1.
Fore-and-aft rig
–
A fore-and-aft rig is a sailing rig consisting mainly of sails that are set along the line of the keel rather than perpendicular to it. Such sails are described as fore-and-aft rigged, fore-and-aft rigged sails include staysails, Bermuda rigged sails, gaff rigged sails, gaff sails, gunter rig, lateen sails, lug sails, the spanker sail on a square rig and crab claw sails. Northern Europeans were resistant to adopting the fore-and-aft rig, despite having seen its use in the course of trade, the lateen sail was more maneuverable and speedier, while the square rig was clumsy but seaworthy
2.
Yard (sailing)
–
A yard is a spar on a mast from which sails are set. It may be constructed of timber or steel or from modern materials like aluminium or carbon fibre. Although some types of fore and aft rigs have yards, the term is used to describe the horizontal spars used on square rigged sails. In addition, for decades after square sails were generally dispensed with, some yards were retained for deploying wireless aerials. Bunt The short section of the yard between the slings that attach it to the mast, quarters The port and starboard quarters form the bulk of the yard, extending from the slings to the fittings for the lifts and braces. Yardarms The outermost tips of the yard, outboard from the attachments for the lifts, note that these terms refer to stretches of the same spar, not to separate component parts. The yard can rotate around the mast to allow the direction of the vessel to be changed relative to the wind, when running directly downwind the yards are squared, pointing perpendicular to the ships centre line. As the ship is steered closer to the wind the yards are braced round using the braces, when further rotation is obstructed by other bits of rigging, the yard is said to be braced hard round or sharp up, as in sharp up to port. This angle limits how close to the wind a square rigged ship can sail, in nineteenth-century warships this was generally by physically sending down the upper yards from the masts and storing them on deck--along with, in many cases, the upper sections of the mast itself. Merchant ships in the age of sail would also do this before sailing in the Southern Ocean. On modern tall ships the yards are not designed to be sent down on deck, as well as rotating round the mast and moving up and down along it, the yards on many ships are designed to tilt relative to the mast. This allows the sails to be set more efficiently when the ship is heeled over by raising the leeward yardarm to bring the yard closer to the horizontal and this is achieved using the lifts, which run from each yardarm to the mast some way above. On some ships only the course lifts can be adjusted, with the influence of the yard being sufficient to tilt all the sails. Some ships have their yards mounted on mechanical swivels with no possibility of tilting them, in order to set and stow the square sails, the crew must climb aloft and spread out along the yards. To do this, they stand in footropes suspended beneath the yard, the person working on the end of the yardarm has a separate footrope known as the flemish horse. Jackstays run along the top of the yard - the sail will be bent on to one of them and these are usually steel rods, but stiff cordage stretched between the yardarms was used in the past. Almost all ships used in modern times are fitted with steel safety wires along the yards to which sailors attach themselves using a harness and this is a relatively recent innovation - cargo-carrying and naval sailing ships were not so equipped and falling from the yard represented a real risk. The yard exists to allow square sails to be set to drive the ship, the top edge of the sail is bent on to the yard semi-permanently
3.
Tack (sailing)
–
In sailing, tack is a corner of a sail on the lower leading edge. Separately, tack describes which side of a vessel the wind is coming from while under way—port or starboard. Tacking is the maneuver of turning between starboard and port tack by bringing the bow through the wind, jibing is the maneuver of turning from one tack to another by bringing the stern through the wind. As a part of a sail, the tack is the corner of the sails leading edge. On a sloop rigged sailboat, the tack is connected to the mast. On the same boat, a tack is clipped to the deck. As a point of reference, tack is the alignment of the wind with respect to a vessel under sail, if the wind is from starboard, the vessel is on starboard tack, and if from port, on port tack. The rules of the road for ships and boats declare that when the courses of two sailing vessels converge, the vessel on port tack must give way to a vessel on starboard tack
4.
Windward and leeward
–
Windward is the direction upwind from the point of reference. Leeward is the direction downwind from the point of reference, the side of a ship that is towards the leeward is its lee side. If the vessel is heeling under the pressure of the wind, during the age of sail, the term weather was used as a synonym for windward in some contexts, as in the weather gage. Windward and leeward directions are important factors to consider when sailing a sailing ship, other terms with broadly the same meaning are widely used, particularly upwind and downwind. The windward vessel is normally the more maneuverable vessel, for this reason, rule 12 of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea stipulates that the windward vessel gives way to the leeward vessel. The opposing warship to leeward could often do little but comply without exposing itself unduly and this was particularly important once artillery was introduced to naval warfare. The ships heeled away from the wind so that the vessel was exposing part of her bottom to shot. Leeward and windward refer respectively to what a game stalker would call downwind and upwind, the terms are used by seamen in relation to their ships but also in reference to islands in an archipelago and to the different sides of a single island. In the latter case, the side is that side of an island subject to the prevailing wind. The leeward side is the side protected by the elevation of the island from the prevailing wind, thus, leeward or windward siting is an important weather and climate factor on oceanic islands. In the case of an archipelago, windward islands are upwind and leeward islands are the downwind ones
5.
