Taxonomy (biology)
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Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas o
Animal
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Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia. The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the group to the choanoflagellates. Animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives and their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs, they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance, most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates, vertebrates have a backbone or spine, and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, the remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs, arthropods, annelids, nematodes, flatworm
Arthropod
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An arthropod is an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton, a segmented body, and jointed appendages. Arthropods form the phylum Arthropoda, which includes the insects, arachnids, myriapods, arthropods are characterized by their jointed limbs and cuticle made of chitin, often mineralised with calcium carbonate. The arthropod body plan consists of segments, each with a pair of appendages, the rigid cuticle inhibits growth, so arthropods replace it periodically by moulting. Their versatility has enabled them to become the most species-rich members of all guilds in most environments. They have over a million described species, making up more than 80% of all described living species, some of which. Arthropods range in size from the microscopic crustacean Stygotantulus up to the Japanese spider crab, arthropods primary internal cavity is a hemocoel, which accommodates their internal organs, and through which their haemolymph – analogue of blood – circulates, they have open circulatory sys
3.
Cicada climbing out of its exoskeleton while attached to tree
4.
Head of a
wasp with three ocelli (centre), and
compound eyes at the left and right
Arachnid
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Arachnids are a class of joint-legged invertebrate animals, in the subphylum Chelicerata. The term is derived from the Greek word ἀράχνη, meaning spider, spiders are the largest order in the class. Almost all extant arachnids are terrestrial, living mainly on land, however, some inhabit freshwater environments and, with the exception of the pelagic zone, marine environments as well. They comprise over 100,000 named species, including spiders, scorpions, harvestmen, ticks, mites, almost all adult arachnids have eight legs, and arachnids may be easily distinguished from insects by this fact, since insects have six legs. However, arachnids also have two pairs of appendages that have become adapted for feeding, defense, and sensory perception. The first pair, the chelicerae, serve in feeding and defense, the next pair of appendages, the pedipalps, have been adapted for feeding, locomotion, and/or reproductive functions. In Solifugae, the palps are quite leg-like, so that animals appear to
Wolf spider
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Wolf spiders are members of the family Lycosidae, from the Ancient Greek word λύκος meaning wolf. They are robust and agile hunters with excellent eyesight and they live mostly in solitude and hunt alone, and do not spin webs. Some are opportunistic hunters pouncing upon prey as they find it or even chasing it over short distances, some will wait for passing prey in or near the mouth of a burrow. Wolf spiders can live up to 11 years if given the correct habitat, Wolf spiders resemble nursery web spiders, but wolf spiders carry their egg sacs by attaching them to their spinnerets. Two of the spiders eight eyes are large and prominent. This can also help them from grass spiders. There are many genera of wolf spider, ranging in size from less than 0.4 to 1.38 inches. They have eight eyes arranged in three rows, the bottom row consists of four small eyes, the middle row has two very large eyes, and the top row has two medium-sized eyes. They depend on their excellent eyesight to hunt and t
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Wolf spiders
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Eye configuration of a Hogna species
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Eyeshine in LED lamp light
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Wolf spider carrying her young
Lycosa
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Lycosa is a genus of wolf spiders. The genus is distributed throughout most of the world, often called the true tarantula, Lycosa can be distinguished from common wolf spiders by their relatively large size. There is no substantiation of that myth, the venom of Lycosa spiders is generally not harmful. As of 2013 there are 223 described species in this genus, the world spider catalog, version 8.5
Binomial nomenclature
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Such a name is called a binomial name, a binomen, binominal name or a scientific name, more informally it is also called a Latin name. The first part of the name identifies the genus to which the species belongs, for example, humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. The formal introduction of system of naming species is credited to Carl Linnaeus. But Gaspard Bauhin, in as early as 1623, had introduced in his book Pinax theatri botanici many names of genera that were adopted by Linnaeus. Although the general principles underlying binomial nomenclature are common to these two codes, there are differences, both in the terminology they use and in their precise rules. Similarly, both parts are italicized when a binomial name occurs in normal text, thus the binomial name of the annual phlox is now written as Phlox drummondii. In scientific works, the authority for a name is usually given, at least when it is first mentioned. In zoology Patella vulgat
1.
Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), a Swedish botanist, invented the modern system of binomial nomenclature.
