians defying martial law may be subjected to military tribunal, the Black War was a period of violent conflict between British colonists and Aboriginal Australians in Tasmania from the mid-1820s to 1832. With an escalation of violence in the late 1820s, Lieutenant-Governor George Arthur declared martial law in November 1828—effectively providing legal immunity for killing Aboriginal people and it would remain in force for more than three years, the longest period of martial law in Australian history. Brunei has been under a law since a rebellion occurred on 8 December 1962 known as the Brunei Revolt and was put down by British troops from Singapore. e. The military does not administer justice, which remains in the hands of the courts, the Act has been invoked three times, During World War I, World War II, and the October Crisis of 1970. In 1988, the War Measures Act was replaced by the Emergencies Act, during the colonial era, martial law was proclaimed and applied in the territory of the Province of Quebec during the invasion of Canada by the army of the American Continental Congress in 1775–1776. It was also applied twice in the territory of Lower Canada during the 1837–1838 insurrections and it was imposed until April 27,1838. Martial law was proclaimed a second time on November 4,1838, this time by acting Governor John Colborne, in Egypt, a State of Emergency has been in effect almost continuously since 1967. Following the assassination of President Anwar el-Sadat in 1981, state of emergency was declared, Egypt has been under state of emergency ever since, the Parliament has renewed the emergency laws every three years since they were imposed. The legislation was extended in 2003 and were due to expire at the end of May 2006, but after the Dahab bombings in April of that year, state of emergency was renewed for another two years. In May 2008 there was an extension to June 2010. In May 2010, the state of emergency was extended, albeit with a promise from the government to be applied only to Terrorism. Public demonstrations are banned under the legislation, under martial law the source of power is not the people, not the parliament, not the constitution, not a Holy Text, but solely the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. The military issued in its announcement the end of the State of Emergency as soon as order is restored in Egypt. Before martial law, the Egyptian parliament under the constitution had the power to declare a State of Emergency
29.
William Lyon Mackenzie
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William Lyon Mackenzie was a Scottish-Canadian-American journalist and politician. He was the first mayor of Toronto and was a leader during the 1837 Upper Canada Rebellion, William Lyon Mackenzie was born on March 12,1795, in Scotland in the Dundee suburb Springfield. His mother Elizabeth of Kirkmichael was a seventeen years older than his father, weaver Daniel Mackenzie. Daniel died three weeks after Williams birth, and his 45-year-old mother raised him alone, As Daniel had left her no significant property. Elizabeth Mackenzie was a religious woman, a proponent of the Secession. While Mackenzie was not a man himself, he remained a lifelong proponent of separation of church. Mackenzie entered a parish school at Dundee at age 5, thanks to a bursary. He was a reader, keeping a list of the 958 books he read between 1806 and 1820. By 1810 he was writing for a local newspaper, during this time he also joined an early Mechanics Institute. It was there that he met Edward Lesslie and his sons James and John and they would all be key to establishing a Mechanics Institute in Toronto. Mackenzies mother arranged for him to apprentice with tradesmen in Dundee, during this period Mackenzie had a relationship with Isabel Reid, of whom nothing is known except that she gave birth to Mackenzies illegitimate son on July 17,1814. The boy was raised by Mackenzies mother and he travelled briefly to France and then worked briefly for a newspaper in London. Lacking stable employment, at age 25 Mackenzie emigrated to British North America with John Lesslie, Mackenzie initially found a job working on the Lachine Canal in Lower Canada, then wrote for the Montreal Herald. John Lesslie settled in York, Upper Canada, Mackenzie was soon employed at Lesslies bookselling/drugstore business. Mackenzie began to write for the York Observer, in 1822, Edward Lesslie and the rest of his family, along with Elizabeth Mackenzie, joined Mackenzie and John Lesslie in Upper Canada. Elizabeth brought along a woman, Isabel Baxter, whom she had chosen for Mackenzie to marry. The couple were wed July 1,1822 in Montreal, Isabel had 14 children with Mackenzie, including Isabel Grace Mackenzie, the mother of William Lyon Mackenzie King. Edward and John Lesslie opened a branch of their business in Dundas, the store sold drugs, hardware, and general merchandise
30.