Square sail
–
These spars are called yards and their tips, beyond the last stay, are called the yardarms. A ship mainly so rigged is called a square-rigger, the square rig is aerodynamically the most efficient running rig, and stayed popular on ocean-going sailing ships until the end of the Age of Sail. The last commercial sailing ships, windjammers, were usually square-rigged four-masted barques, square-rigged masts may also have triangular staysails that are deployed fore-and-aft between masts. Square-rigged is also used for the uniform of a rating in the Royal Navy since 1857 and it is slang and refers to anyone wearing the famous blue square collar on the shoulders and bell-bottomed trousers. The name perhaps reflects the fact that it was men who managed the square-rigged sails. The peaked cap worn by Senior Ratings and Officers is known colloquially as fore-and-aft rig. A mast is considered square-rigged if its lowest sail or course is square-rigged, if the course is fore-and-aft, square topsails can still be carried in front of the mast. In their heyday, square-rigged vessels ranged in size from small boats to full rigged ships, but this rig fell from favour to fore-and-aft gaff rigs and bermuda rigs after the development of steam power and new materials. Ocean-going sailing ships stayed mostly square-rigged, Square rigs allowed the fitting of many small sails to create a large total sail area to drive large ships. 18th century warships would often achieve speeds of 12–13 knots. Some clipper ships that had square rigs and for speed was critical could be much faster. The late windjammers were as fast as the clippers, being much bigger, not only could a smaller sail be managed by a smaller crew but also these smaller sails constrained the impact of weapons on them. A hole from a cannonball affected only one area, whilst a hole in a large sail would eventually tear the whole larger area. This reduced running costs and also enlarged the space available in the ship for profitable cargoes, new materials also changed sail designs, particularly on hybrid vessels carrying some square-rigged sails. The low aspect ratio of square-rigged sails produces much drag for the lift produced, so they have poor performance to windward compared to modern yachts, the Bermuda rig is the undisputed champion of windward performance in soft sails, due to its very low drag and high lift-to-drag ratio. One advantage of square rigs is that they are efficient when running, where the high lift to drag is irrelevant. Square-rigged sails are also prone to broaching when running than Bermuda rigs. Ocean-going vessels take advantage of e. g. the trade winds, on a square-rigged mast the sails had names which indicated their vertical position on the mast
6.
Sail components
–
Sail components include the features that define a sails shape and function, plus its constituent parts from which it is manufactured. A sail may be classified in a variety of ways, including by its orientation to the vessel and its shape. Sails are typically constructed out of material that is shaped by various means, while in use, to offer an appropriate airfoil, according to the strength. A variety of features and fittings allow the sail to be attached to lines and they also may be classified as symmetrical or asymmetrical. Triangular sails have names for each of three edges and three corners, rigs with such sails include Bermuda, cutter, lateen and vessels with mixed sail plans that include jibs and other staysails. Most triangular sails are classified as asymmetrical and fore and aft, gaff, gunter, lug, junk and some sprit sails have four sides and are set fore and aft so that one edge is leading into the wind. Naming conventions are consistent with triangular sails, except for the top edge and these spars are called yards and their tips, beyond the last stay, are called the yardarms. A ship mainly so rigged is called a square-rigger, the shape of a sail is defined by its edges and corners in the plane of the sail, laid out on a flat surface. The edges may be curved, either to extend the sails shape as an airfoil or to define its shape in use, in use, the sail becomes a curved shape, adding the dimension of depth or draft. The top of all sails is called the head, the edge is called the luff, the trailing edge is the leech. Head – The head is the edge of the sail. For a triangular sail the head refers to the topmost corner, luff – The forward edge of a fore-and-aft sail is called the luff, which, in a mainsail, is parallel to the mast. In a symmetrical sail that leech, which is the edge into the wind. Foot – The foot of a sail is its bottom edge and this added area would flutter in the wind and not contribute to the efficient airfoil shape of the sail without the presence of battens. Offshore cruising mainsails sometimes have a hollow leech to obviate the need for battens and their ensuing likelihood of chafing the sail. Roach is a term applied to square sail design—it is the arc of a circle above a straight line from clew to clew at the foot of a square sail. The roach allows the foot of the sail to clear stays coming up the mast, the names of corners of sails vary, depending on shape and symmetry. Head – In a triangular sail, the corner where the luff, on a square sail, the top corners are head cringles, where there are grommets, called cringles
7.
