1.
Lowry, Denver
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Lowry is a neighborhood in the City and County of Denver, Colorado. The Lowry neighborhood is located at the site of the former Lowry Air Force Base, the old Lowry Firehouse has been converted into Colorado Free University
2.
Northport, Washington
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Northport is a town in Stevens County, Washington, United States. The population was 295 at the 2010 census, Northport was given its name since it was once the northernmost town on the Spokane Falls and Northern Railway. Northport is located at 48°54′52″N 117°46′56″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 0.58 square miles, all of it land. This climatic region is typified by large temperature differences, with warm to hot summers. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Northport has a continental climate. As of the census of 2010, there were 295 people,139 households, the population density was 508.6 inhabitants per square mile. There were 168 housing units at a density of 289.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 94. 2% White,0. 3% African American,1. 7% Native American,0. 7% Asian,1. 0% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 1% of the population. 38. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.12 and the average family size was 2.75. The median age in the town was 48.5 years. 21% of residents were under the age of 18,6. 5% were between the ages of 18 and 24,18. 3% were from 25 to 44,35. 9% were from 45 to 64, and 18. 3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 50. 2% male and 49. 8% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 336 people,151 households, and 83 families residing in the town. The population density was 592.7 people per square mile, there were 179 housing units at an average density of 315.8 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 94. 94% White,0. 60% Native American,0. 60% Asian,0. 30% Pacific Islander,0. 30% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 5. 36% of the population. 36. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 3.01. In the town, the age distribution of the population shows 25. 0% under the age of 18,5. 7% from 18 to 24,22. 0% from 25 to 44,30. 1% from 45 to 64, the median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 100.0 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.3 males. The median income for a household in the town was $21,719, males had a median income of $28,929 versus $16,000 for females
3.
Continental Airlines
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Continental Airlines was a major United States airline, founded in 1934 and eventually headquartered in Houston, Texas. It had ownership interests and brand partnerships with several carriers, Continental was a minority owner of ExpressJet Airlines, which operated under the Continental Express trade name but was a separately managed and public company. Chautauqua Airlines also flew under the Continental Express identity, and Cape Air, Colgan Air, CommutAir, Continental did not have any ownership interests in these companies. Continental started out as one of the carriers in the United States. Post 1978, Continental grew into one of the countrys largest carriers despite facing financial troubles and other issues, in May 2010, the airline announced that it would merge with UAL Corporation, the parent company of United Airlines, via a stock swap. Continentals shares were acquired by UAL Corporation, the acquisition was completed in October 2010, at which time the holding company was renamed United Continental Holdings. During the integration period, each ran a separate operation under the direction of a combined leadership team. The integration was completed on March 3,2012, the airline commenced operations with the Lockheed Vega, a single-engine plane that carried four passengers. Following cancellation of all domestic airmail contracts by the Roosevelt administration in 1934, Six learned of an opportunity to buy into the Southwest Division of Varney Speed Lines which needed money to handle its newly won Pueblo-El Paso route. Six was introduced to Louis Mueller, Mueller had helped found the Southwest Division of Varney in 1934 with Walter T. Varney. As an upshot of all this, Six bought into the airline with US$90,000, Varney was awarded a 17-cent-rate airmail contract between Pueblo and El Paso, it carried passengers as a sideline. The carrier was renamed Continental Air Lines on July 8,1937, Six relocated the airlines headquarters to Denver Union Airport in Denver in October 1937. Six changed the name to Continental because he wanted the name to reflect his desire to have the airline fly all directions throughout the United States. During World War II Continentals Denver maintenance base converted Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses, Boeing B-29 Superfortresses, profits from military transportation and aircraft conversion enabled Continental to contemplate expansion and acquisition of new airliners after the war. Among those were the Douglas DC-3, the Convair 240 and the Convair 340, the Convairs were Continentals first pressurized airliners. The airlines early route was El Paso to Denver, with routes being added during the war from Denver and Albuquerque across Kansas, Oklahoma, in 1946 Continental flew Denver to Kansas City, Tulsa, and to Oklahoma City, and from El Paso and Albuquerque to San Antonio. Each route included stops in several of 22 smaller cities, in 1955 Continental merged with Pioneer Airlines, gaining access to 16 more cities in Texas and New Mexico. Pioneers Executive Vice President Harding Luther Lawrence arrived at Continental as a result of the merger, Bob Six commented on more than on occasion that, the reason we bought Pioneer was to get Harding
4.
Stapleton International Airport
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Stapleton International Airport was the primary airport serving Denver, Colorado, United States from 1929 to 1995. At different times it served as a hub for Continental Airlines, in 1995, Stapleton was replaced by Denver International Airport. It has since decommissioned and the property redeveloped as a retail. Stapleton opened on October 17,1929, as Denver Municipal Airport, concourse A, the original building from 1929, was still in use when the airport closed. The airport was created by Ira Boyd Humphreys in 1919, the March 1939 Official Aviation Guide shows nine weekday departures, seven United and two Continental. The April 1957 shows 38 United,12 Continental, seven Braniff, seven Frontier, seven Western, five TWA, the jet age arrived during the summer of 1959 when Continental began operating Boeing 707 jetliners into Stapleton. Runway 17/35 and a new building opened in 1964. Concourse D was built in 1972, after deregulation three airlines had hubs at Stapleton. When it closed in 1995 Stapleton had six runways and five terminal concourses, Southwest Airlines and People Express tried low-cost service to Denver in the mid-1980s, but Southwest withdrew and People Express was acquired by Continental. In September 1982 the first revenue flight of the Boeing 767 arrived at Stapleton from OHare International Airport in Chicago, during the energy boom of the early 1980s, several skyscrapers were built in downtown Denver, including Republic Plaza. Due to Stapletons location 3 miles east of downtown, the Federal Aviation Administration imposed a height restriction of 700-715. This allowed an unimpeded glide slope for runways and, the height restriction was lifted in 1995, well after the citys skyscrapers had been erected. Stapleton Airport was the site for Ted Fujitas studies of microbursts, Continental Airlines closed its Stapleton pilot and flight attendant bases in October 1994, reducing operations and making United Airlines the airports largest carrier. This would also mark the end of Continental Airlines use of Denver as a hub, by the 1980s, plans were under way to replace Stapleton with a new airport. Adams County voters approved the plan in 1988, and Denver voters approved the plan in a 1989 referendum, after weeks of delays, a Continental Airlines flight, with a destination of London Gatwick, was the last flight to depart Stapleton. The airport was shut down. A convoy of ground equipment and other vehicles traveled to the new Denver International Airport. Delta Airlines Flight #569 from Dallas/Ft. Worth was the last commercial flight to land at Stapleton, the runways at Stapleton were then marked with large yellow Xs, which indicated it was no longer legal or safe for any aircraft to land there
5.
Air Training Command
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Air Training Command is a former United States Air Force Major Command designation. It was headquartered at Randolph Air Force Base, Texas, but was formed at Barksdale Air Force Base. It was re-designated as Air Education and Training Command following a merger with Air University on 1 July 1993. ATC was organized on 1 July 1946 as a re-designation of Army Air Forces Training Command as part of the re-organization of the United States Army Air Forces after World War II. For nearly 50 years, ATC was the training organization of the United States Air Force from its inception as an independent service in September 1947. It provided pilot and aircrew training, technical training, and enlisted, at the end of the Cold War, it was merged with Air University in July 1993 as part of a major top-to-bottom reorganization of the USAF. On 1 July 1946, Army Air Forces Training Command was re-designated as Air Training Command, the Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 and the end of the war in the Pacific in September 1945 began a rapid demobilization of the U. S. armed forces. Large numbers of training bases were closed and units were discontinued in late 1945. For that reason, ATC was organized in the summer of 1946 to become the training organization of the postwar USAAF. One of the organizational changes of the postwar USAAF was the elimination of the command organizational echelon. ATC was organized around the AAFTCs Flying Training Command and Technical Training Commands, a third Division was formed with the creation of the ATC Indoctrination Division, which was organized around the Military Training Center in San Antonio, Texas. All three Divisions of ATC were co-equal in status, in June 1946, the USAAF discontinued the World War II Flying Training Wings allocated to AAFTC and each training installation was commanded by its designated Army Air Forces Base Unit. The Army Air Forces had set a goal of 70 groups, however. Instead, the USAAF had to downscale its plans, settling on 55 groups, Congress passed the National Security Act of September 1947, and soon after, the Air Force became a separate service with its own civilian service secretary, equal to the Army and Navy. By 31 December 1947, the USAF was 55 groups strong, earlier in the year, the ATC commander, Lieutenant General John K. Cannon, had told General Carl A. The initial training bases of Air Training Command were, ATCs Flying Division began its first jet fighter transition course at Williams Field in 1946, however, by early 1947, the USAAF had sped up its conversion to jet aircraft. The only way training needs could be met was by limiting course quotas to commands already using jet aircraft, also, the training program was handicapped by the fact that no dual-control jet trainer aircraft existed. In addition, the training program was consolidated into two classes, Basic and Advanced
6.
Aurora, Colorado
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Aurora is a Home Rule Municipality in the U. S. state of Colorado, spanning Arapahoe and Adams counties, with the extreme southeastern portion of the city extending into Douglas County. Aurora is one of the cities of the Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area. The citys population was 325,078 in the 2010 census, which made it the third most populous city in the state of Colorado, the Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated population of 2,645,209 on July 1,2012. However, Denver and Aurora combined make up less than half of the Denver Metro Areas population, the estimated population of Denver-Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area was 3,214,218 on July 1,2012. Aurora originated in the 1880s as the town of Fletcher, taking its name from Denver businessman Donald Fletcher who saw it as a real estate opportunity. He and his partners staked out four miles east of Denver. At that point Fletcher skipped town, leaving the community with a huge water debt, Aurora is composed of hundreds of subdivisions thus carries the name of one of the original development plats from which it sprang. Former mayor Dennis Champine once expressed the somewhat whimsical notion that eventually the area would be called the Aurora/Denver Metropolitan Area, indeed, since the 2000 Census Aurora has surpassed Denver in land area, and much of Aurora is undeveloped, while Denver is more fully built-out. However, such efforts are hampered by the lack of a large. Aurora is largely suburban in character, as evidenced by the citys modest collection of tall buildings, a large military presence has existed in Aurora since the early 20th century. In 1918, Army General Hospital #21 opened, with the U. S. government expanding and upgrading the facilities in 1941 just in time to care for the wounded servicemen of World War II. Lowry Air Force Base was opened in 1938, straddling the border of Aurora and it eventually closed in 1994, and was redeveloped into a master-planned community featuring residential, commercial, business and educational facilities. In 1942, the Army Air Corps built Buckley Field, which over the course of history has been renamed Naval Air Station, Buckley Air National Guard Base and finally Buckley Air Force Base. The base, home of the 460th Space Wing and the 140th Wing Colorado Air National Guard, is Auroras largest employer, President Warren G. Harding visited Fitzsimons Army Hospital in 1923, and President Franklin D. Roosevelt visited in 1936. In 1943 the hospital was the birthplace of 2004 Democratic presidential candidate John Kerry, President Dwight D. Eisenhower recovered from a heart attack at Fitzsimons for seven weeks during the fall of 1955. Decommissioned in 1999, the facility is part of the Anschutz Medical Campus of the University of Colorado Denver, the Anschutz Medical Campus also includes the University of Colorado Hospital, which moved to Aurora from Denver in 2007, and the Childrens Hospital. The first carbon-ion radiotherapy research and treatment facility in the U. S. has been proposed at the site and these facilities will employ a workforce of 32,000 at build-out. In 1965, mayor Norma O. Walker became the first woman to head a U. S. city with a population over 60,000
7.