Filibuster (military)
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A filibuster or freebooter, in the context of foreign policy, is someone who engages in an unauthorized military expedition into a foreign country or territory to foment or support a revolution. The term is used to describe United States citizens who fomented insurrections in Latin America in the mid-19th century. Filibuster expeditions have also occasionally used as cover for government-approved deniable operations. A notable late 20th Century example of this would be the Argentinian scrap metal merchants who landed on South Georgia at the outset of the Falklands War. Filibusters are irregular soldiers who act without official authority from their own government, the freewheeling actions of the filibusters of the 1850s led to the name being applied figuratively to the political act of filibustering in the United States Congress. Unlike a mercenary, a filibuster leader/commander works for himself, whilst a mercenary leader works for others, the English term filibuster derives from the Spanish filibustero, itself deriving originally from the Dutch vrijbuiter, privateer, pirate, robber. The Spanish form entered the English language in the 1850s, as applied to military adventurers from the United States then operating in Central America and the Spanish West Indies. The Spanish term was first applied to persons raiding Spanish colonies and ships in the West Indies, with the end of the era of Caribbean piracy in the early 18th century filibuster fell out of general currency. The term was revived in the century to describe the actions of adventurers who tried to take control of various Caribbean, Mexican. In Sonora, there were the French Marquis Charles de Pindray and Count Gaston de Raousset-Boulbon, the three most prominent filibusters of that era were Narciso López and John Quitman in Cuba and William Walker in Baja California, Sonora, and lastly Nicaragua. The term returned to American parlance to refer to López 1851 Cuban expeditions, gregor MacGregor was a Scottish filibuster in Florida, Central and South America. She has shown that, left to herself, she is incapable of organizing and sustaining any permanent form of government. The Indians on her northern frontier are making continual predatory incursions into her territory and her mixed population has all the vices of civilization, with none of its virtues, all the ignorance of barbarism, with none of its hardihood, enterprise, and self-reliance. It is enervate, effeminate, treacherous, false, and fickle, like the savage and beasts of the forest, its love of liberty is but impatience of control, and hatred of law and government. After effecting so much good, shall we cease from our labors while so much remains to be done, shall we be deterred by the epithet of filibustering, or the cant, fanaticism, and mistaken or pretended philanthropy of a part of the North. …. Unless we can all the convenient transit across the Isthmus to California and Oregon. Filibustering, whether by nations or individuals, is not like avarice—selfish, sordid and it proceeds from ambition, and ambition, rightly directed, is the noblest of human passions. This surely was filibustering, but the most needful of filibustering and it is time to define what we mean by the term filibustering
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Battle of Windsor
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The Battle of Windsor was a short-lived campaign in the eastern Michigan area of the United States and the Windsor area of Upper Canada. They based groups in Michigan at Fort Gratiot, Mount Clemens, Detroit, the Patriots were defeated by British and American government forces, respectively. In December 1837, Thomas Jefferson Sutherland was commissioned by the leaders on Navy Island in the Niagara River to head to Detroit to raise a force there. After the Navy Island base was evacuated, other Patriots came to Detroit, public meetings were held in Detroit and an invasion force was organized. Men came to Detroit from as far away as Illinois and Kentucky to join the movement, concerned that they would seize the U. S. arsenal at Fort Gratiot, U. S. General Hugh Brady ordered the weapons removed by boat, the steamship, however, became stuck in the ice at St. Clair, Michigan, and the journey to Detroit had to be completed by wagon. On January 5,1838, the Detroit jail was raided, the rebels were reported to have later stolen another 200 weapons from the unsecured office of the U. S. marshal in Detroit, perhaps with his help. The schooner Ann was seized by the Patriots on January 8 and sailed to Gibraltar, the governor of Michigan, Stevens T. Mason, along with a detachment of 200 militiamen, pursued them in two steamships. A hundred Canadian militia also followed in the steamer Alliance, Mason met with the Patriot leaders at Gibaltar, but the captured steamship Ann continued on to near Fort Malden on the Canadian shore. On January 9, the Patriots began shelling Malden and the town of Amherstburg from the Ann, the Canadian militia took up positions in the town while the Patriots moved 300 men onto the Canadian Bois Blanc Island opposite the town. The Canadian militia opened fire on the schooner when it tried to reach the island, the Canadians shot several of the ship crew and damaged the sails and rigging. The ship drifted until it ran aground, at point the Canadian militia boarded it, encountered no resistance. The remaining Patriot forces quit Bois Blanc for the safety of the American side of the river, several of the Patriots were wounded, a few killed, and the Canadians captured 300 muskets,2 cannon,10 kegs of gunpowder and various accoutrements. After losing the Ann, the Patriots stole another ship, the steamer Little Erie, on January 27, three companies of U. S. troops arrived from Buffalo aboard the steamer Robert Fulton to help calm the area. Governor Mason met with the Patriots at Gibraltar on February 12, in fact, that same day, Patriots raided the U. S. arsenal in Dearborn, Michigan, stealing hundreds of weapons. This group of weapons was recovered, having been hidden near a tavern in Detroit. On February 24,1838, a group of Patriots began assembling on Fighting Island on the Canadian side of the Detroit River, supplies were ferried over from Detroit and some 400 Patriots from Cleveland joined the Detroit area men. The larger force of 600 Cleveland men occupied Pelee Island at the same time and it was reported that the Patriots had only 50 muskets and one dismounted cannon among them on the island