Gaff rig
–
Gaff rig is a sailing rig in which the sail is four-cornered, fore-and-aft rigged, controlled at its peak and, usually, its entire head by a spar called the gaff. Because of the size and shape of the sail, a gaff rig will have running backstays rather than permanent backstays, the gaff enables a fore and aft sail to be four sided, rather than triangular. A gaff rig typically carries 25 percent more sail than an equivalent bermudian rig for a hull design. A sail hoisted from a gaff is called a gaff-rigged sail, gaff rig remains the most popular fore-aft rig for schooner and barquentine mainsails and other course sails, and spanker sails on a square rigged vessel are always gaff rigged. The gaff is hoisted by two halyards, The throat halyard hoists the throat of the sail at the end of the gaff and bears the main weight of the sail. The peak halyard lifts aft end of the gaff and bears the leech tension. Small craft attach the peak halyard to the gaff with a span with eyes at both ends looped around the gaff and held in place with small wooden chocks, larger craft have more than one span. Peak halyards pull upwards, approaching the gaff at right angles, additionally, a gaff vang may be fitted. It is an attached to the end of the gaff which prevents the gaff from sagging downwind. Gaff vangs are difficult to rig on the aft-most sail, so are only found on schooners or ketches. A triangular fore-and-aft sail called a jib-headed topsail may be carried between the gaff and the mast. Gunter-rigged boats are similar, smaller vessels on which a spar popularly but incorrectly called the gaff is raised until it is vertical, parallel to the mast. Topsails are never carried on gunter rigs, the Spritsail is another rig with a four-sided fore-aft sail. Unlike the gaff rig where the head hangs from a spar along its edge, the forward end of the sprit is attached to the mast but bisects the face of the sail, with the after end of the sprit attaching to the peak and/or the clew of the sail. For a given sail area a gaff rig has a shorter mast than a bermudian rig, because of its low aspect ratio, the gaff rig is less prone to stalling if oversheeted than something taller and narrower. Whilst reaching, the CE being set back, will encourage a small craft to bear up into the wind. The boat builder can compensate for this at design stage, e. g. by shifting the keel slightly aft, the gaff-cutter is in fact a very popular sailplan for small craft. The helmsman can reduce weather helm significantly, simply by sheeting out the mainsail, sheeting out may appear to create an inefficient belly in the sail, but it is often a pragmatic alternative to having a heavy helm
8.
Lateen
–
A lateen or latin-rig is a triangular sail set on a long yard mounted at an angle on the mast, and running in a fore-and-aft direction. Dating back to Roman navigation, the lateen became the sail of the Age of Discovery. It is common in the Mediterranean, the upper Nile River, and the parts of the Indian Ocean. The lateen is used today in a different form on small recreational boats like the Sailfish and Sunfish. The earliest fore-and-aft rig was the spritsail, appearing in the 2nd century BC in the Aegean Sea on small Greek craft, one theory is that the lateen sail originated during the early Roman empire in the Mediterranean Sea. It evolved out of the dominant square rig by setting the sails more fore-and-aft – along the line of the keel – rather than athwartship, while tailoring the luff and leech. The theory of Roman origin for lateen was begun with Lynn White, John M. H. Brindley.25 The original passage cited from Caesarus is, according to Brindley, no more than an allusion, ‘tres naves, quas Latenas vocant, majores, plenas tritico direxerunt’. The assumption is that labelling these three wheat ships ‘latines’ means that they had lateen sails, there is also reason to doubt Sottas’s interpretation of Procopius’ claim – that three ships of Justinian’s fleet in 533 deployed lateen sails. That the triangular sails refer to triangular top sails, which were standard gear on Roman square-rigged ships after 50 ad’, second, White’s claim that the lateen sail was deployed on a European ship in 880 is problematic. We know that the Persians were sailing to India and beyond via the Persian Gulf from the third, and by the mid-seventh century the Muslims were sailing the length of the Indian Ocean. But even if the Romans had invented the lateen sail, it is important to note that after 50 ce there is no evidence of refinement or further development of sails and rigging. Based on this theory, the lateen sail originated in the Near East, most likely in Persia or Arabia and these sailors were likely responsible for introducing the lateen sails and large three-masted merchant vessels to the Mediterranean. According to the Belgian maritime historian Basch, the earliest true lateen rig appears as early as the 1st century BC, in a Hellenistic wall painting found in a Hypogeum in Alexandria. The earliest archaeologically excavated lateen-rigged ship, the Yassi Ada II, dates to ca.400 AD, the Kelenderis ship mosaic and the Kellia ship graffito from the early 7th century complement the picture. By the 6th century, the lateen sail had largely replaced the square throughout the Mediterranean. It became the standard rig of the Byzantine dromon war galley and was also employed by Belisarius flagship in the 532 AD invasion of the Vandal kingdom. This is also indicated by the terminology of the lateen among Mediterranean Arabs and it has been suggested that the lateen sail was brought to the Indian Ocean by the Alexandrian merchants who sailed the Red Sea in Roman and later Byzantine and Arab times. Such theories have been superseded by unequivocal depictions of lateen-rigged Mediterranean sailing vessels which pre-date the Arab invasion, searches for lateen sails in India were inconclusive
9.