Carl Linnaeus
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Carl Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné, was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who formalised the modern system of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature. He is known by the father of modern taxonomy. Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus, Linnaeus was born in the countryside of Småland, in southern Sweden. He received most of his education at Uppsala University. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published a first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands and he then returned to Sweden, where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, at the time of his death, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the messag
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Birthplace of Linnæus at
Råshult
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Statue of Linnaeus as a University student in
Lund
10th edition of Systema Naturae
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The 10th edition of Systema Naturae is a book written by Carl Linnaeus and published in two volumes in 1758 and 1759, which marks the starting point of zoological nomenclature. In it, Linnaeus introduced binomial nomenclature for animals, something he had already done for plants in his 1753 publication of Species Plantarum, before 1758, most biological catalogues had used polynomial names for the taxa included, including earlier editions of Systema Naturae. The first work to consistently apply binomial nomenclature across the kingdom was the 10th edition of Systema Naturae. Names published before that date are unavailable, even if they would otherwise satisfy the rules, during Linnaeus lifetime, Systema Naturae was under continuous revision. The Animal Kingdom, Animals enjoy sensation by means of an organization, animated by a medullary substance, perception by nerves. They have members for the different purposes of life, organs for their different senses and they all originate from an
1.
Title page of the 10th edition of Systema Naturae
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The
snowy owl was included in the 10th edition as Strix scandiaca.
Synonym (taxonomy)
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For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name to the Norway spruce, which he called Pinus abies. This name is no longer in use, it is now a synonym of the current scientific name which is Picea abies, unlike synonyms in other contexts, in taxonomy a synonym is not interchangeable with the name of which it is a synonym. In taxonomy, synonyms are not equals, but have a different status, for any taxon with a particular circumscription, position, and rank, only one scientific name is considered to be the correct one at any given time. A synonym cannot exist in isolation, it is always an alternative to a different scientific name, given that the correct name of a taxon depends on the taxonomic viewpoint used a name that is one taxonomists synonym may be another taxonomists correct name. Synonyms may arise whenever the same taxon is described and named more than once, independently. They may also arise when existing taxa are changed, as when two taxa are joined to one, a spec
1.
The
Latin Caudata and
Greek Urodela both mean "tailed" and have been used as a scientific name at the rank of order for the
salamanders (as opposed to the tail-less
frogs). Thus they are synonyms.
2.
The common dandelion
Taraxacum officinale sensu lato is an extremely widespread group of
apomictic lineages, and some scientists apply the "biological species concept" to divide it into many distinct species; other scientists regard all the names for those independent species as synonyms.
Tarantula
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Tarantulas comprise a group of large and often hairy arachnids belonging to the Theraphosidae family of spiders, of which approximately 900 species have been identified. This article only describes members of Theraphosidae, although other members of the same suborder are commonly referred to as tarantulas. Except in cases of no species of tarantula are dangerous to humans. Like all arthropods, the tarantula is an invertebrate that relies on an exoskeleton for muscular support, like other Arachnida a tarantula’s body comprises two main parts, the prosoma and the opisthosoma. The prosoma and opisthosoma are connected by the pedicel, or pregenital somite and this waist-like connecting piece is actually part of the prosoma and allows the opisthosoma to move in a wide range of motion relative to the prosoma. Tarantulas sizes range from as small as a fingernail to as large as a plate when the legs are fully extended. Depending on the species, the length of tarantulas ranges from 2.5 to 10 ce
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Tarantula
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A tarantula next to a US size 11 shoe, to show scale
Apulia
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Apulia is a region of Italy in Southern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east, the Ionian Sea to the southeast, and the Strait of Òtranto and Gulf of Taranto in the south. Its southernmost portion, known as the Salento peninsula, forms a stiletto on the boot of Italy, the region comprises 19,345 square kilometers, and its population is about 4 million. It is bordered by the other Italian regions of Molise to the north, Campania to the west, across the Adriatic and Ionian Seas, it faces Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Greece, and Montenegro, The Apulia region extends as far north as Monte Gargano. Puglias coastline is longer than any other mainland Italian region, in the north, the Gargano promontory extends out into the Adriatic, while in the south, the flat and dry Salento peninsula forms the heel of Italys boot. It is home to the Alta Murgia and Gargano National Parks, see also, History of Apulia Apulia is one of the richest archaeological regions in Italy. It was first
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci,
Taranto
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Taranto is a coastal city in Apulia, Southern Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Taranto and is an important commercial port as well as the main Italian naval base and it is the third-largest continental city of Southern Italy, according to 2011 population census, it has a population of 200,154. Taranto is an important commercial and military port and it has well-developed steel and iron foundries, oil refineries, chemical works, some shipyards for building warships, and food-processing factories. In ancient times around 500 BC the city was one of the largest in the world with population estimates up to 300,000 people, Tarantos pre-history dates back to 706 BC when it was founded as a Greek colony, established by the Spartans. The islets of S. Pietro and S. Paolo, collectively known as Cheradi Islands, protect the bay, called Mar Grande, another bay, called Mar Piccolo, is formed by the peninsula of the old city, and has flourishing fishing. Mar Piccolo is a port with strategi
1.
