1.
Leaching (chemistry)
–
Leaching is the process of extracting substances from a solid by dissolving them in a liquid, either in nature or through an industrial process. In the chemical processing industry, leaching has a variety of applications, including separation of metal from ore using acid. Another term for this is lixiviation, or the extraction of a particle from its constituent parts. In a typical leaching operation, the mixture to be separated consists of particles, inert insoluble carrier A. The solvent, C, is added to the mixture to selectively dissolve B, the overflow from the stage is free of solids and consists of only solvent C and dissolved B. The underflow consists of slurry of liquid of similar composition in the liquid overflow, in an ideal leaching equilibrium stage, all the solute is dissolved by the solvent, none of the carrier is dissolved. The mass ratio of the solid to liquid in the underflow is dependent on the type of equipment used, the process itself is universal, as any material exposed to contact with water will leach components from its surface or its interior depending on the porosity of the material considered. One such reaction is, Ag2S + 4NaCN → 2Na + Na2S Many biological organic and inorganic substances occur in a mixture of different components in a solid. In order to separate the desired solute constituent or remove an undesirable solute component from the solid phase, the solid and liquid are in contact and the solute or solutes can diffuse from the solid into the solvent, resulting in separation of the components originally in the solid. This separation process is called liquid-solid leaching or simply leaching, because in leaching the solute is being extracted from the solid this is also called extraction. In leaching, when a component is removed from a solid with water. In the biological and food processing industries, many products are separated from their original structure by liquid-solid leaching. An important process for example is the leaching of sugar from sugar beets with hot water, in the production of vegetable oils, organic solvents such as hexane, acetone, and/or ether are used to extract oil from nuts, beans and seeds. In the pharmaceutical industry, many different pharmaceutical products are obtained by leaching plant roots, leaves, leaching is extensively used in metal processing industries. The useful metal may occur in mixtures with very large amounts of undesirable constituents, the use of acids is prevalent in the metal processing industry. Sulfates are normally used to remove metals from the solid phase and these processes result in harmful sulfate-rich environmental byproducts. Because acids solubilize metals, large-scale release of heavy-metal-rich acidic mine drainage can thereby occur, as mentioned above when leaching a solid with a liquid the desired solid goes to the liquid phase while undesired solid remains. The removal of the solid as the liquid dissolves into the particle leads to a diameter of unleached core that shrinks with time
Leaching (chemistry)
–
Processes
2.
Potassium carbonate
–
Potassium carbonate is a white salt, soluble in water which forms a strongly alkaline solution. It can be made as the product of potassium hydroxides absorbent reaction with carbon dioxide and it is deliquescent, often appearing a damp or wet solid. Potassium carbonate is used in the production of soap and glass, Potassium carbonate is the primary component of potash and the more refined pearl ash or salts of tartar. Historically, pearl ash was created by baking potash in a kiln to remove impurities, the fine, white powder remaining was the pearl ash. The first patent issued by the US Patent Office was awarded to Samuel Hopkins in 1790 for a method of making potash. In late 18th century North America, before the development of baking powder, today, potassium carbonate is prepared commercially by the electrolysis of potassium chloride. The resulting potassium hydroxide is then carbonated using carbon dioxide to form potassium carbonate, 2KOH + CO2 → K2CO3 + H2O for soap, glass, and china production as a mild drying agent where other drying agents, such as calcium chloride and magnesium sulfate, may be incompatible. It is not suitable for acidic compounds, but can be useful for drying an organic phase if one has an amount of acidic impurity. It may also be used to dry some ketones, alcohols, in cuisine, where it has many traditional uses. It is an ingredient in the production of grass jelly, a food consumed in Chinese and Southeast Asian cuisines, as well as Chinese noodles and it is used to tenderize tripe. German gingerbread recipes often use potassium carbonate as a baking agent and it is however important that the right quantities are used to prevent harm, and cooks should not use it without guidance. In the production of powder to balance the pH of natural cocoa beans. As a fire suppressant in extinguishing deep-fat fryers and various other B class-related fires, in condensed aerosol fire suppression, although as the byproduct of potassium nitrate. As an ingredient in welding fluxes, and in the coating on arc-welding rods. as an aid to stability in neurons helping to maintain equilibrium. As an animal feed ingredient to satisfy the requirements of farmed animals such as broiler breeders. A Dictionary of Science, Oxford University Press, New York,2004 International Chemical Safety Card 1588
Potassium carbonate
Potassium carbonate
3.