Denver
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Denver, officially the City and County of Denver, is the capital and most populous municipality of the U. S. state of Colorado. Denver is in the South Platte River Valley on the edge of the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains. The Denver downtown district is immediately east of the confluence of Cherry Creek with the South Platte River, Denver is nicknamed the Mile-High City because its official elevation is exactly one mile above sea level, making it the highest major city in the United States. The 105th meridian west of Greenwich, the reference for the Mountain Time Zone. Denver is ranked as a Beta- world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. With a 2015 estimated population of 682,545, Denver ranks as the 19th-most populous U. S. city, and with a 2. 8% increase in 2015, the city is also the fastest-growing major city in the United States. The 10-county Denver-Aurora-Lakewood, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 2,814,330 and ranked as the 19th most populous U. S. metropolitan statistical area. The 12-city Denver-Aurora, CO Combined Statistical Area had an estimated 2015 population of 3,418,876, which ranks as the 16th most populous U. S. metropolitan area. Denver is the most populous city of the 18-county Front Range Urban Corridor, Denver is the most populous city within a 500-mile radius and the second-most populous city in the Mountain West after Phoenix, Arizona. In 2016, Denver was named the best place to live in the USA by U. S. News & World Report and this was the first historical settlement in what was later to become the city of Denver. The site faded quickly, however, and by the summer of 1859 it was abandoned in favor of Auraria, Larimer named the townsite Denver City to curry favor with Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver. Larimer hoped the name would help make it the county seat of Arapaho County but, unbeknownst to him. The location was accessible to existing trails and was across the South Platte River from the site of seasonal encampments of the Cheyenne, the site of these first towns is now the site of Confluence Park near downtown Denver. Larimer, along with associates in the St. Charles City Land Company, sold parcels in the town to merchants and miners, Denver City was a frontier town, with an economy based on servicing local miners with gambling, saloons, livestock and goods trading. In the early years, land parcels were often traded for grubstakes or gambled away by miners in Auraria, in May 1859, Denver City residents donated 53 lots to the Leavenworth & Pikes Peak Express in order to secure the regions first overland wagon route. Offering daily service for passengers, mail, freight, and gold, in 1863, Western Union furthered Denvers dominance of the region by choosing the city for its regional terminus. The Colorado Territory was created on February 28,1861, Arapahoe County was formed on November 1,1861, Denver City served as the Arapahoe County Seat from 1861 until consolidation in 1902. In 1867, Denver City became the territorial capital, with its newfound importance, Denver City shortened its name to Denver
8.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
9.
Military air base
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A military air base is an aerodrome used by a military force for the operation of military aircraft. An air base typically has some similar to a civilian airport—for example air traffic control. Some military aerodromes have passenger facilities, for example RAF Brize Norton in England has a used by passengers for the Royal Air Forces flights by TriStar to the Falkland Islands. Some air bases have revetments, hardened aircraft shelters, or even underground hangars, combat aircraft require storage of aircraft ordnance. An air base may be defended by anti-aircraft weapons and force protection troops, road air bases are highways constructed to double as auxiliary air bases in the event of war. Nations known to utilize this strategy are India, Sweden, Finland, Germany, Singapore, Switzerland, South Korea, Turkey, Poland and Pakistan. In the case of Finnish road air bases, the space needed for landing aircraft is reduced by means of an arrestor wire, similar to that used on some aircraft carriers. An aircraft carrier is a type of ship which serves as a seaborne air base. They are now a key part of the military, allowing for military aircraft to be staged much nearer the theatre of conflict, aircraft carriers were vital to the United States during World War II and to the United Kingdom in the 1982 Falklands War. They retain modern roles as well as several acres of territory an nation can move about at will. Aircraft carriers are used in disaster relief. Royal Air Force station List of Royal Canadian Air Force stations List of United States Air Force installations List of Soviet Air Force bases Naming of military air bases
10.
United States Army Air Forces
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Each of these forces had a commanding general who reported directly to the Army Chief of Staff. S. Army to control its own installations and support personnel, the peak size of the AAF during the Second World War was over 2.4 million men and women in service and nearly 80,000 aircraft by 1944, and 783 domestic bases in December 1943. By V-E Day, the Army Air Forces had 1.25 million men stationed overseas, in its expansion and conduct of the war, the AAF became more than just an arm of the greater organization. By the end of World War II, the Army Air Forces had become virtually an independent service and this contrast between theory and fact is. fundamental to an understanding of the AAF. Gen. Billy Mitchell that led to his later court-martial, a strategy stressing precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed, long-range bombers emerged, formulated by the men who would become its leaders. Since 1920, control of units had resided with commanders of the corps areas. Both were created in 1933 when a conflict with Cuba seemed possible following a coup détat. Activation of GHQ Air Force represented a compromise between strategic airpower advocates and ground force commanders who demanded that the Air Corps mission remain tied to that of the land forces. GHQ Air Force organized combat groups administratively into a force of three wings deployed to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts but was small in comparison to European air forces. Corps area commanders continued to control over airfields and administration of personnel. The expected activation of Army General Headquarters prompted Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall to request a study from Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold resulting on 5 October 1940 in a proposal for creation of an air staff, unification of the air arm under one commander, and equality with the ground and supply forces. Marshall implemented a compromise that the Air Corps found entirely inadequate, naming Arnold as acting Deputy Chief of Staff for Air but rejecting all organizational points of his proposal. GHQ Air Force instead was assigned to the control of Army General Headquarters, although the latter was a training and not an operational component, when it was activated in November 1940. A division of the GHQ Air Force into four air defense districts on 19 October 1940 was concurrent with the creation of air forces to defend Hawaii. The air districts were converted in March 1941 into numbered air forces with an organization of 54 groups. Marshall had come to the view that the air forces needed a simpler system, Arnold and Marshall agreed that the AAF would enjoy a general autonomy within the War Department until the end of the war, while its commanders would cease lobbying for independence. Marshall, a proponent of airpower, left understood that the Air Force would likely achieve its independence following the war
11.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
12.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
13.
United States Air Force Academy
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The United States Air Force Academy, is a military academy for officer cadets of the United States Air Force. Its campus is located in the western United States in Colorado, the Academys stated mission is to educate, train, and inspire men and women to become leaders of character, motivated to lead the United States Air Force in service to our nation. It is the youngest of the five U. S. service academies, Graduates of the Academys four-year program receive a Bachelor of Science degree, and are commissioned as second lieutenants in the U. S. Air Force. The Academy is also one of the largest tourist attractions in Colorado, admission is extremely competitive, with nominations divided equally among Congressional districts. Recent incoming classes have had about 1,200 cadets, historically, tuition along with room and board are all paid for by the Air Force. Cadets receive a stipend, but incur a commitment to serve a number of years of military service after graduation. All cadets participate in either intercollegiate or intramural athletics, and a character development. Each of the components of the program is intended to give cadets the skills, prior to the Academys establishment, air power advocates had been pushing for a separate Air Force Academy for decades. As early as 1918, Lieutenant Colonel A. J, hanlon wrote, As the Military and Naval Academies are the backbone of the Army and Navy, so must the Aeronautical Academy be the backbone of the Air Service. No service can flourish without some such institution to inculcate into its embryonic officers love of country, proper conception of duty, and highest regard for honor. Mitchells arguments did not gain traction with legislators, and it was not until the late 1940s that the concept of the United States Air Force Academy began to take shape. Support for an air academy got a boost with the National Security Act of 1947 and this was only intended to be a short term fix, however, and disagreements between the services quickly led to the establishment of the Service Academy Board by Secretary of Defense James Forrestal. Following the recommendation of the Board, Congress passed legislation in 1954 to begin the construction of the Air Force Academy, the legislation established an advisory commission to determine the site of the new school. Among the panel members were Charles Lindbergh, General Carl Spaatz, and Lieutenant General Hubert R. Harmon, the original 582 sites considered were winnowed to three, Alton, Illinois, Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, and the ultimate site at Colorado Springs, Colorado. The Secretary of the Air Force, Harold E. Talbott, meanwhile, Air Training Command began developing a detailed curriculum for the Academy program. The early Air Force Academy leadership had the model of West Point and Annapolis in designing a curriculum, faculty. While at Lowry, they were housed in renovated World War II barracks, there were no upper class cadets to train the new cadets, so the Air Force appointed a cadre of Air Training Officers to conduct training. The ATOs were junior officers, many of whom were graduates of West Point, Annapolis and they acted as surrogate upper class cadets until the upper classes could be populated over the next several years
14.
Spaceport
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A spaceport is a site for launching spacecraft, by analogy with seaport for ships or airport for aircraft. The word spaceport, and even more so cosmodrome, has traditionally used for sites that are capable of launching spacecraft into orbit around Earth or on interplanetary trajectories. Space stations and proposed future bases on the moon are sometimes called spaceports, the term rocket launch site is used for any facility from which rockets are launched. It may contain one or more launch pads or suitable sites to mount a transportable launch pad and it is typically surrounded by a large safety area, often called a rocket range or missile range. The range includes the area over which launched rockets are expected to fly, tracking stations are sometimes located in the range to assess the progress of the launches. Major spaceports often include more than one launch complex, which can be rocket launch sites adapted for different types of launch vehicles, for launch vehicles with liquid propellant, suitable storage facilities and, in some cases, production facilities are necessary. On-site processing facilities for solid propellants are also common, a spaceport may also include runways for takeoff and landing of aircraft to support spaceport operations, or to enable support of HTHL or HTVL winged launch vehicles. The first rockets to reach space were V-2 rockets launched from Peenemünde, after the war,70 complete V-2 rockets were brought to White Sands for test launches, with 47 of them reaching altitudes between 100 km and 213 km. The worlds first spaceport for orbital and human launches, the Baikonur Cosmodrome in southern Kazakhstan and it achieved the first orbital flight in October 1957. The exact location of the cosmodrome was initially held secret, guesses to its location were misdirected by a name in common with a mining town 320 km away. The Baikonur Cosmodrome achieved the first launch of a human into space in 1961, the launch complex used, Site 1, has reached a special symbolic significance and is commonly called Gagarins Start. Baikonur was the primary Soviet cosmodrome, and is widely used by Russia under a lease arrangement with Kazakhstan. In response to the early Soviet successes, the United States built up a major complex at Cape Canaveral in Florida. A large number of unmanned flights, as well as the early flights, were carried out at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. For the Apollo programme, an adjacent spaceport, Kennedy Space Center, was constructed and it has been the base for all Space Shuttle launches and most of their runway landings. For details on the complexes of the two spaceports, see List of Cape Canaveral and Merritt Island launch sites. The Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana, is the major European spaceport, in October 2003 the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center achieved the first Chinese human spaceflight. The spacecraft, SpaceShipOne, was launched by an airplane taking off horizontally
15.