Indian Ocean
–
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the worlds oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2. It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the west by Africa, on the east by Australia, the Indian Ocean is known as Ratnākara, the mine of gems in ancient Sanskrit literature, and as Hind Mahāsāgar, in Hindi. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf, the oceans continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres in width. An exception is found off Australias western coast, where the width exceeds 1,000 kilometres. The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m and its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m deep, Sunda Trench has a depth of 7, 258–7,725 m. North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the basin is covered by pelagic sediments. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments, glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes. The major choke points include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok Strait, the Strait of Malacca, the Indian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Red Sea. All of the Indian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere and the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere is in this ocean, marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indian Ocean include, The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April, from May until October south, in the Arabian Sea the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are milder. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, Indian Ocean warming is the largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming observed in the Pacific. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency, among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Shatt al-Arab, Indus, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Jubba and Irrawaddy River. The oceans currents are controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise, during the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deep water circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, north of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C, exceeding 28 °C to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly, surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and south-western Australia
10.
Borobudur
–
The temple consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a central dome. The temple is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues, the central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated stupa. The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage, the monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades. Borobudur has the largest and most complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world, evidence suggests Borobudur was constructed in the 9th century and abandoned following the 14th-century decline of Hindu kingdoms in Java and the Javanese conversion to Islam. Worldwide knowledge of its existence was sparked in 1814 by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, then the British ruler of Java, Borobudur has since been preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO, following which the monument was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Borobudur is still used for pilgrimage, once a year, Buddhists in Indonesia celebrate Vesak at the monument, in Indonesian, ancient temples are referred to as candi, thus locals refer to Borobudur Temple as Candi Borobudur. The term candi also loosely describes ancient structures, for example gates, the origins of the name Borobudur, however, are unclear, although the original names of most ancient Indonesian temples are no longer known. The name Borobudur was first written in Sir Thomas Raffless book on Javan history, Raffles wrote about a monument called Borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting the same name. The only old Javanese manuscript that hints the monument called Budur as a holy Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakretagama, written by Mpu Prapanca, most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese language conventions and was named after the village of Bore. Raffles thought that Budur might correspond to the modern Javanese word Buda —i. e. ancient Boro and he also suggested that the name might derive from boro, meaning great or honourable and Budur for Buddha. However, another archaeologist suggests the second component of the name comes from Javanese term bhudhara, another possible etymology suggests that Borobudur is a corrupted simplified local Javanese pronunciation of Biara Beduhur written in Sanskrit as Vihara Buddha Uhr. This suggests that Borobudur means vihara of Buddha located on a place or on a hill. The construction and inauguration of a sacred Buddhist building—possibly a reference to Borobudur—was mentioned in two inscriptions, both discovered in Kedu, Temanggung Regency, the Karangtengah inscription, dated 824, mentioned a sacred building named Jinalaya, inaugurated by Pramodhawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga. The Tri Tepusan inscription, dated 842, is mentioned in the sima, Kamūlān is from the word mula, which means the place of origin, a sacred building to honor the ancestors, probably those of the Sailendras. Casparis suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra, which in Sanskrit means the mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood, was the name of Borobudur. According to local myth, the known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese sacred place and has been dubbed the garden of Java due to its high agricultural fertility
11.
Indonesia
–
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
12.
Ajanta Caves
–
The Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state of India are about 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments which date from the 2nd century BCE to about 480 or 650 CE. According to UNESCO, these are masterpieces of Buddhist religious art that influenced Indian art that followed, the site is a protected monument in the care of the Archaeological Survey of India, and since 1983, the Ajanta Caves have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Ajanta Caves constitute ancient monasteries and worship halls of different Buddhist traditions carved into a 250 feet wall of rock, textual records suggest that these caves served as a monsoon retreat for monks, as well as a resting site for merchants and pilgrims in ancient India. The Ajanta Caves site are mentioned in the memoirs of several medieval era Chinese Buddhist travelers to India and they were covered by jungle until accidentally discovered and brought to the Western attention in 1819 by a colonial British officer on a tiger hunting party. The Ajanta caves are located on the side of a cliff that is on the north side of a U-shaped gorge on the small river Waghur. Further round the gorge are a number of waterfalls, which when the river is high are audible from outside the caves, with the Ellora Caves, Ajanta is the major tourist attraction of the Marathwada region of Maharashtra. They are about 60 kilometres from Pachora Junction railway station,104 kilometres from the city of Aurangabad and they are 100 kilometres from the Ellora Caves, which contain Hindu, Jain as well as Buddhist caves, the last dating from a period similar to Ajanta. The Ajanta style is found in the Ellora Caves and other sites such as the Elephanta Caves. The Ajanta Caves are generally agreed to have made in two distinct periods, the first belonging to the 2nd century BCE to 1st century CE. The caves consist of 36 identifiable foundations, some of them discovered after the numbering of the caves from 1 through 29. The later identified caves have been suffixed with the letters of the alphabet, the cave numbering is a convention of convenience, and has nothing to do with chronological order of their construction. The earliest group constructed consists of caves 9,10,12,13 and this grouping and that they belong to the Hinayana tradition of Buddhism is generally accepted by scholars, but there are differing opinions on which century the early caves were built. According to Walter Spink, they were made during the period 100 BCE to 100 CE, other datings prefer the period of the Maurya Empire. Of these, caves 9 and 10 are stupa containing worship halls of chaitya-griha form, and caves 12,13, according to Spink, once the Satavahana period caves were made, the site was not further developed for a considerable period until the mid-5th century. However, the caves were in use during this dormant period. The second phase of construction at the Ajanta Caves site began in the 5th century, Spink, have argued that most of the work took place over the very brief period from 460 to 480 CE, during the reign of Hindu Emperor Harishena of the Vākāṭaka dynasty. This view has been criticised by scholars, but is now broadly accepted by most authors of general books on Indian art, for example Huntington. The second phase is attributed to the theistic Mahāyāna, or Greater Vehicle tradition of Buddhism, Caves of the second period are 1–8,11, 14–29, some possibly extensions of earlier caves
13.