The Aragon Castle
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Coat of arms
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Taranto naval base for the Italian Regia Marina's First Squadron. (Photo from 1930s)
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Aerial view of Taranto
Tarantism
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Tarantism is a form of hysteric behaviour, popularly believed to result from the bite of the wolf spider Lycosa tarantula. However, the term historically is used to refer to a dancing mania - characteristic of Southern Italy - which likely had little to do with spider bites, the tarantella dance supposedly evolved from this therapy. It was originally described in the 11th century, the condition was common in southern Italy during the 16th and 17th centuries. There were strong suggestions that there is no cause for the heightened excitability. The stated belief of the time was that victims needed to engage in frenzied dancing to prevent death from tarantism, supposedly a particular kind of dance, called the tarantella, evolved from this therapy. A prime location for such outbursts was the church at Galatina, particularly at the time of the Feast of Saints Peter, the dancing is placed under the sign of Saint Paul, whose chapel serves as a theater for the tarantulees public meetings. The
Jumping spider
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The jumping spider family contains over 600 described genera and more than 5800 described species, making it the largest family of spiders with about 13% of all species. Jumping spiders have some of the best vision among arthropods and use it in courtship, hunting, although they normally move unobtrusively and fairly slowly, most species are capable of very agile jumps, notably when hunting, but sometimes in response to sudden threats or crossing long gaps. Both their book lungs and tracheal system are well-developed, and they use both systems, Jumping spiders are generally recognized by their eye pattern. All jumping spiders have four pairs of eyes, with the median pair being particularly large. Jumping spiders are among the easiest to distinguish from similar spider families because of the shape of the cephalothorax, the families closest to Salticidae in general appearance are the Corinnidae, the Oxyopidae, and the Thomisidae. None of these however, has eyes that resemble those of th
1.
Jumping spiders
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Salticidae male anterior and dorsal aspects, showing positions of eyes
3.
Jumping spider's eight eyes
Lycosidae
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Wolf spiders are members of the family Lycosidae, from the Ancient Greek word λύκος meaning wolf. They are robust and agile hunters with excellent eyesight and they live mostly in solitude and hunt alone, and do not spin webs. Some are opportunistic hunters pouncing upon prey as they find it or even chasing it over short distances, some will wait for passing prey in or near the mouth of a burrow. Wolf spiders can live up to 11 years if given the correct habitat, Wolf spiders resemble nursery web spiders, but wolf spiders carry their egg sacs by attaching them to their spinnerets. Two of the spiders eight eyes are large and prominent. This can also help them from grass spiders. There are many genera of wolf spider, ranging in size from less than 0.4 to 1.38 inches. They have eight eyes arranged in three rows, the bottom row consists of four small eyes, the middle row has two very large eyes, and the top row has two medium-sized eyes. They depend on their excellent eyesight to hunt and t
1.
Wolf spiders
2.
Eye configuration of a Hogna species
3.
Eyeshine in LED lamp light
4.
Wolf spider carrying her young
Tarantella
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Tarantella is a group of various folk dances characterized by a fast upbeat tempo, usually in 68 time, accompanied by tambourines. It is among the most recognized forms of traditional southern Italian music, the specific dance-name varies with every region, for instance tammurriata in Campania, pizzica in the Salento region, Sonu a ballu in Calabria. Tarantella is popular in Southern Italy and Argentina and this became known as the Tarantella. R. Lowe Thompson proposed that the dance is a survival from a Dianic or Dionysiac cult, john Compton later proposed that the Roman Senate had suppressed these ancient Bacchanalian rites. In 186 BC the tarantella went underground, reappearing under the guise of emergency therapy for bite victims, the stately courtship tarantella danced by a couple or couples, short in duration, is graceful and elegant and features characteristic music. However, other forms of the dance were and still are couple dances usually either mimicking courtship or a sword
1.
