1.
Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut
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The Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, also known as the Djeser-Djeseru, is an ancient funerary shrine in Upper Egypt. Dedicated to the Pharaoh Hatshepsut, it is located beneath the cliffs at Deir el Bahari, the mortuary temple is dedicated to the sun god Amun and is situated next to the mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II, which served both as an inspiration, and later, a quarry. It is considered one of the monuments of ancient Egypt. The Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw is responsible for the study, as of early 1995, the first two levels were almost complete, and the top level was still under reconstruction. Hatshepsuts chancellor, royal architect Senenmut oversaw the construction of the temple, although the adjacent, earlier mortuary temple of Mentuhotep was used as a model, the two structures are nevertheless significantly different in many ways. There are three layered terraces reaching 97 feet tall, each story is articulated by a double colonnade of square piers, with the exception of the northwest corner of the central terrace, which employs Proto Doric columns to house the chapel. These terraces are connected by ramps which were once surrounded by gardens with foreign plants including frankincense. The layering of Hatshepsuts temple corresponds with the classical Theban form, employing pylons, courts, hypostyle hall, sun court, chapel, the relief sculpture within Hatshepsut’s temple recites the tale of the divine birth of a female pharaoh – the first of its kind. The text and pictorial cycle also tell of an expedition to the Land of Punt, many of these portraits were destroyed at the order of her stepson Thutmose III after her death. The main and axis of the temple is set to an azimuth of about 116½° and is aligned to the solstice sunrise. The sunlight penetrates through to the wall of the chapel. Additionally, because of the angle of the sun, around 41 days on either side of the solstice. Hatshepsut’s temple is considered the closest Egypt came to Classical architecture, representative of New Kingdom funerary architecture, it both aggrandizes the pharaoh and includes sanctuaries to honor the gods relevant to her afterlife. The linear axiality of Hatshepsut’s temple is mirrored in the later New Kingdom temples, the architecture of the original temple has been considerably altered as a result of misguided reconstruction in the early twentieth century AD. Luxor massacre Kleiner, Fred S. Gardners Art Through the Ages, thebes in Egypt, A Guide to the Tombs and Temples of Ancient Luxor. The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt
2.
Deir el-Bahari
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Deir el-Bahari or Dayr al-Bahri is a complex of mortuary temples and tombs located on the west bank of the Nile, opposite the city of Luxor, Egypt. This is a part of the Theban Necropolis, the first monument built at the site was the mortuary temple of Mentuhotep II of the Eleventh dynasty. It was constructed during the 15th century BC, during the Eighteenth dynasty, Amenhotep I and Hatshepsut also built extensively at the site. Mentuhotep II, Eleventh Dynasty king who reunited Egypt at the beginning of the Middle Kingdom and his mortuary temple was built on several levels in the great bay at Deir el-Bahari. It was approached by a 16-metre-wide causeway leading from a temple which no longer exists. As the temple faces east, the structure is likely to be connected with the sun cult of Rê and the resurrection of the king. From the eastern part of the forecourt, a called the Bab el-Hosan leads to an underground passage. On the western side, tamarisk and sycamore trees were planted beside the ramp leading up to the terrace, at the back of the forecourt and terrace are colonnades decorated in relief with boat processions, hunts, and scenes showing the kings military achievements. Statues of the Twelfth Dynasty king Senusret III were found here too, the inner part of the temple was actually cut into the cliff and consists of a peristyle court, a hypostyle hall and an underground passage leading into the tomb itself. The cult of the dead king centred on the small shrine cut into the rear of the Hypostyle Hall, the mastaba-like structure on the terrace is surrounded by a pillared ambulatory along the west wall, where the statue shrines and tombs of several royal wives and daughters were found. These royal princesses were the priestesses of Hathor, one of the main ancient Egyptian funerary deities, although little remained of the kings own burial, six sarcophagi were retrieved from the tombs of the royal ladies. Each was formed of six slabs, held together at the corners by metal braces, the sarcophagus of Queen Kawit, now in the Cairo Museum, is particularly fine. The burial shaft and subsequent tunnel descend for 150 meters and end in a burial chamber 45 meters below the court, the chamber held a shrine, which once held the wooden coffin of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep. A great tree-lined court was reached by means of the processional causeway, beneath the court, a deep shaft was cut which led to unfinished rooms believed to have been intended originally as the king’s tomb. A wrapped image of the pharaoh was discovered in area by Howard Carter. The temple complex also held six mortuary chapels and shaft tombs built for the pharaohs wives, the focal point of the Deir el-Bahari complex is the Djeser-Djeseru meaning the Holy of Holies, the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut. It is a structure, which was designed and implemented by Senenmut, royal steward and architect of Hatshepsut, to serve for her posthumous worship. Djeser-Djeseru sits atop a series of colonnaded terraces, reached by ramps that once were graced with gardens
3.