Dutch language
–
It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects have their own names, e. g. Hollands, West-Vlaams. The use of the word Vlaams to describe Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands, the Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, later, theudisca appeared also in the Oaths of Strasbourg to refer to the Germanic portion of the oath. This led inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages, owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers, Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian Low Dietsch dialects in northeast Belgium, Nederlands, the official Dutch word for Dutch, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, one of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, High Dutch, meaning the language spoken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German language. g, in English, too, Netherlandic is regarded as a more accurate term for the Dutch language, but is hardly ever used. Old Dutch branched off more or less around the same time Old English, Old High German, Old Frisian and Old Saxon did. During that period, it forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, on the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in nowadays France and Germany. The division in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age, the Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups, East, West, and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots, Frisian, Low German and High German
14.
Junk rig
–
The junk rig, also known as the Chinese lugsail or sampan rig, is a type of sail rig in which rigid members, called battens, span the full width of the sail and extend the sail forward of the mast. The junk rig is a simple and effective rig, the rig contrasts starkly with the Bermuda rig which is prevalent on Western sail boats. In its most traditional form the junk rig is carried on an unstayed mast however standing rigging of some kind is not uncommon, performance close-hauled is perhaps the strongpoint of the Bermuda rig - key to winning a race with an upwind leg or outmaneuvering an opponent in battle. The junk rig typically produces more drive than a similarly sized Bermuda rig when running downwind without a spinnaker, a junk rigged boat can let its sails out athwartships On a Bermuda rigged boat the shrouds interfere with sails if the sail was let out until it was athwartship. The junk rig is well suited to travel with its working sails. The junk rig appeals to shorthanded sailing crews for many reasons, to lessen sail all that is required is to let out the halyard. It is typical to run the halyards and sheets to the companionway on a junk rigged boat and this means that typical sailhandling can be performed from the relative safety of the cockpit, or even while the crew is below deck. Junk sails are carried on a mast which rakes forward a few degrees from vertical. The forward rake of the sail encourages the sail to swing out, another way to say this is that the sail is stable when swung out and doesnt return to the middle of the ship when the wind drops. Consequently, the airfoil developed in light wind doesnt have enough camber to develop much lift at low wind speeds, perhaps the chief shortcoming of the junk rig is that it typically produces poor drive to windward in light winds. The sail may remain almost entirely flat in light winds and develop unacceptable drive to windward The fully battened sail is much heavier than a sail made entirely of sailcloth with modern battens. The stiff junk battens disturb laminar wind flow over the sail -especially important when sailing to windward, Junk sails are relatively low aspect ratio, resulting in a lower lift-to-drag ratio, consequently the ship cant tack as close to the wind. A junk sail has more running rigging aloft, adding to weight, providing more wind resistance, a junk mast is normally of solid wood and very heavy for its short length. There were two types of ships with Junk Rig in the Malay Archipelago with local hulls instead of the Chinese Junk hull. A light boat used commonly in the early 19th century to carry goods along rivers, twakow, a type of vessel with one mast and junk rig. They were a common sight in the Singapore river in the mid 19th century, among the ships used on the coast of China, Lorcha, a light Chinese sailing vessel. This ship combined a western-style hull of Portuguese influence, with Chinese-style mast, the lorcha were found in the Gulf of Siam and in Philippine waters as well. The Vũng Tàu shipwreck consists of the remains of a late 17th century lorcha from the South China Sea off the islands of Con Dao, about 160 km from Vũng Tàu, each of the traditional sailing rigs can be achieved using the modern junk sail
15.