Water soluble
–
Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid, or gaseous solvent. The solubility of a substance depends on the physical and chemical properties of the solute and solvent as well as on temperature, pressure. The solubility of a substance is a different property from the rate of solution. Most often, the solvent is a liquid, which can be a substance or a mixture. One may also speak of solid solution, but rarely of solution in a gas, the extent of solubility ranges widely, from infinitely soluble such as ethanol in water, to poorly soluble, such as silver chloride in water. The term insoluble is often applied to poorly or very poorly soluble compounds, a common threshold to describe something as insoluble is less than 0.1 g per 100 mL of solvent. Under certain conditions, the solubility can be exceeded to give a so-called supersaturated solution. Metastability of crystals can also lead to apparent differences in the amount of a chemical that dissolves depending on its form or particle size. A supersaturated solution generally crystallises when seed crystals are introduced and rapid equilibration occurs, phenylsalicylate is one such simple observable substance when fully melted and then cooled below its fusion point. Solubility is not to be confused with the ability to dissolve a substance, for example, zinc dissolves in hydrochloric acid as a result of a chemical reaction releasing hydrogen gas in a displacement reaction. The zinc ions are soluble in the acid, the smaller a particle is, the faster it dissolves although there are many factors to add to this generalization. Crucially solubility applies to all areas of chemistry, geochemistry, inorganic, physical, organic, in all cases it will depend on the physical conditions and the enthalpy and entropy directly relating to the solvents and solutes concerned. By far the most common solvent in chemistry is water which is a solvent for most ionic compounds as well as a range of organic substances. This is a factor in acidity/alkalinity and much environmental and geochemical work. According to the IUPAC definition, solubility is the composition of a saturated solution expressed as a proportion of a designated solute in a designated solvent. Solubility may be stated in units of concentration such as molarity, molality, mole fraction, mole ratio, mass per volume. Solubility occurs under dynamic equilibrium, which means that solubility results from the simultaneous and opposing processes of dissolution, the solubility equilibrium occurs when the two processes proceed at a constant rate. The term solubility is used in some fields where the solute is altered by solvolysis
Water soluble
–
Diving medicine:
Water soluble
–
"Soluble" redirects here. For the algebraic object called a "soluble group", see
Solvable group.
4.
Corrosive
–
A corrosive substance is one that will destroy and damage other substances with which it comes into contact. It may attack a variety of materials, including metals and various organic compounds. The word corrosive is derived from the Latin verb corrodere, which means to gnaw, sometimes the word caustic is used as a synonym but caustic generally refers only to strong bases, particularly alkalis, and not to acids, oxidizers, or other non-alkaline corrosives. A low concentration of a substance is usually an irritant. Corrosion of non-living surfaces such as metals is a distinct process, for example, a water/air electrochemical cell corrodes iron to rust. In the Globally Harmonized System, both rapid corrosion of metals and chemical corrosion of skin qualify for the corrosive symbol. Corrosives are different from poisons in that corrosives are immediately dangerous to the tissues they contact, colloquially, corrosives may be called poisons but the concepts are technically distinct. However, there is nothing which precludes a corrosive from being a poison, common corrosives are either strong acids, strong bases, or concentrated solutions of certain weak acids or weak bases. They can exist as any state of matter, including liquids, solids, gases and their action on living tissue is mainly based on acid-base reactions of amide hydrolysis, ester hydrolysis and protein denaturation. Proteins are destroyed via amide hydrolysis while lipids are decomposed by ester hydrolysis and these reactions lead to chemical burns and are the mechanism of the destruction posed by corrosives. Some corrosives possess other properties which may extend their corrosive effects on living tissue. For example, sulfuric acid at a concentration is also a strong dehydrating agent, capable of dehydrating carbohydrates. This results in secondary thermal burns in addition to the chemical burns, some corrosives, such as nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid, are strong oxidizing agents as well, which significantly contributes to the extra damage caused. Hydrofluoric acid does not necessarily cause noticeable damage upon contact, but produces tissue damage, zinc chloride solutions are capable of destroying cellulose and corroding through paper and silk since the zinc cations in the solutions specifically attack hydroxyl groups, acting as a Lewis acid. In addition, some chemicals, mostly acids such as hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, are volatile. Inhalation can damage the respiratory tract, corrosive substances are most hazardous to eyesight. A drop of a corrosive may cause blindness within 2–10 seconds through opacification or direct destruction of the cornea, ingestion of corrosives can induce severe consequences, including serious damage of the gastrointestinal tract, which can lead to vomiting, severe stomach aches, and death. Common corrosive chemicals are classified into, Acids Strong acids – the most common are acid, nitric acid
Corrosive
–
The
international pictogram for corrosive chemicals.
5.