History of Denver
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The history of Denver details the history of the City and County of Denver, Colorado, United States from its founding in 1858 to modern-day. Located on the banks of the South Platte River close to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, the gold quickly dried up and the city moved to become a supply hub for new mines in the mountains. Denver grew rapidly, becoming the new county seat of Arapahoe County, investors from Denver built a rail line from Cheyenne to western Kansas which traveled through Denver, bringing new people and supplies. New roads and improvements to rail and air travel in the twentieth century made Denver a hub for transportation. Until World War II Denvers economy was dependent mainly on the processing and shipping of minerals, with war looming, Denver was in a prime location for more federal activity, being situated far from either coast. After the war oil and gas companies fueled a boom in the downtown area. With the combined spending of the companies and the federal government. Denver went from having an urban core surrounded by rural farms to a booming downtown dotted with skyscrapers. The Denver area, part of the Territory of Kansas, was settled until the late 1850s. Occasional parties of prospectors came looking for gold, then moved on, News spread rapidly and by autumn, hundreds of men were working along the South Platte River. By spring 1859, tens of thousands of gold seekers arrived, in the following two years, about 100,000 gold seekers flocked to the region. In the summer of 1858 a group from Lawrence, Kansas and this was the first settlement in what would become the Denver Metropolitan Area. The location was accessible to existing trails and had previously been the site of seasonal encampments of the Cheyenne and Arapaho. The town, named for the mining settlement of Auraria, Georgia, was formed in response to the high cost of land in St. Charles and gave away lots to anyone willing to build. A post office was opened in Auraria in January 1859 serving the 50 cabins that had already been constructed, a short time later a third town, called Highland was founded on the west side of the South Platte River. Surrounded by steep bluffs and separated from the two settlements by the river, it was slow to develop. The majority of the settlers in St. Charles had returned to Kansas for the winter, Larimer and his followers gave the representatives whiskey, promises, and threats and the St. Charles claim was surrendered. The name of the site was changed to Denver City after Kansas Territorial Governor James W. Denver, in an attempt to ensure that the city would become the county seat of then Arapaho County, Kansas
16.
Jefferson Territory
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The Territory of Jefferson was an extralegal and unrecognized United States territory that existed from October 24,1859 until the creation of the Colorado Territory on February 28,1861. Many of the laws enacted by the Jefferson Territorial Legislature were reenacted, on August 25,1855, the Kansas Territory created Arapahoe County, a huge county that included the entire western portion Kansas to the Rocky Mountains. Occupied primarily by Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians with few white settlers, the United States Congress was likewise preoccupied with threats of secession by the slave states. In July 1858, the Pikes Peak Gold Rush began with the discovery of gold at the Dry Creek Diggings in Arapahoe County, meanwhile, the miners, being 600 miles from the capital of the territory, felt that the legislature was out of touch with their needs. They thought a new territory or state would have the benefit of being responsive to their economic situation, Denver area leaders decided to pursue both a relationship with Kansas and a bid for separation by sending delegates to the Kansas Territorial Legislature and the United States Congress. On February 7,1859 the Kansas Territorial Legislature replaced Arapahoe County with six new unorganized counties, however, since the commissioners were not provided a salary, they never took office. The settlers in the region attempted to organize a county on their own and on March 28,1859, a total of 774 votes were cast, including 231 from Auraria and 144 from Denver City. A desire for a new government kept the elected officials from taking their offices. In the meantime, Hiram J Graham, the delegate to Congress, had successfully introduced a bill to establish a new territory in Pikes Peak Country. Though the bill did not pass, it nevertheless encouraged settlers to establish a separate government themselves, in April 1859, a small convention was held at Woottons Hall in Auraria about the need for a local government. The name Jefferson was chosen and a convention was scheduled for June 6,1859. The conventioneers met that day, and then adjourned until August 1,1859, the original authors determined to hold another convention on October 3 to draft a provisional constitution for the Territory of Jefferson. The proposed Territory of Jefferson included all of the present State of Colorado, in addition the eastern boundary was located about 2.7 miles farther east at the 102nd meridian west, and the western boundary about 50 miles farther west at the 110th meridian west. The territory was divided into eight districts and 19 representative districts. On October 24,1859, an election was held to approve the formation of the Provisional Government of the Territory of Jefferson, the legislature adjourned on December 7,1859. Many settlers from eastern Kansas preferred to be governed by that territory and those resistant to the self-government of Jefferson Territory held an election on December 8,1859, and elected Captain R. Sopris as their representative to the Kansas Territorial Legislature. Governor Steele called the session of the provisional Jefferson Territorial Legislature to meet at Denver City on January 23,1860. Many disappointed gold seekers left the region in 1860, the United States Census of 1860 counted approximately 35,000 persons in the region of the Jefferson Territory
17.
Pike's Peak Gold Rush
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An estimated 100,000 gold seekers took part in one of the greatest gold rushes in North American history. The participants in the rush were known as Fifty-Niners after 1859. But in fact the location of the Pikes Peak Gold Rush was 85 miles north of Pikes Peak and it was only named Pikes Peak Gold Rush because of how well known and important Pikes Peak was. The rush was exemplified by the slogan Pikes Peak or Bust, a reference to the prominent mountain at the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains that guided many early prospectors to the region westward over the Great Plains. The prospectors provided the first major European-American population in the region, the rush created a few mining camps such as Denver City and Boulder City that would develop into cities. Many smaller camps such as Auraria and Saint Charles City were absorbed by larger camps, scores of other mining camps have faded into ghost towns, but quite a few camps such as Central City, Black Hawk, Georgetown, and Idaho Springs survive. For many years people had suspected the mountains had numerous rich gold deposits, in 1835, a French trapper by the name of Eustace Carriere had ended up losing his party and wandered through the mountains for many weeks. During these weeks he found many gold specimens which he took back to New Mexico for examination. Upon examination, they turned out to be pure gold, but when he tried to lead an expedition back to the location of where he found the gold, they came up short because he could not quite remember the location. The Rocky Mountain gold failed to impress or delay men with visions of unlimited wealth in California, as the hysteria of the California Gold Rush faded, many discouraged gold seekers returned home. Rumors of gold in the Rocky Mountains persisted and several small parties explored the region, in the summer of 1857, a party of Spanish-speaking gold seekers from New Mexico worked a placer deposit along the South Platte River about 5 miles above Cherry Creek in what is today Denver. William Greeneberry Green Russell was a Georgian who worked in the California gold fields in the 1850s, Russell was married to a Cherokee woman, and through his connections to the tribe, he heard about an 1849 discovery of gold along the South Platte River. Green Russell organized a party to prospect along the South Platte River and they rendezvoused with Cherokee tribe members along the Arkansas River in present-day Oklahoma and continued westward along the Santa Fe Trail. Others joined the party along the way until their number reached 107, upon reaching Bents Fort, they turned to the northwest, reaching the confluence of Cherry Creek and the South Platte on May 23. The site of their initial explorations is in present-day Confluence Park in Denver and they began prospecting in the river beds, exploring Cherry Creek and nearby Ralston Creek but without success. The site of the discovery is in the present-day Denver suburb of Englewood, just north of the junction of U. S. Highway 285, by 1860, Denver City, Golden City, and Boulder City were substantial towns serving the mines. Rapid population growth led to the creation of the Colorado Territory in 1861, the Pikes Peak Gold Rush sent many into a frenzy, prompting them to pack up their belongings and head to Colorado. They gathered their supplies, wagons, mules, mining equipment, as early as the spring of 1859, people raced to the Pikes Peak country
18.
Fort Logan
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Fort Logan was a military installation located eight miles southwest of Denver, Colorado. It was established in October 1887, when the first soldiers camped on the land, and lasted until 1946, after the fort closed the site was used as a mental health center and part of the land was set aside for the Fort Logan National Cemetery. Toward the end of the 19th century, conflicts between Native Americans and expanding American interests were becoming less common, the United States Army began looking to cut costs by closing isolated frontier forts and start using the railroads to transport troops and supplies. In 1886, prominent Denver citizens, looking to boost the economy, raised money. In October 1887 the first soldiers arrived from posts in Kansas, the camp was a treeless plateau located about eight miles southwest of the city. Unofficially the local citizens began to refer to it as Fort Sheridan after General Philip Sheridan who had selected the site, Sheridan preferred having his name associated with a fort north of Chicago and on 5 April 1889, had the camp designated Fort Logan after John Alexander Logan. This new urban-type fort began construction quickly, though the buildings were not completed until 1897. The fort had a ground and quarters, including the 1888 building for Field Officers Quarters by Frank J. Godavent which still stands today and was restored in 2009. As infantry barracks were completed, the 7th Infantry left Fort Laramie, Wyoming, in 1894, the first cavalry units were posted to Fort Logan and remained until 1904. Troops from Fort Logan participated in military actions right from the start, in December 1890, troops were deployed to South Dakota to intercept Sioux tribal bands. In 1894 troops were called in to civil strife resulting from Governor Davis Hanson Waites siege of city hall. Later in the year they were deployed south during the Pullman Strike, units from Fort Logan also participated in the 1898 Spanish–American War. In 1908 the site added 340 acres, bringing their total to 940 acres, in 1909 the fort was made a recruit depot and continued in that role until 1922. In 1927 an Engineering unit occupied Fort Logan and made major updates to the site during the Great Depression, on 1 March 1941, the Army Air Corps moved an Army Air Forces Clerical School to Fort Logan from Lowry Army Airfield. Thus the installation came under the control of Western Technical Training Command, in 1942 the Administrative Inspector School was opened which trained air inspectors. In April 1944, Fort Logan was transferred from the Western Technical Training Command to the AAF Air Service Command for training injured soldiers in civilian trades, in addition the fort was briefly used as a prisoner of war camp in 1943 and 1944. After the war the fort was declared surplus and negotiating over what to do with the land commenced, some land was sold,75 acres were set aside for the Fort Logan National Cemetery, and the rest was donated to the state of Colorado. The state used the site as a health center and the first patients were admitted in 1961
19.