Jibe
–
A jibe or gybe is a sailing maneuver whereby a sailing vessel reaching downwind turns its stern through the wind, such that the wind direction changes from one side of the boat to the other. For square-rigged ships, this maneuver is called wearing ship, in this maneuver, the mainsail will cross the center of the boat while the jib is pulled to the other side of the boat. If a spinnaker is up, its pole will have to be moved to the other side. The other way to change the side of the boat that faces the wind is turning the bow of the boat into, and then through and this operation is known as tacking or coming about. Tacking more than 180° to avoid a jibe is sometimes referred to as a chicken jibe, many sailboats are significantly faster sailing on a broad reach than running. Thus the increased speed of a course of alternating broad reaches can more than make up for the extra distance it takes over a straight downwind course. Jibing is also common in racing, which use a triangular course marked with buoys. Wearing ship is the maneuver for a square rigged ship that wishes to avoid the difficulties. Light winds, heavy seas, worn-out gear, and poor vessel or crew performance are all reasons a ship may choose to instead of tack. Compared to boats with a rig, a square rigger can jibe without any difficulty or risk of accident. However, since these craft cannot point close to the wind, they may find it difficult to maintain turning, if the ship loses steering way, it can be taken aback, with the wind pressing on the forward surface of the sails and caught in irons. By driving the vessel backwards through the water, this puts excessive strain on the masts, spars and rigging, could break the rudder. This, however, would result in considerable ground lost to leeward with each jibe, wearing has been judged to be unseamanlike except in heavy weather. When running in a sloop, one may jibe only the mainsail to the side of the boat. This keeps both the main and jib exposed to the resulting in a more efficient use of wind. Setting the mainsail and the jib on opposite sides of the boat is referred to as running goose-winged, gull-winged. When running wing-and-wing, a spinnaker pole or whisker pole is often used to hold the clew of the foresail out to the windward side of the boat. A jibe can be dangerous in a fore-and-aft rigged boat because the sails are always filled by wind during the maneuver
16.
Fifie
–
The Fifie is a design of sailing boat developed on the east coast of Scotland. It was a fishing boat used by Scottish fishermen from the 1850s until well into the 20th century. These boats were used to fish for herring using drift nets. While the boats varied in design, they can be categorised by their stem and stern, their long straight keel. These attributes made the Fifies very stable in the water and allowed them to carry a large set of sails. The long keel, however, made difficult to manoeuvre in small harbours. Sailing Fifies had two masts with the standard rig consisting of a dipping lug sail and a mizzen standing lug sail. The masts were positioned far forward and aft on the boat to give the maximum working space amidships. A large fifie could reach just over 20 metres in length, because of their large sail area they were very fast sailing boats. The introduction of steam powered capstans in the 1890s, to raising the lugs sails. From about 1905 onwards sailing Fifies were gradually fitted with engines, there are few surviving examples of this type of fishing boat still in existence. The Scottish Fisheries Museum based in Anstruther, Fife has restored, the Swan Trust in Lerwick, Shetland have restored and maintain another Fifie, The Swan, as a sail training vessel. She now takes over 1000 trainees each year, and has taken trainees to participate in the Cutty Sark Tall Ships Races to ports in France, Denmark, the Netherlands, Ireland as well as around the UK. The Reaper - The Boats that Built Britain - Tom Cunliffe The history of herring fishing on the east coast of Scotland Scottish Fisheries Museum The Swan Trust
17.
Capstan (nautical)
–
A capstan is a vertical-axled rotating machine developed for use on sailing ships to apply force to ropes, cables, and hawsers. The principle is similar to that of the windlass, which has a horizontal axle, both device and word are considered Spanish inventions. In its earliest form, the capstan consisted of a timber mounted vertically through a structure which was free to rotate. Levers, known as bars, were inserted through holes at the top of the timber, a rope wrapped several turns around the drum was thus hauled upon. A rudimentary ratchet was provided to hold the tension, the ropes were always wound in a clockwise direction. Capstans evolved to consist of a drum or barrel mounted on an iron axle. Two barrels on a common axle were used frequently to allow men on two decks to apply force to the bars, later capstans were made entirely of iron, with gearing in the head providing a mechanical advantage when the bars were pushed counterclockwise. One form of capstan was connected by a shaft and gears to an anchor windlass on the deck below, on riverine vessels, the capstan was sometimes cranked by steam power. Modern capstans are powered electrically, hydraulically, pneumatically, or via an internal combustion engine, typically, a gearbox is used which trades reduced speed, relative to the prime mover, for increased torque. In yachting terminology, a winch functions on the principle as a capstan. However, in applications, the term winch generally implies a machine which stores the rope on a drum. Hydraulically powered capstans were used in railway goods yards for shunting. One example was Broad Street goods station in London, the yard was on a deck above some warehouses, and the deck was not strong enough to carry a locomotive, so ropes and capstans were used instead
18.