Potassium hydroxide
–
Potassium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the formula KOH, and is commonly called caustic potash. Along with sodium hydroxide, this solid is a prototypical strong base. It has many industrial and niche applications, most of which exploit its corrosive nature, an estimated 700,000 to 800,000 tonnes were produced in 2005. Approximately 100 times more NaOH than KOH is produced annually, KOH is noteworthy as the precursor to most soft and liquid soaps as well as numerous potassium-containing chemicals. Potassium hydroxide can be found in form by reacting sodium hydroxide with impure potassium. It is usually sold as translucent pellets, which will become tacky in air because KOH is hygroscopic, consequently, KOH typically contains varying amounts of water. Its dissolution in water is strongly exothermic, concentrated aqueous solutions are sometimes called potassium lyes. Even at high temperatures, solid KOH does not dehydrate readily, potassium hydroxide solutions with concentrations of approximately 0.5 to 2. 0% are irritating when coming into contact with the skin, while concentrations higher than 2% are corrosive. At higher temperatures, solid KOH crystallizes in the NaCl crystal structure, the OH group is either rapidly or randomly disordered so that the OH− group is effectively a spherical anion of radius 1.53 Å. At room temperature, the OH− groups are ordered and the environment about the K+ centers is distorted, with K+—OH− distances ranging from 2.69 to 3.15 Å, depending on the orientation of the OH group. KOH forms a series of crystalline hydrates, namely the monohydrate KOH·H 2O, the dihydrate KOH·2 H 2O, approximately 121 g of KOH will dissolve in 100 mL of water at room temperature compared with 100 g of NaOH in the same volume. Lower molecular weight alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, and propanols are also excellent solvents, because of its high affinity for water, KOH serves as a desiccant in the laboratory. It is often used to dry basic solvents, especially amines and pyridines, like NaOH, KOH exhibits high thermal stability. Because of its stability and relatively low melting point, it is often melt-cast as pellets or rods, forms that have low surface area. KOH is highly basic, forming strongly alkaline solutions in water and other polar solvents and these solutions are capable of deprotonating many acids, even weak ones. In analytical chemistry, titrations using solutions of KOH are used to assay acids, KOH, like NaOH, serves as a source of OH−, a highly nucleophilic anion that attacks polar bonds in both inorganic and organic materials. In perhaps its most well-known reaction, aqueous KOH saponifies esters, KOH + RCO2R → RCO2K + ROH When R is a long chain and this reaction is manifested by the greasy feel that KOH gives when touched — fats on the skin are rapidly converted to soap and glycerol. Molten KOH is used to displace halides and other leaving groups, the reaction is especially useful for aromatic reagents to give the corresponding phenols
Potassium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide
–
Potassium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide
–
Potassium carbonate, formed from the hydroxide solution leaking from an alkaline battery
6.
Membrane (selective barrier)
–
A membrane is a selective barrier, it allows some things to pass through but stops others. Such things may be molecules, ions, or other small particles, biological membranes include cell membranes, nuclear membranes, which cover a cell nucleus, and tissue membranes, such as mucosae and serosae. Synthetic membranes are made by humans for use in laboratories and industry and this concept of a membrane has been known since the eighteenth century, but was used little outside of the laboratory until the end of World War II. Drinking water supplies in Europe had been compromised by the war, however, due to the lack of reliability, slow operation, reduced selectivity and elevated costs, membranes were not widely exploited. The first use of membranes on a scale was with micro-filtration and ultra-filtration technologies. Since the 1980s, these processes, along with electrodialysis, are employed in large plants and, today. The degree of selectivity of a membrane depends on the pore size. Depending on the size, they can be classified as microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration. Membranes can also be of various thickness, with homogeneous or heterogeneous structure, Membranes can be neutral or charged, and particle transport can be active or passive. The latter can be facilitated by pressure, concentration, chemical or electrical gradients of the membrane process, Membranes can be generally classified into synthetic membranes and biological membranes. Microfiltration removes particles higher than 0, 08-2 µm and operates within a range of 7-100 kPa, microfiltration is used to remove residual suspended solids, to remove bacteria in order to condition the water for effective disinfection and as a pre-treatment step for reverse osmosis. Relatively recent developments are membrane bioreactors which combine microfiltration and a bioreactor for biological treatment, ultrafiltration removes particles higher than 0, 005-2 µm and operates within a range of 70-700kPa. Ultrafiltration is used for many of the same applications as microfiltration, some ultrafiltration membranes have also been used to remove dissolved compounds with high molecular weight, such as proteins and carbohydrates. In addition, they are able to remove viruses and some endotoxins, nanofiltration is also known as “loose” RO and can reject particles smaller than 0,001 µm. Nanofiltration is used for the removal of selected dissolved constituents from wastewater, NF is primarily developed as a membrane softening process which offers an alternative to chemical softening. Likewise, nanofiltration can be used as a pre-treatment before directed reverse osmosis, the main objectives of NF pre-treatment are. Reverse osmosis is used for desalination. As well, RO is commonly used for the removal of dissolved constituents from wastewater remaining after advanced treatment with microfiltration, RO excludes ions but requires high pressures to produce deionized water
Membrane (selective barrier)
–
Schematic of size based membrane exclusion
Membrane (selective barrier)
–
Constant TMP and constant Flux operations
Membrane (selective barrier)
–
Schematic process of dead-end and cross-flow filtration
7.