Italian women dance the tarantella, 1846
Uloboridae
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Uloboridae is a family of non-venomous spiders, known as cribellate orb weavers or hackled orb weavers. Their lack of venom glands is an evolved trait. Instead, they wrap their prey thoroughly in silk, cover it in regurgitated digestive enzymes, all members of this family produce a feathery, fuzzy silk called cribellate silk. These spiders do not use an adhesive on their orb webs, Uloboridae webs often have a stabilimentum or zig-zag pattern through the center. This family has an almost worldwide distribution, there are only two species known from northern Europe, Uloborus walckenaerius and Hyptiotes paradoxus. Similarly occurring solely in northern North America is Uloborus glomosus, ariston O. P-Cambridge,1896 Astavakra Lehtinen,1967 Conifaber Opell,1982 Daramulunia Lehtinen,1967 Hyptiotes Walckenaer,1837 Lubinella Opell,1984 Miagrammopes O. P. Opell. Lubinella, a new genus of Uloboridae, data related to Uloboridae at Wikispecies Media related to Uloboridae at Wikimedia Commons World
Jean-Henri Fabre
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Jean-Henri Casimir Fabre was a French naturalist, entomologist, and author known for the lively style of his popular books on the lives of insects. Fabre was born on December 22,1823 in Saint-Léons in Aveyron, Fabre was largely an autodidact, owing to the poverty of his family. Nevertheless, he acquired a teaching certificate at the young age of 19. In 1849 he was appointed to a teaching post in Ajaccio, Fabre was a popular teacher, physicist, chemist and botanist. However, he is probably best known for his findings in the field of entomology, the study of insects, in doing so he combined what he called my passion for scientific truth with keen observations and an engaging, colloquial style of writing. Fabre wrote, Others again have reproached me with my style, which has not the solemnity, nay, better and they fear lest a page that is read without fatigue should not always be the expression of the truth. Were I to take their word for it, we are only on condition of being obscure. His S
1.
Jean-Henri Fabre
2.
Jean Henri Fabre by
Nadar
3.
Fabre circa 1913
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial
1.
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
Wikispecies
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Wikispecies is a wiki-based online project supported by the Wikimedia Foundation. Its aim is to create a free content catalogue of all species. Jimmy Wales stated that editors are not required to fax in their degrees, Wikispecies is available under the GNU Free Documentation License and CC BY-SA3.0. Benedikt Mandl co-ordinated the efforts of people who are interested in getting involved with the project. Databases were evaluated and the administrators contacted, some of them have agreed on providing their data for Wikispecies, the board of directors of the Wikimedia Foundation voted by 4 to 0 in favor of the establishment of a Wikispecies. The project was launched in August 2004 and is hosted at species. wikimedia. org and it was officially merged to a sister project of Wikimedia Foundation on September 14,2004. On October 10,2006, the project exceeded 75,000 articles, on May 20,2007, the project exceeded 100,000 articles with a total of 5,495 registered users. On September 8,2008, the
1.
Screenshot of species.wikimedia.org home page on 3 May 2011
Encyclopedia of Life
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The Encyclopedia of Life is a free, online collaborative encyclopedia intended to document all of the 1.9 million living species known to science. It is compiled from existing databases and from contributions by experts and non-experts throughout the world and it aims to build one infinitely expandable page for each species, including video, sound, images, graphics, as well as text. In addition, the Encyclopedia incorporates content from the Biodiversity Heritage Library, the project was initially backed by a US$50 million funding commitment, led by the MacArthur Foundation and the Sloan Foundation, who provided US$20 million and US$5 million, respectively. The project was led by Jim Edwards and the development team by David Patterson. Today, participating institutions and individual donors continue to support EOL through financial contributions, EOL went live on 26 February 2008 with 30,000 entries. The site immediately proved to be popular, and temporarily had to revert to demonstrat
1.
Encyclopedia of Life
2.
EOL Home Page