Denver metropolitan area
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Denver is the central city of a conurbation region in the U. S. state of Colorado. The conurbation includes one continuous region consisting of the six counties of Adams, Arapahoe, Broomfield, Denver, Douglas. The Denver region is part of the Front Range Urban Corridor, the continuously urbanized area extends northwest into the City and County of Broomfield, bordering Jefferson and Adams counties, and south into Douglas County, adjoining Arapahoe County. Also included in the federally defined MSA are four counties, Elbert County on the southeastern prairie and Clear Creek, Gilpin. The Denver-Aurora-Lakewood Metropolitan Statistical Area comprises ten counties, in 2005 the RTD developed a twelve-year comprehensive plan, called FasTracks, to build and operate rail transit lines and expand and improve bus service throughout the region. Electricity is provided by Xcel Energy, cable television is provided by Comcast. Severity of pollution in this area has varied enormously over the years, in the late 1980s the area was frequently in violation of multiple National Ambient Air Quality Standards established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. The Regional Air Quality Council was formed in 1989 to create plans to address the problem, through a variety of measures the areas air quality was improved and in 2002 the EPA designated the area in compliance with all federal health-based air quality standards. Denver was the first major city in the United States to reach compliance with all six of these standards after previously violating five of them, since then the EPA introduced a new standard for small particulates and made the existing ozone standard stricter. In 2003 the new standard was frequently exceeded in the area and was occasionally exceeded as far away as Rocky Mountain National Park. The RAQC hopes to implement plans enabling the area to comply with the new standards by 2007. S
20.
Montclair, Denver
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Montclair is a neighborhood in the City and County of Denver, Colorado, United States. Post Office serves Montclair postal addresses, Montclair was originally developed as a small suburban community east of Denver. The land was purchased and developed by the Montclair Town and Improvement Company in 1885, one of its founders, Matthias P. Cochrane, originally came from Montclair, New Jersey and named the new community in its honor. The other founder, Baron Walter von Richthofen, was a German nobleman and uncle to Manfred von Richthofen, the community was originally designed to attract wealthier residents who were turned off by Denvers 400 saloons and forty Market Street bordellos. To this end, homeowners were required to purchase and build on lots that were twice the Denver standard size of 25 feet by 125 feet, homes were required to be at last three stories high, made of brick or stone. In addition, town trustees had to all plans and saloons. The community became the town of Montclair in 1888. In 1893, the crash of the market and the ensuing Panic of 1893 brought all development to a halt. Baron von Richthofen then began to promote the town as a health retreat, however, due to his sudden death from appendicitis in 1898, plans for a health spa, art museum, hotel, gymnasium, casino and pavilions never materialized. By 1900, the US Census recorded only eighty-eight families living in Montclair, in 1902, the newly created City and County of Denver began to incorporate the town of Montclair. The town objected strongly to its inclusion and fought the City of Denver all the way to the State Supreme Court, Montclair lost and annexation was made final in 1903. In the 1960s Denver, along with cities across the country, began to experience problems with urban decay. Crime, welfare, unemployment and overcrowding rates all rose, in 1968, a successor to the dormant Improvement Association was created, called the Montclair Community Association which eventually became the Historic Montclair Community Association, Inc. Jane Smith, a Montclair preservationist, began pushing the idea of a district in 1973. In 1975, residents and the Denver City Council voted to make the heart of Montclair a historic district. This made Montclair one of the first neighborhoods to seek landmark designation, however, during the twentieth century these original homes were joined by bungalows, cottages, Tudor revival, and modern Ranch-style houses. As Denver architect and architectural critic Tom Morris puts it, Montclair buildings are a catalog of architectural styles from 1885 to the present, if a person is interested in what the American suburban dream might look like if ever brought to fruition, Montclair is its living model. In addition to marking the architectural merit of Montclair, the historic district designation served as a means of community preservation and revitalization
21.
Jarvis Hall (Colorado)
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Jarvis Hall was a Colorado liberal arts, grammar and military college from 1870-1904. Initiated in 1868 by Bishop George Maxwell Randall of the Protestant Episcopal Church, the 1878-1882 building in Golden CO remains as a private residence, and the 1882-1904 site near Denver is part of the Lowry Campus. The first Jarvis Hall building under construction in Golden, Colorado, was blown down by an 1869 windstorm, Jarvis provided funding for construction of a second Jarvis Hall building which was dedicated in October 1870. It was Colorado Territorys first collegiate institute, two other buildings were added to what was called the Colorado University Schools, which School of Mines and St. Matthew Divinity, an Episcopalian seminary, flanked the central Jarvis Hall. Jarvis donated and solicited donation of books for the Jarvis Hall Library, annual prizes were awarded at the school year end, funded and chosen by Jarvis. In July 1873, three students won multiple volume sets of the History of Rome, Tyndales Lectures and Library of Wonders. Graduates included Francis William Loveland and architect James H. Gow, after an arson attack on sister school Matthews Hall four days later, professor in charge Thomas Lloyd Bellam decided to combine the schools as one. Jarvis Hall was temporarily relocated to the Loveland Block in downtown Golden, the 19th Street Jarvis Hall was a liberal arts and commercial college open to women. Episcopal Church members in Denver succeeded in moving Jarvis Hall near the city in 1882 where it resumed as a boys school, the Jarvis Hall Military School in Montclair, Colorado burned down in 1904, and the site was subsequently used as a military airfield
22.
Thomas Walsh (miner)
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Thomas Francis Walsh was an Irish-American miner who discovered one of the largest gold mines in America. He was also famous for giving the famed Hope Diamond to his daughter Evalyn Walsh McLean as a wedding present, Walsh was born April 2,1850 to Michael Walsh, a farmer, and Bridget Scully. He was most likely born on his fathers farm, Baptistgrange, in Lisronagh, Tipperary, in 1869, he immigrated to the United States with his sister, Maria, after the death of his father. For a time, he settled in Worcester, Massachusetts, with his aunts, Catherine and Bridget Walsh Power, in the early 1870s, he heeded the call to go west, young man and found himself in Colorado getting paid well for his carpentry skills. During the 1870s, the Black Hills of South Dakota saw a rush that attracted hoards of hopeful men afflicted with gold fever. It has been said that at first Walsh was attracted to the opportunities that came with the rush, including trading goods and services at inflated prices. Gradually, he more and more immersed in the world of gold and was soon trading mining equipment to prospectors for mining claims as payment. He also studied mining technology at night, in 1877, he moved to Leadville, Colorado with a small fortune between $75,000 and $100,000. Along with his wife, he ran the Grand Central Hotel in Leadville, after becoming an expert in the subject in gold mining, Walsh was overcome by gold fever and took to the hills. Unlike other prospectors he took a far more methodical and careful approach to prospecting which soon paid off, in 1896, he came home and uttered the words which later became the title of his daughters book, Daughter, Ive struck it rich. The Camp Bird Gold Mine near Ouray, Colorado soon turned out $5, 000/day in ore, in a short period of time, Walsh extracted a fortune totaling $3,000,000. The wealth that Walsh discovered soon provided the family with a lifestyle that included trips to Europe, fine clothes. Around 1898, the moved to Washington, D. C. where in 1900. On July 11,1879 in Leadville, Colorado, he married Carrie Bell Reed, later, the house became the Indonesian Embassy. On January 23,1909, The Aero Club of Washington was founded, with Walsh as serving president, due to his involvement with the Paris Exposition of 1899, Walsh became friends with King Leopold of Belgium, whom he created a suite in his home to host. Unfortunately, the King never made a trip to the United States, however, when King Albert, Leopolds nephew, and Queen Elizabeth traveled to the United States in 1919, Walshs wife, then widowed, was decorated by the King for her service during World War I. An informal family history written by Margaret Kennedy Father Struck it Rich, by Evalyn Walsh McLean Hope by Mary Ryan Works by or about Thomas Walsh in libraries
23.
Chanute Field
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Chanute Air Force Base is a decommissioned United States Air Force facility, located in Champaign County, Illinois, south of and adjacent to Rantoul, Illinois, about 130 miles south of Chicago. Its primary mission throughout its existence was Air Force technical training, Chanute Field was established on 21 May 1917, being one of thirty-two Air Service training camps established after the United States entry into World War I. The base was closed in 1993 and is currently being redeveloped for civilian uses, Chanute Field was named in honor of Octave Chanute, a pioneer aeronautical engineer and experimenter, and friend and adviser to the Wright Brothers. Chanutes biplane glider with two arched wings held together by vertical struts and diagonal wire bracing served as a prototype design for airplanes. Although the United States had been the birthplace of powered flight, even as World War I progressed in Europe, America did little to build its air strength. In April 1917, the United States was woefully weak in the air, the United States possessed only one fully manned and equipped Aero squadron, and about 250 aircraft outfitted the Aviation Section of the Armys Signal Corps. In comparison, France began the war with over 1,500 aircraft, to meet the demand, Congress appropriated $640 million to build up the Air Service. The War Department immediately opened ground schools at eight colleges and established twenty-seven flying fields to train pilots. The War Department selected Rantoul because it was one of the few sites in Illinois in close proximity to the Illinois Central Railroad. The village of Rantoul would also be a source for electricity, the contract to build Chanute Field was given to English Brothers Construction of Champaign, Illinois on 22 May 1917, with the expectation that construction would be complete in 60 days. Building materiel began arriving on site on 25 May, and work began in earnest on 4 June. At its peak construction,2,000 men,200 teams of horses,3 steam shovels and multiple steam tractors were working on Chanute Field, Chanute Fields first commander, Captain Charles C. Benedict, arrived in late June, and on 4 July, Major James L. Dunsworth arrived on 15 July 1917 and took command. He ordered flight training to begin on 17 July and Curtiss JN-4 Jenny trainers were flying from dawn until dusk, the airfield was completed on 22 July 1917 at a cost of about $1 Million, and was officially accepted by the Air Service on 31 July. On 20 August, the field was closed to visitors as they had become a distraction to the training school. Chanute Field was an Air Service primary flying school, offering a course to new aviation cadets. It had a student capacity of 300. In December, the last Aero Squadrons were demobilized and the airplanes flown out to other airfields, the base became a storage depot for OX-5 aircraft engines and paint, with a staff of about 30 personnel
24.