Chloralkali process
–
The chloralkali process is an industrial process for the electrolysis of NaCl. It is the used to produce chlorine and sodium hydroxide. 35 million tons of chlorine were prepared by this process in 1987, industrial scale production began in 1892. Usually the process is conducted on a brine, in which case NaOH, hydrogen, when using calcium chloride or potassium chloride, the products contain calcium or potassium instead of sodium. Related processes are known that use molten NaCl to give chlorine and sodium metal or condensed hydrogen chloride to give hydrogen, the process has a high energy consumption, for example over 4 billion kWh per year in West Germany in 1985. Because the process gives equivalent amounts of chlorine and sodium hydroxide, for every mole of chlorine produced, one mole of hydrogen is produced. Much of this hydrogen is used to produce hydrochloric acid or ammonia, three production methods are in use. While the mercury cell method produces chlorine-free sodium hydroxide, the use of tonnes of mercury leads to serious environmental problems. In a normal production cycle a few hundred pounds of mercury per year are emitted, additionally, the chlorine and sodium hydroxide produced via the mercury-cell chloralkali process are themselves contaminated with trace amounts of mercury. The membrane and diaphragm method use no mercury, but the sodium hydroxide contains chlorine, the performance these devices is governed by the considerations of electrochemical engineering. The most common chloralkali process involves the electrolysis of sodium chloride in a membrane cell. The overall reaction for the electrolysis of brine is thus, 2NaCl + 2H 2O → Cl 2 + H2 + 2NaOH A membrane cell is used to prevent the reaction between the chlorine and hydroxide ions. In the diaphragm cell process, there are two separated by a permeable diaphragm, often made of asbestos fibers. Brine is introduced into the compartment and flows into the cathode compartment. Similarly to the Membrane Cell, chloride ions are oxidized at the anode to produce chlorine, the diaphragm prevents the reaction of the caustic soda with the chlorine. A diluted caustic brine leaves the cell, the caustic soda must usually be concentrated to 50% and the salt removed. This is done using a process with about three tonnes of steam per tonne of caustic soda. The salt separated from the caustic brine can be used to saturate diluted brine, the chlorine contains oxygen and must often be purified by liquefaction and evaporation
Chloralkali process
–
Old drawing of a chloralkali process plant (Edgewood, Maryland)
Chloralkali process
–
Mercury cell for chloralkali process
8.
Solution (chemistry)
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In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, the mixing process of a solution happens at a scale where the effects of chemical polarity are involved, resulting in interactions that are specific to solvation. The solution assumes the characteristics of the solvent when the solvent is the fraction of the mixture. The concentration of a solute in a solution is the mass of that solute expressed as a percentage of the mass of the whole solution, a solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The particles of solute in a solution cannot be seen by the naked eye, a solution does not allow beams of light to scatter. The solute from a solution cannot be separated by filtration and it is composed of only one phase. Homogeneous means that the components of the form a single phase. Heterogeneous means that the components of the mixture are of different phase, the properties of the mixture can be uniformly distributed through the volume but only in absence of diffusion phenomena or after their completion. Usually, the present in the greatest amount is considered the solvent. Solvents can be gases, liquids or solids, one or more components present in the solution other than the solvent are called solutes. The solution has the physical state as the solvent. If the solvent is a gas, only gases are dissolved under a set of conditions. An example of a solution is air. Since interactions between molecules play almost no role, dilute gases form rather trivial solutions, in part of the literature, they are not even classified as solutions, but addressed as mixtures. If the solvent is a liquid, then almost all gases, liquids, here are some examples, Gas in liquid, Oxygen in water Carbon dioxide in water – a less simple example, because the solution is accompanied by a chemical reaction. Liquid in liquid, The mixing of two or more substances of the same chemistry but different concentrations to form a constant, alcoholic beverages are basically solutions of ethanol in water. Solid in liquid, Sucrose in water Sodium chloride or any other salt in water, solutions in water are especially common. Counterexamples are provided by liquid mixtures that are not homogeneous, colloids, body fluids are examples for complex liquid solutions, containing many solutes
Solution (chemistry)
–
Making a
saline water solution by dissolving
table salt (
NaCl) in
water. The salt is the solute and the water the solvent.