International Twelve Foot Dinghy
–
The International Twelve Foot Dinghy was designed by George Cockshott, an amateur boat designer from Southport, over a century ago. It became the first one-design racing dinghy to achieve international recognition, Cockshott was born 7 May 1875, and educated at Uppingham and King’s College Cambridge. He resided at Southport, and was Vice-Commodore of Southport Corinthian Yacht Club, as a boy he took a keen delight in building and sailing model yachts, and while at school built for himself a rowing and sailing boat. He joined the Cambridge University Sailing Club shortly after its formation in 1893, on coming down from Cambridge, he spent several seasons as ‘forward hand’ racing in the Southport ¾-rating class and the Menai Straits 1-rating class. He owned the Unona, a half decked centre board boat, in 1904, he again entered the ¾-rating class as part owner of Imp. His present yacht is the Sthoreen, an able and comfortable cruising yawl of 16 tons, built from his own designs and he designed a new racing class for the West Lancashire Yacht Club from which six boats are now being built. Clubs, Royal Mersey Yacht Club, Southport Corinthian Yacht Club, West Lancashire Yacht Club, in 1913 there was published in England a new rating rule for yachts of all sizes. The rule was prepared by the self -styled Boat Racing Association under the chairmanship of Lt. Col. J. T. Bucknill at a meeting in November 1912, felt that ordinary racing sailors were not catered for by the YRA rating rules. Initially there was to be a class of 18 footer rating, other sizes of yachts were intended to follow, including a 12-foot and a 20 foot. Rating formula was, Rating in feet= divided by 4 + divided by 3 x cube root of weight, I leave it to another contributor to do the mathematics. The class is known in some quarters as The International One-Design 12 Foot Dinghy Class as it is the smallest, morgan Giles persuaded the British that his design was superior, but he was unable to convince the Dutch or Italians. The foundations of the association were laid at a meeting in the Hotel Jolanda, Portofino, Italy in May 2006. During this time much progress has made towards re-establishing the 12 Dinghy as a truly international class. The 12 feet dinghy is one of the Vintage Yachting Classes at the 2012 Vintage Yachting Games, in 1924, The Brussels Royal Yacht Club held the first World Dinghy Championships. Belgium England Republic of France Holland Irish Free State Italy, in the 1920s till the 1950s there were fleets in Royal Munster Yacht Club, Sutton Dinghy Club, Howth, Baltimore, Clontarf Yacht and Boat Club, and Seapoint Boat Club. The first International Dinghy Championship was held by the Royal Munster Yacht Club in Cork Harbour on 12,13 and 14 August 1925. In 2011 the first Irish combined DBSC12 foot and int.12 foot Championships for at least 40 years was held at the Royal St George Yacht Club. Boats of the International Design and the Dublin Bay rig sailed against each other as equals in 2011, which was won by Gail Varian in a DBSC rigged boat
19.
Dinghy
–
A dinghy is a type of small boat, often carried or towed for use as a ships boat by a larger vessel. The term is a loanword from the Bengali ḍiṅgi, Urdu ḍīngī & Hindi ḍieṁgī, dinghies usually range in length from about 2 to 6 m. Larger auxiliary vessels are generally called tenders, pinnaces or lifeboats, folding and take-down multi-piece dinghies are used where space is limited. Some newer dinghies have much greater buoyancy, giving them more carrying capacity than older boats of the same size, whaleboats are among the classic pulling boats, with a sharp bow, fine stern lines and a canoe stern. Despite being somewhat more tippy, with cargo capacity than prams, they row, motor. Prior to the introduction of fibreglass as a material, dories were more popular because their ease of assembly and, thereby. Whitehall rowboats were the water taxis of the late 1800s until the invention of the small gasoline outboard. Considered one of the most refined rowboats for harbour and lake use, dories are sharp-ended boats traditionally made of wood but now also produced in fibreglass or aluminium. They cut the water well, but their stability is low, making them feel tippy in flat water. A dory can be landed or launched through surf where a Whitehall may founder, prams are usually short with transoms at both bow and stern. Popular as tenders on sail boats with limited deck space, some inflatable boats have a rigid deck and transom which allows an engine to be used for propulsion. They row poorly and do not tow well because of their blunt bows and large wetted surface area, rigid safety dinghies are designed to row, motor, tow, and sail. In addition to their self-rescue lifeboat functionality, these serve as everyday tenders. They are extremely buoyant and/or unsinkable and have great carrying capacity relative to length, dinghy is also a term given to any small cars, trucks or suvs towed behind a motor home. On yachts shorter than 10 m, there is not enough room for a reasonably sized dinghy. A dinghy is useful to avoid the need for expensive dock or slip space, so owners of small yachts compromise by carrying a small rigid dinghy or deflated inflatable, space can be saved by storing items in containers or bags that are tied to the dinghy. Dinghies are sometimes used as lifeboats, recently self-rescue dinghies have come back into use as proactive lifeboats that can be sailed to safety, rigid dinghies for small yachts are very small, about 2 m, usually with a pram bow to get more beam in a shorter length. Larger dinghies are towed and should have reserve buoyancy, an automatic bailer, most masters prefer a tow cable long enough to put the dinghy on the back side of the swell to prevent the dinghy from ramming the transom of the yacht
20.