Weapon
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A weapon, arm, or armament is any device used with intent to inflict damage or harm to living beings, structures, or systems. Weapons are used to increase the efficacy and efficiency of such as hunting, crime, law enforcement, self-defense. In a broader context, weapons may be construed to include anything used to gain a strategic, something that has been re-purposed, converted, or enhanced to become a weapon of war is termed weaponized, such as a weaponized virus or weaponized lasers. The use of objects as weapons has been observed among chimpanzees, however, this can not be confirmed using physical evidence because wooden clubs, spears, and unshaped stones would not have left an unambiguous record. The earliest unambiguous weapons to be found are the Schöninger Speere, the first defensive structures and fortifications appeared in the Bronze Age, indicating an increased need for security. Weapons designed to breach fortifications followed soon after, for example the battering ram was in use by 2500 BC, although early Iron Age swords were not superior to their bronze predecessors, once iron-working developed, around 1300 BC in Greece Alex Webb, Metalworking in Ancient Greece. Domestication of the horse and widespread use of spoked wheels by ca.2000 BC, led to the light, the mobility provided by chariots were important during this era. Spoke-wheeled chariot usage peaked around 1300 BC and then declined, ceasing to be militarily relevant by the 4th century BC. Cavalry developed once horses were bred to support the weight of a man, the horse extended the range and increased the speed of attacks. Ships built as weapons or warships such as the trireme were in use by the 7th century BC and these ships were eventually replaced by larger ships by the 4th century BC. European warfare during the Post-classical history was dominated by groups of knights supported by massed infantry. They were involved in combat and sieges which involved various siege weapons. Knights on horseback developed tactics for charging with lances providing an impact on the enemy formations, whereas infantry, in the age before structured formations, relied on cheap, sturdy weapons such as spears and billhooks in close combat and bows from a distance. As armies became more professional, their equipment was standardized and infantry transitioned to pikes, pikes are normally seven to eight feet in length, in conjunction with smaller side-arms. In Eastern and Middle Eastern warfare, similar tactics were developed independent of European influences, the introduction of gunpowder from the Far East at the end of this period revolutionized warfare. Formations of musketeers, protected by pikemen came to dominate open battles, the European Renaissance marked the beginning of the implementation of firearms in western warfare. Guns and rockets were introduced to the battlefield, firearms are qualitatively different from earlier weapons because they release energy from combustible propellants such as gunpowder, rather than from a counter-weight or spring. This energy is released very rapidly and can be replicated without much effort by the user, therefore even early firearms such as the arquebus were much more powerful than human-powered weapons. During the U. S. Civil War various technologies including the gun and ironclad warship emerged that would be recognizable and useful military weapons today
25.
Works Progress Administration
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In a much smaller but more famous project, Federal Project Number One, the WPA employed musicians, artists, writers, actors and directors in large arts, drama, media, and literacy projects. Almost every community in the United States had a new park, the WPAs initial appropriation in 1935 was for $4.9 billion. Headed by Harry Hopkins, the WPA provided jobs and income to the unemployed during the Great Depression in the United States. At its peak in 1938, it provided jobs for three million unemployed men and women, as well as youth in a separate division, the National Youth Administration. Between 1935 and 1943, when the agency was disbanded, the WPA employed 8.5 million people, most people who needed a job were eligible for employment in some capacity. Hourly wages were set to the prevailing wages in each area. The stated goal of building programs was to end the depression or, at least, alleviate its worst effects. Millions of people needed subsistence incomes, Work relief was preferred over public assistance because it maintained self-respect, reinforced the work ethic, and kept skills sharp. The WPA was a program that operated its own projects in cooperation with state and local governments. Usually the local sponsor provided land and often trucks and supplies, WPA sometimes took over state and local relief programs that had originated in the Reconstruction Finance Corporation or Federal Emergency Relief Administration programs. It was liquidated on June 30,1943, as a result of low unemployment due to the shortage of World War II. The WPA had provided millions of Americans with jobs for eight years, on May 6,1935, FDR issued Executive Order 7034, establishing the Works Progress Administration. The WPA superseded the work of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, direct relief assistance was permanently replaced by a national work relief program—a major public works program directed by the WPA. The WPA was largely shaped by Harry Hopkins, supervisor of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, both Roosevelt and Hopkins believed that the route to economic recovery and the lessened importance of the dole would be in employment programs such as the WPA. The Division of Professional and Service Projects, which was responsible for projects including education programs, recreation programs. It was later named the Division of Community Service Programs and the Service Division, the Division of Investigation, which succeeded a comparable division at FERA and investigated fraud, misappropriation of funds and disloyalty. The Division of Statistics, also known as the Division of Social Research, the Project Control Division, which processed project applications. Other divisions including the Employment, Management, Safety, Supply, the goal of the WPA was to employ most of the unemployed people on relief until the economy recovered
26.
Military base
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A military base is a facility directly owned and operated by or for the military or one of its branches that shelters military equipment and personnel, and facilitates training and operations. In general, a military base provides accommodations for one or more units, but it may also be used as a command center, in most cases, a military base relies on some outside help in order to operate. Bases are usually extra-legal jurisdictions not subject to civil law and they can range from small outposts to military cities containing up to 100,000 people. Some military bases may belong to a different nation or state than the territory surrounding it, the name used generally refers to the type of military activity that takes place at the base. Alternatively, the term may refer solely to an establishment which is used only by an army to the exclusion of a used by either an air force or a navy. This is consistent with the different meanings of the word military, other examples of non- or semi-permanent military bases include a Forward Operating Base, a Logistics Base and a Fire Base. A military base may contain large concentrations of military supplies in order to support military logistics. Most military bases are restricted to the public and usually only authorized personnel may enter them, Military bases usually provide housing for military personnel, a post office and dining facilities. Bases used by the United States Air Force Reserve tend to be active USAF bases, however, there are a few Air Reserve Bases, such as Dobbins ARB, Georgia, and Grissom ARB, Indiana, both of which are former active-duty USAF bases. Support facilities on Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve installations tend to not be as extensive as active bases, i. e. they usually do not have on-base billeting, clinics, or commissaries. Petersburg area including training schools, commissioning institutes, the academy. An overseas military base is a base that is geographically located outside of the territory of the country whose armed forces are the principal occupants of the base. The overseas military base has, throughout its history of usage, been an issue of debate. In the 18th and 19th Centuries the Royal Engineers were largely responsible for erecting military bases in the British Isles, in 1792 the Chief Engineer was instructed to prepare the Barrack Construction estimates for Parliament and at the same time the Department of the Barrackmaster-General was established. In 1959 the Corps Work Services was transferred to the civilian War Department Works Organization and by 1965 the were formed to plan, British naval bases are traditionally named, commissioned, and administered as though they were naval ships. For this reason they are sometimes called stone frigates, lists of military installations Military installations of NATO Official Directory of US Military bases. Royal Engineers Museum Military Works New US Military Bases, Side Effects Or Causes Of War, by Zoltan Grossman US Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense Outposts of Empire - Booklet and map of the American military bases in the world. Transnational Institute, March 2007 MyMilitaryBase. com - Directory of Military Installations
27.
91st Aero Squadron
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The 91st Aero Squadron was a Air Service, United States Army unit that fought on the Western Front during World War I. The 91st was one of the first five American flying squadrons to arrive in France, after the 1918 Armistice with Germany, the squadron was assigned to the United States Third Army as part of the Occupation of the Rhineland in Germany. It returned to the United States in June 1919 and became part of the permanent United States Army Air Service in 1921, being re-designated as the 91st Squadron. The squadron was formed on 21 August 1917 at Kelly Field, Texas, composed of detachments from Fort Sill, Oklahoma, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, Jefferson Barracks, Missouri, and Fort Sam Houston, Texas. The squadron, after flight training at Kelly Field in Curtiss JN-4 Jenny trainers left for the Aviation Concentration Center at Camp Mills, Garden City. Arriving on 5 October, the squadron spent several weeks waiting for overseas transport. On 27 October the squadron boarded the British White Star Liner RMS Adriatic, the 91st was one of the first five American flying squadrons to arrive in France. However, the ARs were not considered combat capable and also had unreliable engines, aircraft was received for the next month, and on 24 May, the squadron was moved to the Gondreville-sur-Moselle Aerodrome for combat duty. Problems with the propellers, however forced another delay and it was not until 3 June that the first combat flight of the 91st Aero Squadron was made over the lines. In combat, the mission of the 91st was general surveillance of the rear areas by means of both visual and photographic reconnaissance. Due to the nature of the missions and the depths of enemy area which was penetrated, the first combat losses occurred on 12 June 1918 when Lieutenants Miles and Schilling were on a combat overflight about 15 kilometres behind enemy lines, and did not return. On 30 June news was received that both airmen were prisoners, unharmed after their aircraft was attacked and disabled, being forced to land behind enemy lines. On 25 June, Lt Cook was performing a reconnaissance mission and just before crossing the lines. Suddenly, Lt Cookss plane was fired on by the Nieuport, the intruder withdrew and Cook continued on his mission. An investigation revealed that the Nieuport pilot had never seen a Salmson. During late June, the squadron was engaged in combat flying in support of the Battle of Château-Thierry. This work took place without any support from accompanying pursuit aircraft. Air Combat was common on every mission over enemy lines, on 12 August Major John N. Reynolds, squadron commander, led a formation of squadron aircraft to try out a new idea that had been suggested
28.
Douglas B-18 Bolo
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The Douglas B-18 Bolo is an American medium bomber which served with the United States Army Air Corps and the Royal Canadian Air Force during the late 1930s and early 1940s. The Bolo was built by the Douglas Aircraft Company, based on its DC-2, by 1940, it was considered to be underpowered, to have inadequate defensive armament and to carry too small a bomb load. Many were destroyed during the attacks on Pearl Harbor and the Philippines in December 1941, in 1942, the B-18 survivors were relegated to antisubmarine, transport duty, and training. A B-18 was one of the first American aircraft to sink a German U-boat, U-654 on 22 August 1942 in the Caribbean. In 1934, the United States Army Air Corps put out a request for a bomber with double the load and range of the Martin B-10. In the evaluation at Wright Field the following year, Douglas showed its DB-1 and it competed with the Boeing Model 299 and Martin Model 146. While the Boeing design was superior, the crash of the B-17 prototype removed it from consideration. During the depths of the Great Depression, the price of the DB-1 also counted in its favor. The Douglas design was ordered into production in January 1936 as the B-18. The DB-1 design was essentially that of the DC-2, with several modifications, the wingspan was 4.5 ft greater. The fuselage was deeper, to better accommodate bombs and the six-member crew, added armament included nose, dorsal, and ventral gun turrets. Preston Tuckers firm received a contract to supply a remote controlled gun turret for the aircraft, the initial contract called for 133 B-18s, using Wright R-1820 radial engines. The last B-18 of the run, designated DB-2 by the company, had a nose turret. This design did not become standard, additional contracts in 1937 and 1938 were for the B-18A, which had the bombardiers position further forward over the nose-gunners station. The B-18A also used more powerful engines, deliveries to operational groups began in late 1937, the first being the 7th Bombardment Group at Hamilton Field, California. Production B-18s, with military equipment fitted, had a maximum speed of 217 mph, cruising speed of 167 mph. By 1940, most USAAC bomber squadrons were equipped with B-18s or B-18As, however, the deficiencies in the B-18/B-18A bomber were becoming readily apparent to almost everyone. To send crews out in such a plane against a well-armed, determined foe would have been nothing short of suicidal
29.