Solution (chemistry)
–
Diving medicine:
9.
Curing (food preservation)
–
Many curing processes also involve smoking, spicing, or cooking. Dehydration was the earliest form of food curing, because curing increases the solute concentration in the food and hence decreases its water potential, the food becomes inhospitable for the microbe growth that causes food spoilage. Curing can be traced back to antiquity, and was the way of preserving meat. Nitrates and nitrites, in conjunction with salt, are one of the most common agents in curing meat because they inhibit the growth of Clostridium botulinum. They also contribute to the pink color. For lesser-developed countries, curing remains a key process in ensuring the viability of meat production, transport, untreated meat decomposes rapidly if it is not preserved, at a speed that depends on several factors, including ambient humidity, temperature, and the presence of pathogens. Most meats cannot be kept at room temperature in excess of a few days without spoiling, if kept in excess of this time, meat begins to change colour and exude a foul odour, indicating the decomposition of the food. Ingestion of such spoiled meat can cause serious food poisonings, like botulism, in such circumstances the usefulness of preserving foods containing nutritional value for transport and storage is obvious. Curing is able to extend the life of meat before it spoils. A survival technique since prehistory, the conservation of meat has become, over the centuries, a topic of political, economic, Food curing dates back to ancient times, both in the form of smoked meat and salt-cured meat. Several sources describe the salting of meat in the ancient Mediterranean world, diodore of Sicily in his Bibliotheca historica wrote that the Cosséens in the mountains of Persia salted the flesh of carnivorous animals. Strabo indicates that people at Borsippa were catching bats and salting them to eat, the ancient Greeks prepared tarichos, which was meat and fish conserved by salt or other means. The Romans called this dish salsamentum – which term later included salted fat, also evidence of ancient sausage production exists. The Roman gourmet Apicius speaks of a technique involving œnogaros. A trade in salt meat occurred across ancient Europe, in Polybiuss time, the Gauls exported salt pork each year to Rome in large quantities, where it was sold in different cuts, rear cuts, middle cuts, hams, and sausages. This meat, after having been salted with the greatest care, was sometime smoked and these goods had to have been considerably important, since they fed part of the Roman people and the armies. The Belgians were celebrated above all for the care which they gave to the fattening of their pigs and their herds of sheep and pigs were so many, they could provide skins and salt meat not only for Rome, but also for most of Italy. The Ceretani of Spain drew a large income from their hams
Curing (food preservation)
–
Sea salt being added to raw ham to make
prosciutto.
Curing (food preservation)
–
Bag of
Prague powder #1, also known as "curing salt" or "pink salt." It is typically a combination of salt and
sodium nitrite that is dyed pink to distinguish it from ordinary salt.
Curing (food preservation)
–
Slices of
beef in a box.
Curing (food preservation)
–
Young man preparing a pig's head after a sacrifice.
Vase v. 360 - 340 BCE,
National Archaeological Museum of Spain
10.
Lutefisk
–
Lutefisk or lutfisk is a traditional dish of some Nordic countries. It is traditionally part of the Swedish and Norwegian julbord and it is made from aged stockfish or dried/salted whitefish and lye. Its name literally means lye fish, Lutefisk is dried whitefish treated with lye. The first step is soaking the stockfish in cold water for five to six days, the saturated stockfish is then soaked in an unchanged solution of cold water and lye for an additional two days. The fish swells during this soaking, and its protein content decreases by more than 50 percent, when this treatment is finished, the fish is caustic, with a pH of 11–12. To make the edible, a final treatment of yet another four to six days of soaking in cold water is needed. Eventually, the lutefisk is ready to be cooked, in Finland, the traditional reagent used is birch ash. It contains high amounts of carbonate and bicarbonate, giving the fish a more mellow treatment than would lye. It is important not to marinate the fish too long in the lye because saponification of the fish fats may occur, after the preparation, the lutefisk is saturated with water and must therefore be cooked extremely carefully so that it does not fall to pieces. To create a consistency in lutefisk, it is common to spread a layer of salt over the fish about half an hour before it is cooked. This will release some of the water in the fish meat, the salt must be rinsed off carefully before cooking. Lutefisk does not need water for the cooking, it is sufficient to place it in a pan, salt it, seal the lid tightly. An alternative is to wrap in aluminium foil and bake at 225 °C for 40–50 minutes, another option is to parboil lutefisk, wrapped in cheesecloth and gently boiled until tender. Lutefisk can also be boiled directly in a pan of water, Lutefisk sold in North America may also be cooked in a microwave oven. The average cooking time is 8–10 minutes per whole fish at high power in a covered glass cooking dish, the cooking time will vary, depending upon the power of the microwave oven. When cooking and eating lutefisk, it is important to clean the lutefisk and its residue off pans, plates, Lutefisk left overnight becomes nearly impossible to remove. Sterling silver should never be used in the cooking, serving or eating of lutefisk, stainless steel utensils are recommended instead. In Norway, Lutefisk is traditionally served with boiled potatoes, mashed green peas, melted butter, small pieces of fried bacon, in Sweden and Finland lutefisk is a part of the Christmas tradition and is mostly eaten with boiled potatoes, green peas and white sauce
Lutefisk
–
A serving of lutefisk
Lutefisk
–
Lutefisk (on the upper left side of the plate) as served in a Norwegian restaurant, with potatoes, mashed peas, and bacon
Lutefisk
–
Norwegian Constitution Day dinner in Minnesota, United States, with lutefisk, lefse, and meatballs
Lutefisk
–
Lutefisk in a Norwegian market
11.