SCAMP (boat)
–
The SCAMP is a wooden or fiberglass hulled Balanced Lug rigged sailing dinghy. The boat is 11 ft 11 in long, and capable of accommodating four persons on a daysail or one to two for overnighting or extended cruising. Craig Wagner and Josh Colvin, editors of Small Craft Advisor Magazine, teamed up with noted New Zealand boat designer, John Welsford, Welsford considers it possibly the best boat hes designed, based on suitability for purpose. Some early plans details received subsequent revisions by Kees Prins and the Northwest Maritime Center, while no particular feature of the boat is unprecedented, the combination of design elements has produced a new genre of sailboat. In the course of publishing Small Craft Advisor, Craig and Josh had sailed more than 70 small boats all the while compiling an informal list of favorite features, the emphasis was on minimalism, efficiency and ease of use. In January 2010 they contacted John Welsford and started the design process, building commenced at the Northwest Maritime Center in July 2010. On 11/11/2011 SCAMP #1 was formally launched and test sailed on Port Townsend Bay in Puget Sound, subsequent SCAMP sea trials and capsize testing was performed by Howard Rice. Builders plans were released for sale first, followed by CNC-cut kits, gig Harbor Boat Works completed the first fiberglass production SCAMP in July 2013 and is currently the only manufacturer of fiberglass SCAMPs. Pram bow - allows for a beam for any given length. Dont have to pull the forward plank ends in together, more volume and therefore buoyancy forward. Stowage Cabin - The cuddy on SCAMP serves many purposes, the overhanging cabin top acts like a dodger and is large enough for an adult to sit athwartships out of the weather. Additionally, items in forward lockers can be accessed without water getting into storage area, stowage cabin also houses a mast box that supports more of the mast than is possible with open boats. This in turn allows for an unstayed mast, when tacking it catches the wind and helps the sail pivot across. When gybing it reduces the amount of force when the boom comes across, the off set-centerboard is in a case that is on the starboard side of the cockpit under the seat. This provides for a cockpit and a place to sleep when at anchor. The centerboard and the rudder are based on NACA airfoil shapes to provide lift when moving through the water, skegs - Two skegs are mounted on the bottom. These provide a base to support the boat above the bottom when grounding or beaching for protection. Buoyancy - A stock SCAMP has five separate watertight buoyancy areas, forward under the cuddy, below the floor of the cuddy, the aft area under the cockpit, and each seat
21.
Pocket cruiser
–
A pocket cruiser, microcruiser, trailer sailer or pocket yacht is a small lightweight sailboat with a cabin, designed for recreational cruising. Pocket cruisers can be loaded on a trailer and towed by most passenger automobiles. Both commercially made and designs for home built pocket cruisers are available, in spite of its name, this type of vessel is completely unrelated to the pocket battleship. Each year in Lake Havasu City, AZ there is a gathering of Pocket Cruisers for a week-long convention. The Havasu Pocket Cruiser Convention takes place each February and includes sailing, racing, seminars, trade show, in 2012 nearly 200 pocket cruisers from 26 US States and three Canadian Provinces gathered in there to celebrate the art of sailing Pocket Cruisers. Pocket cruisers range in length from 10 to about 26 feet, with some variation, most are in the range of 15 to 20 feet long, with a beam around 6 feet. Commercial models generally have either a short, ballasted shoal draft keel or a weighted centerboard, while home-built designs often use water ballast, the short length and low weight of most pocket cruisers allow them to be trailered easily. Many people have sailed pocket cruisers long distances across open ocean, there has been at least one circumnavigation of the globe by a pocket cruiser. The cabin also makes it possible to keep the pocket cruiser out for extended periods of time, the ability to sleep aboard makes weekend outings popular. Pocket cruisers are popular for a number of reasons, They are inexpensive, popular designs such as the Montgomery 15 or West Wight Potter 15 sell new, with trailer, for around US$10,000 or less. They are easy to build out of easily obtained materials such as plywood, using stitch, when working on smaller boats the inevitable tinkering away on various modification projects is often cheaper and more quickly gratifying. They are small enough to sail single handed, yet the wide beam gives them the capacity to more people. They usually weigh less than 2000 pounds and this is light enough to be towed behind most cars. They are suitable for overnight trips, the wide beam and common use of ballast makes them very stable. The small size means they can be stored out of the water, many of the small cruisers have active chat groups on the Web where tips, ideas, and sailing stories are freely shared. Pocket cruisers are, in general, not fast boats, the short waterline, because of this, designers are willing to sacrifice additional performance for ease of use. Traditional rigs, like gaff rigs, are not uncommon, compared to the universal high aspect Bermuda rigs found on other modern sailboats. The lower aspect rigs lose some windward abilities, but make up for it in superior downwind performance, still, it is not a performance craft, as evidenced by the fact that it has the lowest Portsmouth handicap of any production centerboard boat listed