Army Air Forces Bombardier School
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A Bombardier School was a United States Army Air Forces facility that used bombing ranges for training aircrew. The elimination rate was 12%, and graduates transferred to a Second or Third Air Force training unit to join a crew being trained for overseas duty, the bombardier trainer used was the Beech AT-11 Kansan. With the Bradley Plan increase in Eighth Air Force aircrews needed for the Combined Bomber Offensive, Bombardier schools of the Gulf Coast Air Corps Training Center and the West Coast Air Corps Training Center included the GCACTCs Big Spring Army Air Force Bombardier School. Its first class of cadets arrived Sept.16,1942, the other was WCACTCs 38th Flying Training Wing at Williams Army Airfield, Arizona—later moved to Kirtland Field, New Mexico). The GCACTCs Advanced Twin Engine and Bombardier Training Center at Midland Army Airfield was redesignated an Army Air Forces Bombardier School on September 26,1942. The Midland school operated 23 bombing ranges in West Texas, the WCACTCs Kirtland Field bombardier school that operated ranges west of Albuquerque was depicted in the 1943 Bombardier film. The first graduates with dual ratings as Navigator/Bombardier were in April 1944, in addition to visual bomb scoring and sound ranging for determining scores for bombardiers, Radar Bomb Scoring began during World War II. RBS detachments in the Army Air Force were later established at Denver, Chicago, Omaha, Albuquerque)
30.
Lowry Bombing and Gunnery Range
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The Lowry Bombing and Gunnery Range was a World War II and Cold War facility that included 4 of the 6 HGM-25A Titan I missile launch complexes southeast of Denver, Colorado. The area of the Lowry range was part of the 1937 Buckley Fields 102.4 sq mi that became an Army Airfield in 1942. In World War II, bombing with practice and HE bombs, training in fixed and flexible gunnery, Camp Bizerte Camp Bizerte at the range was a World War II training facility for simulating an overseas Army field camp. Part of the 12-week AAF Photography Course at Lowry Field in 1943 was conducted at Camp Bizerte, Lowry Bombing and Gunnery Range was designated after the Tech-Division Air Training Command on September 20,1946, transferred 93. Post-war the west end of LBGR was used as a demolition site. The Air-to-Ground Bombing and Gunnery Mission at LBGR terminated in 1956, in 1963, a portion of LBGR had been cleared of surface MEC—munitions and explosives of concern). From 1960 and 1980, ~63,600 acres of the LBGR were transferred to other state and federal agencies. Lowry Missile Site No.1 of 85.1 sq mi included a portion of the LBGR. Complex 1A was on 442.42 acres with ~36 acres bounded by a chain-link fence, missiles were assembled at the Glenn L. Martin plant southwest of Denver, and Lowry AFBs 724th Strategic Missile Squadron commanded the Site No.1 complexes. Site No.1 was adjacent to the Lowry Landfill on the west, in January 1964 the Secretary of Defense informed congress the Titan 1 bases would be closed in 1965, and the last Lowry missile was taken off alert status March 26,1965. Titan I Missile Complex 2A on the former LBGR was transferred to the Department of the Army on October 12,1977. <re In 1969, Lowry Training Annex adjacent to the former LBGR area was established after the Department of the Navy transferred ~3,700 acres to the U. S. Air Force. The Bennett Army National Guard facility of 242 acres at the former Complex 2A was a Colorado Army National Guard military installation used for training, in 2006 the Bennett facility was excessed by the government and was the last federal property transferred of the former Lowry Bombing and Gunnery Range. In 2012, oil was struck on the Former Lowry Bombing and Gunnery Range
31.
Barksdale Air Force Base
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Barksdale Air Force Base occupies over 22,000 acres of land east of Bossier City and along the southern edge of Interstate Highway 20. The host unit at Barksdale is the 2d Bomb Wing, the oldest Bomb Wing in the Air Force and it is assigned to the Air Force Global Strike Commands Eighth Air Force. The 2 BW is equipped with the B-52H Stratofortress bomber, more than 15,000 active-duty, Air Force Reserve members and civilians make up Barksdales workforce. About 44 B-52 Stratofortress aircraft are assigned to the wing. Barksdale AFB was established in 1932 as Barksdale Field and is named for World War I aviator, units at Barksdale include the oldest bomb wing in the Air Force, the 2d Bomb Wing. The 2d participated in Brig Gen Billy Mitchells 1921 off-shore bombing test. F Components of the 2d Bomb Wing are and he also functions as the installation commander of Barksdale Air Force Base. The vice commander is Colonel Brandon Parker, there is an annual open house when non-DoD visitors are allowed. Visitors may also tour the museum from 9,30 am to 4 pm every day except official holidays, Barksdale Field was named in honor of 2nd Lieutenant Eugene Hoy Barksdale on 2 February 1933. He did not recover from a spin while parachuting out of the plane. He was buried with military honors in Arlington National Cemetery. The name of the airfield was changed to Barksdale Air Force Base on 13 February 1948, airships were still in use when field construction began, so Hangars One and Two were built large enough to accommodate them. Half of the B-52Fs were deployed from Barksdale, but never returned as they were replaced by B-52Gs after the Vietnam War, as early as 1924, the citizens of Shreveport became interested in hosting a military flying field. Captain Harris selected what he felt was a location for a military airfield. A delegation of citizens traveled to Washington, D. C. to personally present the advantages of the site to the War Department. Following the return of this delegation, a special Army board visited Shreveport, the site was selected 5 December 1928, as the location of the airfield. Construction of Barksdale Field began in 1931, when hangars, runways, early flying operations began on 7 November 1932, with the arrival of the 20th Pursuit Group and its three pursuit squadrons equipped with the Boeing P-12 and Boeing P-26 Peashooter. The airfield was opened and dedicated on 2 February 1933. By the mid-1930s, Barksdale Field was the headquarters and main base of the 3rd Attack Wing, equipped with the Curtiss A-12, the airfield was used by both fighter and attack pilots to hone their gunnery and bombing skills
32.
Boeing B-29 Superfortress
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The Boeing B-29 Superfortress is a four-engine propeller-driven heavy bomber designed by Boeing which was flown primarily by the United States during World War II and the Korean War. It was one of the largest aircraft operational during World War II and it was the single most expensive weapons project undertaken by the United States in World War II, exceeding the cost of the Manhattan Project by between 1 and 1.7 billion dollars. A manned tail gun installation was semi-remote, the name Superfortress continued the pattern Boeing started with its well-known predecessor, the B-17 Flying Fortress. Designed for the strategic bomber role, the B-29 also excelled in low-altitude nighttime incendiary bombing missions. One of the B-29s final roles during World War II was carrying out the bomb attacks on Hiroshima. The B-29 served in roles throughout the 1950s. The Royal Air Force flew the B-29 as the Washington until phasing out the type in 1954, the Soviet Union produced an unlicensed reverse-engineered copy as the Tupolev Tu-4. The B-29 was the progenitor of a series of Boeing-built bombers, transports, tankers, reconnaissance aircraft, the type was retired in the early 1960s. The B-29 production total was 3,970 aircraft, dozens of B-29s remain as static displays but only two examples, Fifi and Doc, have been restored to flying status, with Doc flying again for the first time from McConnell AFB on July 17,2016. A transport developed from the B-29 was the Boeing C-97 Stratofreighter, first flown in 1944, followed by its commercial airliner variant and this bomber-to-airliner derivation was similar to the B-17/Model 307 evolution. In 1948 Boeing introduced a variant of the B-29 as the KB-29. A heavily modified line of outsized-cargo variants of the Stratocruiser is the Guppy / Mini Guppy / Super Guppy which remain in service today with operators including NASA, Boeing began work on pressurized long-range bombers in 1938, in response to a United States Army Air Corps request. Boeings design study for the Model 334 was a derivative of the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress with nosewheel undercarriage. Although the Air Corps did not have money to pursue the design, in April 1939, Charles Lindbergh convinced general Henry H. Arnold to produce a new bomber in large numbers to counter the Nazi production, Boeings previous private venture studies formed the starting point for its response to this specification. Boeing submitted its Model 345 on 11 May 1940, in competition with designs from Consolidated Aircraft, Lockheed, Consolidated continued to work on its Model 33 as it was seen by the Air Corps as a backup in case of problems with Boeings design. Boeing received a production order for 14 service test aircraft and 250 production bombers in May 1941. The B-29 featured a design with circular cross-section for strength
33.
Technical Training Command
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Army Air Forces Training Command is an inactive United States Air Force unit. It was last assigned to Headquarters, United States Army Air Forces, Training Command was the initial organization to which new recruits were assigned upon entry into the Army Air Forces during World War II. Its mission was the training of new personnel and the preparation of them for assignment to one of the air forces for military service. It focused on pilot and aircrew training, technical training, basic training of enlisted personnel and Officer Candidate School. It was inactivated on 1 July 1946 as part of the reorganization of the Army Air Forces after the war, with all assets and personnel were assigned to the new postwar Air Training Command. AAFTC was created as a result of the merger of the Army Air Forces Flying Training Command, constituted and established on 23 January 1942. Its mission was to train pilots, flying specialists, and combat crews, re-designated on or about 15 March 1942, after the Army Air Forces became an autonomous arm of the United States Army. During its lifetime, the command struggled with the challenge of a wartime expansion of the air forces. Throughout 1942, the need for combat crew personnel far exceeded the current, facilities were used to their maximum capacity as quickly as they could be stood up. Some schools were expanded while they were still under construction, during World War II, the training of its officers and enlisted men was one of the chief functions of the United States Army Air Forces, consuming a great deal of money, people, equipment, and time. Such training encompassed both flying personnel along with the support personnel needed to have a military force trained to defeat the enemy forces threatening the United States. Flying and flight operations of military aircraft, and the technical training necessary for the even larger numbers of men to be taught to service. The United States has traditionally fought its wars with a citizen military mobilized and trained after the emergency arises and its members on their induction into the military face an abrupt transition to a life and pattern of behavior altogether foreign to their previous experience. For their assistance the military has provided a period of basic military training. Only after completion of training are recruits, in theory. Upon entry into the Army Air Service in the 1920s, each man received some basic training, in 1935 efforts to change this arrangement began, but the real change occurred in 1939 when the Army proposed that each component arm and service set up their own enlisted replacement centers. In 1940 the War Department authorized the establishment of Air Corps enlisted replacement centers for the training of recruits. The Air Corps established the first of these centers at Jefferson Barracks, Missouri, in the summer of 1940, since the road ahead for most AAF enlistees led toward some specialized technical training, the replacement centers were placed under the jurisdiction of the Air Corps Technical Training Command
34.