Olive
–
Olea europeana sylvestris is a subspecies that corresponds to a smaller tree bearing noticeably smaller fruits. The olives fruit, also called the olive, is of agricultural importance in the Mediterranean region as the source of olive oil. The tree and its fruit give their name to the plant family, which includes species such as lilacs, jasmine, Forsythia. The word derives from Latin ŏlīva a borrowing from the Greek ἐλαία, the oldest attested forms of the Greek words are the Mycenaean
Olive
–
Olive
Olive
–
19th-century illustrations
Olive
–
Storing olives on
Dere Street;
Tacuinum Sanitatis, 14th century,
Olive
–
An olive vat room used for curing.
12.
Mandarin orange
–
The mandarin orange, also known as the mandarin or mandarine, is a small citrus tree with fruit resembling other oranges. Mandarins are usually plain or in fruit salads. Specifically reddish-orange mandarin cultivars can be marketed as tangerines, but this is not a botanical classification, mandarins are smaller and oblate, rather than spherical like the common oranges. The taste is considered less sour, as well as sweeter and stronger, a ripe mandarin is firm to slightly soft, heavy for its size, and pebbly-skinned. The peel is very thin, with very little white mesocarp, so they are usually easier to peel. Hybrids generally have these traits to a lesser degree, the tree is more drought-tolerant than the fruit. The mandarin is tender and is damaged easily by cold and it can be grown in tropical and subtropical areas. The name mandarin orange is a calque of Swedish mandarin apelsin, the form mandarine derives from the French name for this fruit. The reason for the epithet mandarin is not clear, hypotheses ranging from the colour of some robes worn by mandarin dignitaries to the mandarin being an excellent kind of Chinese orange. Mandarins are generally peeled and eaten fresh, the fresh fruit is also used in salads, desserts and main dishes. Fresh tangerine juice and frozen juice concentrate are commonly available in the United States, the number of seeds in each segment varies greatly. The peel is used fresh, whole or zested, or dried as chenpi and it can be used as a spice for cooking, baking, drinks, or candy. Canned mandarin segments are peeled to remove the white pith prior to canning, otherwise, segments are peeled using a chemical process. First, the segments are scalded in hot water to loosen the skin, then they are bathed in a lye solution, finally, the segments undergo several rinses in plain water. They are often used in salads, desserts, and baking, in traditional Chinese medicine, the dried peel of the fruit is used in the regulation of chi, and also used to treat abdominal distension, to enhance digestion, and to reduce phlegm. Mandarins have also used in ayurveda. During Chinese New Year, mandarin oranges/tangerine/satsumas are considered symbols of abundance. During the two-week celebration, they are displayed as decoration and presented as gifts to friends, relatives
Mandarin orange
–
Mandarin orange
Mandarin orange
–
Thin, pebbly skin
Mandarin orange
–
Dried mandarin
peel used as a seasoning
Mandarin orange
–
Chocolate -coated
citrus peel.
13.