Egypt
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Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia by a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt is a Mediterranean country bordered by the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Red Sea to the east and south, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. Across the Gulf of Aqaba lies Jordan, and across from the Sinai Peninsula lies Saudi Arabia, although Jordan and it is the worlds only contiguous Afrasian nation. Egypt has among the longest histories of any country, emerging as one of the worlds first nation states in the tenth millennium BC. Considered a cradle of civilisation, Ancient Egypt experienced some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. One of the earliest centres of Christianity, Egypt was Islamised in the century and remains a predominantly Muslim country. With over 92 million inhabitants, Egypt is the most populous country in North Africa and the Arab world, the third-most populous in Africa, and the fifteenth-most populous in the world. The great majority of its people live near the banks of the Nile River, an area of about 40,000 square kilometres, the large regions of the Sahara desert, which constitute most of Egypts territory, are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypts residents live in areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria. Modern Egypt is considered to be a regional and middle power, with significant cultural, political, and military influence in North Africa, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Egypts economy is one of the largest and most diversified in the Middle East, Egypt is a member of the United Nations, Non-Aligned Movement, Arab League, African Union, and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Miṣr is the Classical Quranic Arabic and modern name of Egypt. The name is of Semitic origin, directly cognate with other Semitic words for Egypt such as the Hebrew מִצְרַיִם, the oldest attestation of this name for Egypt is the Akkadian
4.
Mass murder
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Mass murder is the act of murdering a number of people, typically simultaneously or over a relatively short period of time and in close geographic proximity. The FBI defines mass murder as murdering four or more persons during an event with no cooling-off period between the murders, a mass murder typically occurs in a single location where one or more people kill several others. Many acts of mass murder end with the perpetrator dying by suicide or suicide by cop, a mass murder may be committed by individuals or organizations whereas a spree killing is committed by one or two individuals. Mass murder is the hypernym of genocide, which requires additional criteria, some of these mass murders have been found to be genocides and others to be crimes against humanity, but often such crimes have led to few or no convictions of any type. The concept of state-sponsored mass murder covers a range of potential killings and it is defined as the intentional and indiscriminate murder of a large number of people by government agents. Examples are shooting of unarmed protesters, lobbing of grenades into prison cells, actions in which the state caused the death of large numbers of people, which political scientist R. J. Many terrorist groups in recent times have used the tactic of killing many victims to fulfill their political aims, certain cults, especially religious cults, have committed a number of mass killings and mass murder-suicides. Mass murderers may fall into any of a number of categories, including killers of family, of coworkers, of students, a notable motivation for mass murder is revenge, but other motivations are possible, including the need for attention or fame. Average response time by law enforcement to a shooting is typically much longer than the time the shooter is engaged in killing. In many instances, immediate action by victims, bystanders, or law enforcement officers has saved lives, commentators have pointed out that there are a wide variety of ways that homicides with more than several victims might be classified. Such incidents can be, and have been even in recent decades, classified many different ways including as a shooting, as a school shooting, as mass murder. As a crime involving a rifle, as a case of a mentally ill person committing acts of violence. How such rarely occurring incidents of homicide are classified tends to change significantly with time and it was understood that the key feature of cases was a high body count. Place, Did the killings occur in a location, or in a variety of places. Method, How were the victims killed, in the late decades of the 20th century and early years of the 2000s, the most popular classifications moved to include method, time and place. Crimes against humanity List of mass murderers List of rampage killers Mass grave Massacre School shooting Suicide attack Terrorism War crime What makes a Mass Killer. Mass Murder, A Small Persons Way to Immortality Mass shootings interactive map Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence The real causes of mass murder by James Alan Fox
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Massacre
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A massacre is a specific incident which involves the killing of people, although not necessarily a crime against humanity. Further origins are dubious, though may be related to Latin macellum provisions store, robert Melsons basic working definition, reads, by massacre we shall mean the intentional killing by political actors of a significant number of relatively defenseless people. The motives for massacre need not be rational in order for the killings to be intentional, Mass killings can be carried out for various reasons, including a response to false rumors. Should be distinguished from criminal or pathological mass killings, as political bodies we of course include the state and its agencies, but also nonstate actors. Equally important is that massacres are not carried out by individuals, the use of superior, even overwhelming force. Levene excludes legal, or even some quasi-legal, mass executions and he also points out that it is. most often. When the act is outside the normal bounds of the society witnessing it. List of events named massacres Disaster Ethnic cleansing Genocide Killing spree Mass murder Pogrom Tragedy Tragedy War crime
6.