Technical Division, Air Training Command
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Technical Division, Air Training Command is an inactive United States Air Force unit. It was assigned to the Air Training Command, stationed at Scott Air Force Base and it was inactivated on 14 November 1949. Technical training in the Air Service began about the time as pilot training. In order to keep its airplanes operational, there was a need for skilled mechanics, at first, men who already possessed some mechanical experience received training at civilian trade schools and state universities. Problems arouse and the led the Army set up two mechanic schools, one at Kelly Field, Texas and another in a large building in St Paul. During World War I, the school at Kelly Field had trained over 2,000 more mechanics, though the school in St Paul closed after the end of the war, Kelly remained in operation and trained some 5,000 more mechanics before January 1921. When the supply depot at Love Field, Dallas, closed in 1921 and moved to Kelly, the facility at Chanute was re-designated as the Air Corps Technical School in 1926, with the former separate schools becoming Departments. In 1930, two more Departments were established at Chanute, the Department of Clerical Instruction and the Department of Armament, Technical training expanded in 1938 at Lowry Field, Colorado, when the Photography, Armament and Clerical instruction were moved from Chanute to the new facilities in Denver. In 1939, Scott Field, Illinois, came under the Air Corps Technical School when the Department of Basic Instruction and it moved to Chanute in 1940 when Scott became the Air Corps Radio school. On 1 June 1939, the Air Corps Technical School at Chanute Field was elevated to the Command level, with the expansion of the Air Corps after May 1940, technical training was expanded rapidly. To accommodate this growth in students, additional installations were established. New technical training bases included Keesler Field, Mississippi, and Sheppard Field, Texas, the heavy burden of the greatly expanded program for technical training had forced the Air Corps to establish the Air Corps Technical Training Command on 1 March 1941. Temporary headquarters for the new command was established at Chanute Field on 26 March, In September a permanent headquarters for the command was selected at Tulsa, further decentralization was achieved by grouping the technical schools into two districts. These were, First Technical Training District, Greensboro Center, North Carolina Second Technical Training District, on 31 July 1943, the Army Air Forces reorganized AAF Training Command with the establishment of subordinate commands, three for flying training and three for technical training. The five districts that had belonged to Technical Training Command were disbanded and realigned, the Fifth District in Miami Beach was absorbed into the ETTC. the Central Technical Training Command in St. Louis was discontinued 1 March 1944. All schools previously in the command, with the exception of Keesler Field. Keesler went to the western command, simultaneously, the headquarters of Eastern Technical Training Command moved from Greensboro, North Carolina, to St Louis. Its headquarters was moved to Scott Field, Illinois, most training schools were closed as part of the demobilization of the armed forces
35.
Douglas C-47 Skytrain
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The Douglas C-47 Skytrain or Dakota is a military transport aircraft developed from the civilian Douglas DC-3 airliner. It was used extensively by the Allies during World War II, the specialized C-53 Skytrooper troop transport started production in October 1941 at Douglas Aircrafts Santa Monica, California plant. It lacked the cargo door, hoist attachment and reinforced floor of the C-47, only a total of 380 aircraft were produced in all because the C-47 was found to be more versatile. During World War II, the forces of many countries used the C-47 and modified DC-3s for the transport of troops, cargo. The U. S. Naval designation was R4D, more than 10,000 aircraft were produced in Long Beach and Santa Monica, California and Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Between March 1943 and August 1945 the Oklahoma City plant produced 5,354 C-47s, additionally, C-47s were used to airlift supplies to the embattled American forces during the Battle of Bastogne. Possibly its most influential role in aviation, however, was flying The Hump from India into China. The expertise gained flying The Hump was later be used in the Berlin Airlift, in which the C-47 played a major role, until the aircraft were replaced by Douglas C-54 Skymasters. A C-47 flown by the China National Airways Corporation pilot Moon Chin, Moon Chin was tasked with flying from Chungking to Myitkyina, a military base in Burma. His aircraft was jumped by Japanese fighters and, after landing at a small airstrip to wait for his pursuers to give up the game. When Chins DC-3 arrived at Myitkyina, he found that the base had, indeed, been severely bombed by the Japanese, eventually, Chin would carry sixty-eight passengers and a crew of four on the final leg to India. After arriving in India, the tattered American approached Captain Chin, believe me, Chin, he began, if I had had any idea that you were going to jam that many people into this old crate I would have gone home the way I came. Chin inquired as to how that might have been and the American replied I flew in, the short, balding, bedraggled American was none other than Lt Col Jimmy Doolittle returning from the historic raid on Tokyo. In Europe, the C-47 and a specialised paratroop variant, the C-53 Skytrooper, were used in vast numbers in the stages of the war, particularly to tow gliders. During the invasion of Sicily in July 1943, C-47s dropped 4,381 Allied paratroops, more than 50,000 paratroops were dropped by C-47s during the first few days of the invasion of Normandy, France, in June 1944. In the Pacific War, with use of the island landing strips of the Pacific Ocean. About 2,000 C-47s in British and Commonwealth service took the name Dakota, the C-47 also earned the informal nickname gooney bird in the European theatre of operations. The United States Air Forces Strategic Air Command had Skytrains in service from 1946 through 1967, the US Air Forces 6th Special Operations Squadron was flying the C-47 until 2008
36.
Genesee Park (Colorado)
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Genesee Park is a park in Jefferson County, Colorado. It is the largest park in the Denver Mountain Parks system, interstate 70 traverses the park between exits 252 and 254 along the Lariat Loop Scenic & Historic Byway. On I-70 just west of exit 254, there are scenic overlooks for both directions for viewing the historic Bison herd, which live on maintained pastures on the north and south sides of I-70. The land for Genesee Park was initially purchased in 1912 and the area was largely complete by 1926. The park contains two mountains, Genesee Mountain at 8,284 feet above sea level and Bald Mountain at 7,988 feet above sea level, the park also contains forests of ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and lodgepole pine. The parks bison herd is owned by the City and County of Denver, some of the original bison were acquired from Yellowstone National Park in 1914. Chief Hosa Lodge, designed by Jacques Benedict, was built in 1918 near what is now Exit 253, a historical point of interest, it is currently used as an event facility. The nearby Chief Hosa Campground serves recreational travelers each year between May and September, a large stone picnic shelter near Genesee Mountain was built by the Civilian Conservation Corps in 1939, it is also available for group use by reservation
37.
Gulfport Combat Readiness Training Center
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Gulfport Combat Readiness Training Center is a United States Air Force training center, located at Gulfport-Biloxi International Airport, Mississippi. It is located 5 miles north-northeast of Gulfport, Mississippi, nearby Camp Shelby, MS features an air-to-ground range and sufficient low-altitude MOA airspace to provide realistic ground attack scenarios. All Airspace and ranges/drop zones are instrumented on the $26 million Air Combat Training System and this system provides advanced, realistic training and debriefing capability and combines sophisticated electronic threat and scoring systems as well. The CRTC has two tenant Mississippi Air National Guard units on base, the 255th Air Control Squadron, activated in 1971 as a Combat Communications Squadron, was converted to a Control and Reporting Center in 1987. They were the first Air National Guard unit to receive datalink capabilities for all joint forces, in 1998, the 255th was converted to their role of Air Control. ACTS provides state-of-the-art Ground Control Intercept capability to the total force, the 255th ACS has 255 personnel and is combat ready in all areas. The 209th CES was formed as the 173rd Civil Engineering Flight in 1969, the mission of the 209th CES is to provide a highly mobile emergency engineering force for base damage recovery after attack. This unit constantly trains and maintains a state of readiness to allow short notice deployment capability and this is accomplished through management of the Rapid Runway Repair site and the fire training facility. Within the first year of opening, the new RRR site had trained 1,600 personnel, the 209th CES began augmenting the United States Air Force Silver Flag Training Program at Tyndall AFB, FL in FY00. When activated for active-duty service, the 209th falls under the jurisdiction of the Air Force Special Operations Command, while not considered a tenant of the CRTC,1108 Theater Aviation Sustainment Maintenance Group, Mississippi Army National Guard, is co-located at the Gulfport-Biloxi Regional Airport. They are a full Army aviation maintenance depot facility, the facility was originally constructed in 1942 by the United States Army Air Forces as a training base for Air Corps Flying Training Command. In addition B-29 Superfortress aircrew transition training was performed, with the end of the war and the drawdown of the military, Gulfport AAF was placed into reserve status on 31 January 1946. Gulfport Field was declared excess by the Air Force and conveyed by the War Assets Administration to the City of Gulfport in 1949 for use as a civil airport. The City negotiated airline service contracts with Southern Airways and later National Airlines to provide passenger, in 1957, ATC decided to assign all flying and crew training responsibilities under a single headquarters. Recruiting and Basic Training were also reassigned to HQ ATC, military traffic has expanded each year, and now more than 20,000 Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve Command flight personnel are trained at the base annually. Within 10 minutes, supersonic fighters, in-flight refueling aircraft and airlift aircraft can simulate a combat environment over the Gulf of Mexico or at Camp Shelby in Hattiesburg, MS
38.
Korean War
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The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
39.