Hominy
–
Hominy is a food produced from dried maize kernels that have been treated with an alkali, in a process called nixtamalization. Hominy is made in a process called nixtamalization, to make hominy, field corn grain is dried, then treated by soaking and cooking the mature grain in a dilute solution of lye or of slaked lime. Alkalinity helps dissolve hemicellulose, the major component of the maize cell walls, loosens the hulls from the kernels. Also, soaking the corn in lye kills the seeds germ, finally, in addition to providing a source of dietary calcium, the lye or lime reacts with the corn so that the nutrient niacin can be assimilated by the digestive tract. People consume hominy in intact kernels, grind it into sand-sized particles for grits, in Mexican cooking, hominy is finely ground to make masa. Fresh masa that has dried and powdered is called masa seca or masa harina. Some of the oil breaks down into emulsifying agents. The divalent calcium in lime acts as a agent for protein. Cornmeal from untreated ground corn cant form a dough with the addition of water, previously, consuming untreated corn was thought to cause pellagra —either from the corn itself or some infectious element in untreated corn. However, further advancements showed that it is a correlational, not causal, in the 1700 and 1800s, areas that depended highly on corn as a diet staple were more likely to have pellagra. This is because humans cant absorb niacin in untreated corn, the nixtamalization process frees niacin into a state where the intestines can absorb it. This was discovered primarily by exploring why Mexican people who depended on maize did not develop pellagra, one reason was that Mayans treated corn in an alkaline solution to soften it, in the process we now call nixtamalization. The earliest known use of nixtamalization was in what is present-day southern Mexico, in Central American and Mexican cuisine, people cook masa nixtamalera with water and milk to make a thick, gruel-like beverage called atole. When they make it with chocolate and sugar, it becomes atole de chocolate, adding anise and piloncillo to this mix creates champurrado, a popular breakfast drink. The English term hominy derives from the Powhatan language word for prepared maize, many other indigenous American cultures also made hominy, and integrated it into their diet. Cherokees, for example, made hominy grits by soaking corn in a lye solution produced by leaching hardwood ash with water. They used grits to make a traditional hominy soup that they let ferment, cornbread, dumplings, or, in times, fried with bacon. Hominy recipes include pozole, hominy bread, hominy chili, hog n hominy, casseroles, in Latin America there are a variety of dishes referred to as mote
Hominy
–
A bowl of cooked hominy.
Hominy
–
Varieties
14.
Lye roll
–
Lye rolls are a baked specialty in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. They are made by immersing bread rolls in a lye solution before baking, the German name is Laugengebäck for any baked good dipped in lye. In some parts of Asia they are known as laugen rolls, in order to cause a Maillard reaction during baking for the characteristic browning effect, a lye roll needs to be coated with a high pH solution. The higher the pH, the stronger the reaction, lye is a highly alkaline agent most commonly used for the purpose. Lye is the strongest agent, followed by washing soda and baking soda, the same solution is also used for preparing pretzels, outside of Germany they are often the only baked food commonly glazed with a lye solution. As a snack, lye rolls may also be covered with baked cheese, although this is more recent. Typically they are cut in half and buttered, as large soft pretzels often are in Germany, other toppings for lye rolls nowadays also include poppyseed, sesame, and other seeds as an alternative to salt
Lye roll
–
Lye roll
Lye roll
–
Lye roll and pretzels immediately after baking
15.
Century egg
–
The transforming agent in the century egg is an alkaline salt, which gradually raises the pH of the egg to around 9–12, during the curing process. This chemical process breaks down some of the complex, flavorless proteins and fats, some eggs have patterns near the surface of the egg white that are likened to pine branches, and that gives rise to one of its Chinese names, the pine-patterned egg. The clay hardens around the egg and results in the curing, according to some, the century egg has over five centuries of history behind its production. Upon tasting the eggs, he set out to produce more — this time with the addition of salt to improve their flavor — resulting in the present recipe of the century egg, the traditional method for producing century eggs is the development and improvement from the aforementioned primitive process. Instead of using just clay, a mixture of ash, calcium oxide. The addition of oxide and wood ash to the mixture lowers the risk of spoilage. A recipe for creating century eggs through this process starts with the infusion of three pounds of tea in boiling water. To the tea, three pounds of calcium oxide, nine pounds of sea salt, and seven pounds of ash from burned oak is mixed into a smooth paste. The mud slowly dries and hardens into a crust over several months, even though the traditional method is still widely practiced, modern understanding of the chemistry behind the formation of century eggs has led to many simplifications in the recipe. This is because the reaction needed to produce century eggs is accomplished by introducing hydroxide and sodium ions into the egg, the extremely toxic compound lead oxide speeds up the reaction that creates century eggs, which has led some unscrupulous producers to use it. However, zinc oxide is now the recommended alternative, although zinc is essential for life, excessive zinc consumption can lead to copper deficiency, so the finished product should have its zinc level assessed for safety. Century eggs can be eaten without further preparation, on their own or as a side dish, as an hors dœuvre, the Cantonese wrap chunks of this egg with slices of pickled ginger root. A Shanghainese recipe mixes chopped century eggs with chilled tofu, in Taiwan, it is popular to eat century eggs by slicing them, and placed on top of cold tofu with katsuobushi, soy sauce, and sesame oil in a style similar to Japanese hiyayakko. They are also used in a dish called old-and-fresh eggs, where chopped century eggs are combined with a made with fresh eggs. The century eggs may also be cut into chunks and stir fried with vegetables, some Chinese households cut them up into small chunks and cook them with rice porridge to create century egg and lean pork congee. This is sometimes served in dim sum restaurants, rice congee, lean pork, and century egg are the main ingredients. Peeled century eggs are cut into quarters or eighths and simmered with the seasoned marinated lean slivers of pork until both ingredients are cooked into the rice congee, fried dough sticks known as youtiao are commonly eaten with century egg congee. Another common variation of this dish is the addition of salted duck eggs into the congee mixture and this is called a lahng-poon in Cantonese, which simply means cold dish
Century egg
–
Century egg sliced open
Century egg
–
Century egg coated in a
caustic mixture of mud and rice husk
Century egg
–
Century egg showing snow-flake/pine-branch (松花, sōnghuā) patterns. These patterns are
dendrites of various
salts.