Automatic firearm
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An automatic firearm continuously fires rounds as long as the trigger is pressed or held and there is ammunition in the magazine/chamber. In contrast, a semi-automatic firearm fires one round with each individual trigger-pull, use of this convention can avoid confusion. Firearms are further defined by the type of action used. Self-loading firearms are designed with varying rates of fire due to having different purposes, the speed with which a self-loading firearm can cycle through the functions of, Fire Eject Load Cock is called the cyclic rate. In fully automatic firearms the cyclic rate is tailored to the purpose that the gun is made to serve, anti-aircraft machine guns often have extremely high rates of fire to maximize the probably of a hit. In infantry support weapons these rates of fire are often much lower, the MG34 is a WWII era machinegun which today would be referred to as a General Purpose Machinegun. It came in variations with a cyclic rate as high as 1200 rounds per minute. Firing any firearm generates a high temperature in the firearms barrel. If fired too fast, the components of the firearm will suffer a structural failure and this means that all firearms, regardless of whether they are semi-automatic, fully automatic, or burst mode in their firing methods, will overheat and fail if fired too often. This is especially a problem with fully automatic fire, in actual use, a gun might be able to fire at 1200 rounds per minute, but in one minute it may also overheat and fail. So guns used in a firing mode must not be fired too often. The MG34 is fired manually in bursts of 5 to 7 rounds and it can fire at an effective rate of 150 rounds per minute. Semi-automatic firearms will also overheat if not allowed to cool, a semi-automatic rifle typically has an effective firing rate of 40 rounds per minute. A large part of the reason that this is so low, is that the recoil of firing a round pushes the guns aim off target, the time it takes to reacquire the target slows the effective firing rate. The Army Study Guide lists the rate of fire for an M4 Assault Rifle at 12 to 15 rounds per minute. Automatic firearms can be divided into six categories, Assault rifle The standard type of service rifles in most modern armies. Battle rifle A heavier-caliber type of rifle that some classify as an assault rifle while others see them as a class of their own. Automatic shotgun A type of combat shotgun that is capable of firing shotgun shells automatically, usually also semi-automatically, machine gun A large group of heavier firearms used for automatic fire of rifle ammunition, usually attached to a mount or supported by a bipod
7.
Al-Jama'a al-Islamiyya
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Al-jamāʻah al-islāmīyah is an Egyptian Sunni Islamist movement, and is considered a terrorist organization by the United States, the United Kingdom and European Union. The group was dedicated to the overthrow of the Egyptian government and replacing it with an Islamic state, during the fighting al-Gamaa al-Islamiyya was given support by the governments of Iran and Sudan, as well as from al-Qaeda. The Egyptian government received support during that time from the United States, the group is said to have constituted the Islamist movements only genuine mass organizations in Egypt. The now imprisoned cleric Omar Abdel-Rahman was a leader of the movement. In its early days, the group was active on university campuses. Originally they were a minority in the Egyptian student movement which was dominated by leftist Nasserists and Marxists. The leftists were strongly critical of the new Sadat government, and urged Egypt to fight a war of revenge against Israel, while President Sadat wanted to wait and rebuild the military. However, with some discrete, tactical collaboration with the government, who sought a counterweight to its leftist opponents. The Gamaat spread quite rapidly on campuses and won up to one-third of all student union elections and these victories provided a platform from which the associations campaigned for Islamic dress, the veiling of women, and the segregation of classes by gender. Secular university administrators opposed these goals, by March 1976 they were dominant force in the student movement and by 1977 they were in complete control of the universities and had driven the left organizations underground. By 1979 they began to be harassed by the government but their numbers grew steadily, in 1979 Sadat sought to diminish the influence of the associations through a law that transferred most of the authority of the student unions to professors and administrators. During the 1980s, however, Islamists gradually penetrated college faculties, in other universities Gamaat also forbade the mixing of