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John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham
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Lambton was born 29 April 1792 in the house of his father William Henry Lambton at 14 Berkeley Square in London, England. His mother was Lady Anne Barbara Frances, daughter of George Villiers, Lambton was christened with the names of his grandfathers, John Lambton and George Villiers. In the time of Lambtons birth, his father was taking part in the formation. After attending Eton he joined the army in 1809 as a cornet in the 10th Hussars, other properties in County Durham included Dinsdale Park and Low Dinsdale Manor. When his father-in-law Lord Grey became prime minister in 1830, Durham was sworn of the Privy Council, in this capacity he helped draft the Reform Bill of 1832. Lord Durham resigned from cabinet in 1833, later the same year he was further honoured when he was made Viscount Lambton and Earl of Durham. Between 1835 and 1837, he served as Ambassador to Russia, while in Russia, he was invested as a Knight of the Order of St. Alexander Nevsky, of the Order of St. Andrew and of the Order of St. Anna. In 1837, he was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, Lord Durham first set foot on the soil of British North America in Lower Canada on 29 May 1838. Lord Durham has been lauded in French Canadian history for his recommendation to introduce responsible government, however, the British government did not accept that recommendation and it took 10 more years before Parliamentary democracy was finally established in the colonies. Lord Durham is less well regarded for recommending the union of Upper and Lower Canada and they had three daughters, who all predeceased him, Lady Frances Charlotte, married the Hon. John Ponsonby, but died a few months later of consumption. He was succeeded by his eldest and only surviving son, George, the Countess of Durham only survived her husband by a year and died aged 44 on 26 November 1841 at Genoa from a serious cold. The Penshaw Monument in County Durham, on a hill west of Sunderland, was built in his honour, Lambton, John George, 1st Earl of Durham. The Political Thought of Lord Durham, the Durham Report and British Policy. John George Lambton, first Earl of Durham, the Diary of Frances Lady Shelley. Self-Government in Canada, and How it was Achieved, The Story of Lord Durhams Report, pp.414 p. Lambton, John George, Buller, Charles, Wakefield, Edward Gibbon. The Report and Despatches of the Earl of Durham, Her Majestys High Commissioner, radical Party and Canada, Lord Durham and the Canadians. Speeches of the Earl of Durham on Reform of Parliament, sketch of the Political Career of the Earl of Durham. Glasgow, John Reid & Co. pp.400 p. Viau, la pensée politique de lord Durham
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French Canadians
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French Canadians are an ethnic group who trace their ancestry to French colonists who settled in Canada from the 17th century onward. Today, French Canadians constitute the main French-speaking population in Canada, today, French Canadians live across North America. The province of Quebec has the largest population of French-Canadian descent, though smaller communities exist throughout Canada, between 1840 and 1930, roughly 900,000 French Canadians emigrated to the United States, mostly to the New England region. Other terms for French Canadians who continue to reside in the province of Quebec, are Quebecers or Québécois, the other major group of French Canadians are the Acadians who reside in the Maritime Provinces. In total, those who identify as French Canadian, French, Québécois, the French Canadians get their name from Canada, the most developed and densely populated region of New France during the period of French colonization in the 17th and 18th century. The original use of the term Canada referred to the area along the St. From 1535 to the 1690s, the French word Canadien had referred to the First Nations the French had encountered in the St. Lawrence River valley at Stadacona, at the end of the 17th century, Canadien became an ethnonym distinguishing the inhabitants of Canada from those of France. French Canadians living in Canada express their identity using a number of terms. The Ethnic Diversity Survey of the 2006 Canadian census found that French-speaking Canadians identified their ethnicity most often as French, French Canadians, Québécois, the latter three were grouped together by Jantzen as French New World ancestries because they originate in Canada. Canadien was used to refer to the French-speaking residents of New France beginning in the last half of the 17th century, the English-speaking residents who arrived later from Great Britain were called Anglais. This usage continued until Canadian Confederation in 1867 and those reporting French New World ancestries overwhelmingly had ancestors that went back at least four generations in Canada. Fourth generation Canadiens and Québécois showed considerable attachment to their group, with 70% and 61%, respectively. The generational profile and strength of identity of French New World ancestries contrast with those of British or Canadian ancestries, which represent the largest ethnic identities in Canada. As a result, their identification with their ethnicity is weaker, for example, only 50% of third generation Canadians strongly identify as such, bringing down the overall average. The survey report notes that 80% of Canadians whose families had been in Canada for three or more generations reported Canadian and provincial or regional ethnic identities and these identities include French New World ancestries such as Québécois, Acadian. Since the 1960s, French Canadians in Quebec have generally used Québécois or Québécoise to express their cultural and national identity, rather than Canadien français, francophones who self-identify as Québécois and do not have French-Canadian ancestry may not identify as French Canadian. Those who do have French or French-Canadian ancestry, but who support Quebec sovereignty and this is a reflection of the strong social, cultural, and political ties that most Quebeckers of French-Canadian origin, who constitute a majority of francophone Quebecers, maintain within Quebec. French Canadians outside Quebec are more likely to self-identify as French Canadian, identification with provincial groupings varies from province to province, with Franco-Ontarians, for example, using their provincial label far more frequently than Franco-Columbians do
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