Spacecraft propulsion
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Spacecraft propulsion is any method used to accelerate spacecraft and artificial satellites. Each method has drawbacks and advantages, and spacecraft propulsion is an area of research. However, most spacecraft today are propelled by forcing a gas from the back/rear of the vehicle at high speed through a supersonic de Laval nozzle. This sort of engine is called a rocket engine, all current spacecraft use chemical rockets for launch, though some have used air-breathing engines on their first stage. Most satellites have simple reliable chemical thrusters or resistojet rockets for orbital station-keeping, soviet bloc satellites have used electric propulsion for decades, and newer Western geo-orbiting spacecraft are starting to use them for north-south stationkeeping and orbit raising. Interplanetary vehicles mostly use chemical rockets as well, although a few have used ion thrusters, artificial satellites must be launched into orbit and once there they must be placed in their nominal orbit. Once in the orbit, they often need some form of attitude control so that they are correctly pointed with respect to Earth, the Sun. They are also subject to drag from the atmosphere, so that to stay in orbit for a long period of time some form of propulsion is occasionally necessary to make small corrections. Many satellites need to be moved from one orbit to another time to time. A satellites useful life is usually over once it has exhausted its ability to adjust its orbit, spacecraft designed to travel further also need propulsion methods. They need to be launched out of the Earths atmosphere just as satellites do, once there, they need to leave orbit and move around. For interplanetary travel, a spacecraft must use its engines to leave Earth orbit, once it has done so, it must somehow make its way to its destination. Current interplanetary spacecraft do this with a series of short-term trajectory adjustments, in between these adjustments, the spacecraft simply falls freely along its trajectory. The most fuel-efficient means to move from one orbit to another is with a Hohmann transfer orbit. The spacecraft falls freely along this elliptical orbit until it reaches its destination, special methods such as aerobraking or aerocapture are sometimes used for this final orbital adjustment. The concept has been tested by the Japanese IKAROS solar sail spacecraft. Spacecraft for interstellar travel also need propulsion methods, no such spacecraft has yet been built, but many designs have been discussed. Because interstellar distances are great, a tremendous velocity is needed to get a spacecraft to its destination in a reasonable amount of time
40.
Electronics
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Electronics is the science of controlling electrical energy electrically, in which the electrons have a fundamental role. Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry consisting primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements, the science of electronics is also considered to be a branch of physics and electrical engineering. The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible, until 1950 this field was called radio technology because its principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers, and vacuum tubes. Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control and this article focuses on engineering aspects of electronics. Components are generally intended to be connected together, usually by being soldered to a circuit board. Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits, some common electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc. Components are often categorized as active or passive, vacuum tubes were among the earliest electronic components. They were almost solely responsible for the revolution of the first half of the Twentieth Century. They took electronics from parlor tricks and gave us radio, television, phonographs, radar, long distance telephony and they played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s. Since that time, solid state devices have all but completely taken over, vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, specialist audio equipment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices. The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors, thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic, circuits and components can be divided into two groups, analog and digital. A particular device may consist of circuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types, most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a range of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits. The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a circuit can be defined as anything from a single component, analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, one rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. These days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance and this type of circuit is usually called mixed signal rather than analog or digital. Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation, an example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit
41.
Dwight D. Eisenhower
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Dwight David Ike Eisenhower was an American politician and Army general who served as the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He was a general in the United States Army during World War II. He was responsible for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43, in 1951, he became the first Supreme Commander of NATO. Eisenhower was of mostly Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry and was raised in a family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He graduated from West Point in 1915 and later married Mamie Doud, after World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman and then accepted the post of President at Columbia University. Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator Robert A. Taft, campaigning against communism, Korea and he won in a landslide, defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson and temporarily upending the New Deal Coalition. Eisenhower was the first U. S. president to be constitutionally term-limited under the 22nd Amendment, Eisenhowers main goals in office were to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. He ordered coups in Iran and Guatemala, Eisenhower gave major aid to help the French in the First Indochina War, and after the French were defeated he gave strong financial support to the new state of South Vietnam. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik in 1957, Eisenhower authorized the establishment of NASA, which led to the space race. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, Eisenhower condemned the Israeli, British and French invasion of Egypt and he also condemned the Soviet invasion during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 but took no action. Eisenhower sent 15,000 U. S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution during the 1958 Lebanon crisis. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident. On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking executive privilege and he otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. Eisenhower was a conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security. Eisenhowers two terms saw considerable economic prosperity except for a decline in 1958. Voted Gallups most admired man twelve times, he achieved widespread popular esteem both in and out of office, since the late 20th century, consensus among Western scholars has consistently held Eisenhower as one of the greatest U. S. Presidents. The Eisenhauer family migrated from Karlsbrunn in the Saarland, to North America, first settling in York, Pennsylvania, in 1741, accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was anglicized to Eisenhower. Eisenhowers Pennsylvania Dutch ancestors, who were farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn
42.
Summer White House
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This is a list of residences of Presidents of the United States. It includes the homes or vacation residences of the various Presidents of the United States. It does not include official residences and this is a list of each U. S. Presidents home state, the state with which each was primarily affiliated, due to residence, professional career, and electoral history. This is not necessarily the state in which the president was born and this is a list of homes where Presidents resided with their families before or after their term of office. Although Harry Truman and John F. Kennedy had spent significant time in Florida, the Western/Southern White House is a term applied to additional residences of the President of the United States. It was used for the Crawford, Texas ranch of George W. Bush, known as Prairie Chapel Ranch, johnson, Richard M. Nixon and Ronald Reagan. Current president Donald Trump uses his Mar-a-Lago resort in Palm Beach, Florida as an additional residence, the first governmental spending on property improvements of private presidential residences was at Dwight Eisenhowers Gettysburg farm, where the Secret Service added three guard posts to a fence. Federal law now allows the president to designate a residence outside of the White House as his temporary offices, beauvoir, the private residence of Confederate States of America President Jefferson Davis 1. ^ Harding died before he could vacation in Bird Key. PresidentialMuseums. com - Presidential museums, libraries, birthplaces, centers, and other notable places of historic importance
43.
Sheppard Air Force Base
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Sheppard Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located five miles north of the central business district of Wichita Falls, in Wichita County, Texas, United States. It is the largest training base and most diversified in Air Education, the base is named in honor of Texas Senator John Morris Sheppard, a supporter of military preparations before World War II. As of March 2017, Colonel Ronald E. Jolly is the commander of the 82d Training Wing, Colonel Gregory S. Keeton is the commander of the 80th Flying Training Wing. Sheppard AFB shares one runway with Wichita Falls Municipal Airport under a joint civil-military arrangement, Sheppard Air Force Base is named in honor of Senator John Morris Sheppard of Texas, chairman of the Senate Military Affairs Committee from 1933 until his death on 9 April 1941. Senator Sheppard helped lead the fight for military preparedness before the attack on Pearl Harbor, the base began as Sheppard Field on 300 acres just south of Kell Field, named for the businessman Frank Kell. A Texas cattleman, oilman, and philanthropist, Joseph Sterling Bridwell and it was officially opened as a United States Army Air Corps training center on 17 October 1941, following the arrival of the first military members on 14 June. During World War II, then-Sheppard Field conducted basic training, and it also trained glider mechanics, technical and flying training instructors, in addition to the basic flying training, the base also provided advanced pilot training. Sheppard Field reached its peak strength of 46,340 people while serving as a center for troops being discharged following World War II from September through November 1945. Sheppard Field was deactivated 31 August 1946 and declared surplus to the War Departments needs and it was transferred to the jurisdiction of the United States Army Corps of Engineers 30 April 1947. Over the next two years the Texas National Guard used the base, basic training was discontinued in June 1949, but was resumed from July 1950 to May 1952. The aircraft mechanics school was transferred to Sheppard from Keesler AFB, the school was renamed the Department of Aircraft Maintenance Training within the 3750th Technical School. During the Korean War several airmen from such places as Greece, comptroller, transportation, and intelligence training moved to Sheppard from Lowry AFB, Colorado, in the fall of 1954. Communications, refrigeration, air conditioning, and power production operator and repairman training were transferred here from F. E. Warren AFB, intelligence training returned to Lowry in February 1962. The 3950th Technical Training Wing was designated the Sheppard Technical Training Center 1 January 1959 and it has had two subsequent name changes and is now the 82d Training Wing. Helicopter pilot training was transferred from Stead AFB, Nevada in October 1965, with H-19, H-43, Bell TH-1F, CH-3C, the 3630th Flying Training Wing was activated in 1965, and it assumed the helicopter training program. It began providing undergraduate pilot training in the T-37 and Northrop T-38 Talon for the then-West German Air Force in August 1966, helicopter training was discontinued in 1971 when the U. S. Army assumed responsibility for training Air Force helicopter pilots at Fort Rucker, Alabama. The 3630th Flying Training Wing also provided undergraduate pilot training for pilots of the Republic of Vietnam Air Force from 1971 to 1975, the Wing designation was changed to the 80th Flying Training Wing on 1 January 1973. The 80th Flying Training Wing began conducting the Euro-NATO Joint Jet Pilot Training Program in 1981, approval to conduct the program was recently extended through the year 2005
44.
Cheyenne Mountain Complex
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Also located in Colorado Springs is Peterson Air Force Base, where the North American Aerospace Defense Command and United States Northern Command headquarters are located. The military complex has included, in the past, many units of NORAD, Space Command, Aerospace Defense Command, Air Force Systems Command, Air Weather Service, and Federal Emergency Management. The complexs communication center is used by the nearby U. S. Civil Defense Warning Center. The complex was built under 2,000 feet of granite on 2 hectares, a total of more than 1,000 springs are designed to prevent any of the 15 buildings from shifting more than one inch. The complex is the high altitude Department of Defense facility certified to be able to sustain an electromagnetic pulse. There is a quantity of cots for most of the personnel. Amenities include a facility, store, cafeteria, and fitness centers inside and outside the mountain. The bunker is built to deflect a 30 megaton nuclear explosion as close as 2 kilometers, within a mountain tunnel are sets of 25-ton blast doors and another for the civil engineering department. The doors were built so that they can always be opened when needed, should a nuclear blast hit the building, they are designed to withstand a blast wave. There is a network of blast valves with unique filters to capture air-borne chemical, biological, radiological, outside of the military complex are the parking lots, a heliport, a fire station, and outdoor recreational facilities. The recreational amenities include Mountain Man Park, picnic areas, a facility, softball field, sand volleyball court, basketball court, a putting green. A military gate limits NORAD Road usage from the State Highway 115 interchange, the least likely events are the most hazardous. There is more produced by mountain springs than the base needs. A reservoir of 4.5 million gallons of water is used as a heat sink, there is a massive reservoir for diesel fuel and a huge battery bank with redundant power generators. The North American Air Defense Command was established and activated at the Ent Air Force Base on September 12,1957 and this command is a bi-national organization, of Canadian and United States Air Defense Command units, in accordance with NORAD Agreements first made on May 12,1958. The Space Defense Center and the Combat Operations Center achieved full operational capability on February 6,1967, the total cost was $142.4 million. Its systems included a command and control system developed by Burroughs Corporation, the electronics and communications system centralized and automated the instantaneous evaluation of aerospace surveillance data. The Space Defense Center moved from Ent AFB to the complex in 1965, the NORAD Combat Operations Center was fully operational April 20,1966 and The Space Defense Commands 1st Aerospace Control Squadron moved to Cheyenne Mountain that month
Air Training Command (ATC)
Carillon & hq structures
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http://www.afhra.af.mil/.
This article incorporates 