genders, films, concerts, and dances, and enforced their bans with clubs and iron bars. From the universities the groups reached out to new recruits, preaching in poor neighbourhoods of cities. And after a crackdown against them, inmates of Egyptian jails, in April 1981 the group became involved in what was probably started as a clan feud/vendetta about livestock or property lines between Coptic and Muslim Egyptians in the vicinity of Minya, Egypt. The group believed in the position of tributary or dhimmi for Christians in Egypt and opposed any signs of Coptic arrogance, such as Christian cultural identity, in June 1981, a brutal sectarian Muslim-Copt fight broke out in the poor al-Zawaiyya Al Hamra district of Cairo. Over three days of fighting,17 people were killed,112 injured, and 171 public, men and women were slaughtered, babies thrown from windows, their bodies crushed on the pavement below, there was looting, killing and arson. One of Farajs groups was responsible for the assassination of President Anwar Sadat, following the assassination, Karam Zuhdi expressed regret for conspiring with Egyptian Islamic Jihad in the assassination, according to the Council on Foreign Relations. Zuhdi was among the 900 militants who were set free in April 2006 by the Egyptian government, the cleric Omar Abdel-Rahman is the spiritual leader of the movement
8.
Terrorism in Egypt
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Targets of terrorism in Egypt have included government officials, police, tourists and the Christian minority. Ayman Al-Zawahiri, an Egyptian doctor and leader of Egyptian Islamic Jihad group, is believed to be behind the operations of al Qaeda, four out of 30 people on the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation most wanted terrorist list are Egyptian. The Brotherhood were a large and active organization at that time. In 1948 the group is thought to have assassinated appellate judge Ahmad Khazendar in retaliation for his passing a sentence against another member of the Brotherhood. After the 1948 victory of the Jewish state of Israel over Muslim Arab armies the group is believed to have set fire to homes of Jews in Cairo in June 1948 in retaliation, in July two large department stores in Cairo owned by Jews were also burned. A couple of months later police captured documents and plans of the secret apparatus,32 of its leaders were arrested and its offices were raided. and shortly thereafter Prime Minister Mahmud Fami Naqrashi ordered the dissolution of the Brotherhood. On 28 December 1948, Prime Minister Mahmoud an-Nukrashi Pasha was shot and assassinated by Abdel Meguid Ahmed Hassan, the country was shocked and traditionalist clergy condemned the act. The Grand Mufti, Imam of Azhar mosque and the Council of Ulema all condemned the perpetrators as kuffar, less than two months later the head of the Brethren was himself victim of an assassination, the perpetrators thought to be supporters of the murdered premier. In the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s, terrorist attacks in Egypt became more numerous and severe and this trend surprised some foreigners who thought of Egypt as a country that embraced foreigners with suffocating affection and preferred a tolerant brand of Islam. Some scholars and authors have credited Islamist writer Sayyid Qutb as the inspiration for the new wave of attacks and his book has been called one of the most influential works in Arabic of the last half century. It became a best seller, went through many editions and strongly influenced Islamists in prison in Egypt, on 18 April 1974,100 members of the Islamic Liberation Organization stormed the armory of the Military Technical College in Cairo, seizing weapons and vehicles. 11 were killed and 27 wounded in the attempt as security forces were able to intercept conspirators before they left the academy,95 ILO members are arrested and tried. On 3 July 1977, a known to the public as Takfir wal-Hijra. The group was led by a self-taught Islamic preacher Shukri Mustafa, instead of complying, the press began publicized a long list of offenses and crimes attributed to the group. Four days after the kidnapping, al-Dhahabis body was found, the murder provokes indignation among the Egyptian public and extensive police raids led to the arrests of 410 of the groups members - i. e. most of its membership. Salvation from Hell sought to establish an Islamic state using force, the Egyptian government broke off ties with Iran following allegations that Iran funded the group. Yasser Al Borhamy was detained for a month in 1987 due to his connection with the assassination attempt against interior minister Hassan Abu Basha. The group was responsible for an assassination attempt on former interior minister Nabawi Ismail
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