Century egg
–
Arranged century egg on a plate
16.
Pretzel
–
A pretzel is a type of baked bread product made from dough most commonly shaped into a twisted knot. Pretzels originated in Europe, possibly among monks in the Early Middle Ages, the traditional pretzel shape is a distinctive nonsymmetrical form, with the ends of a long strip of dough intertwined and then twisted back into itself in a certain way. In the 2010s, pretzels come in a range of different shapes, there are several varieties of pretzels, including soft pretzels, which must be eaten shortly after preparation and hard-baked pretzels, which have a long shelf life. There are numerous unreliable accounts regarding the origin of pretzels, as well as the origin of the name and he calls the strips of baked dough, folded to resemble arms crossing the chest, pretiola. However, there is no historical evidence to verify this claim. Another source locates the invention in a monastery in southern France, the looped pretzel may also be related to a Greek ring bread, derived from communion bread used in monasteries a thousand years ago. In Germany, there are stories that pretzels were the invention of desperate bakers held hostage by local Dignitaries. Meyers Konversations-Lexikon from 1905 suspects the origin of pretzels in a ban of heathen baking traditions, such as in the form of a sun cross, the pretzel may have emerged as a substitute. The German name Brezel may derive also from Latin bracellus, or bracchiola, the pretzel has been in use as an emblem of bakers and formerly their guilds in southern German areas since at least the 12th century. A 12th-century illustration in the Hortus deliciarum from the southwest German Alsace region may contain the earliest depiction of a pretzel, within the Christian Church, pretzels were regarded as having religious significance for both ingredients and shape. The knot shape has been claimed to represent hands in prayer, moreover, the three holes within the pretzel represent the three persons of the Holy Trinity, God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. Pretzels made with a recipe using only flour and water could be eaten during Lent when Christians were forbidden to eat eggs, lard, or dairy products such as milk. As time passed, pretzels became associated with both Lent and Easter, Pretzels were hidden on Easter morning just as eggs are hidden today, and are particularly associated with Lent, fasting, and prayers before Easter. Pretzel baking has most firmly taken root in the region of Franconia and adjoining Upper German-speaking areas, and pretzels have been an integral part of German baking traditions for centuries. Lye pretzels are popular in southern Germany, Alsace, Austria, and German-speaking Switzerland as a variety of bread, a dish or a snack. Almost every region and even city has its own way of baking them, examples for pretzel names in various Upper-German dialects are Breze, Brezn, Bretzel, Brezzl, Brezgen, Bretzga, Bretzet, Bretschl, Kringel, Silserli, and Sülzerli. Baked for consumption on the day, they are sold in every bakery. Often, they are sliced horizontally, buttered, and sold as Butterbrezel, sesame, poppy, sunflower, pumpkin, or caraway seeds, melted cheese, and bacon bits are other popular toppings
Pretzel
–
An assortment of pretzels
Pretzel
–
Pretzel depicted at a banquet of
Queen Esther and
King Ahasuerus. 12th century
Hortus deliciarum
Pretzel
–
Fish lunch by
Jacob Foppens van Es, before 1640,
Museum of Fine Arts of Nancy
Pretzel
–
The pretzel has been in use as an emblem of bakers, here with two lions, in
Görlitz, Germany
17.
Bagel
–
A bagel, also spelled beigel, is a bread product originating in the Jewish communities of Poland. It is traditionally shaped by hand into the form of a ring from yeasted wheat dough, roughly hand-sized, the result is a dense, chewy, doughy interior with a browned and sometimes crisp exterior. Bagels are often topped with seeds baked on the outer crust, with the ones being poppy. Some may have salt sprinkled on their surface, and there are different dough types, though the origins of bagels are somewhat obscure, it is known that they were widely consumed in eastern European Jewish communities from the 17th century. The first known mention of the bagel, in 1610, was in Jewish community ordinances in Kraków, Bagels are now a popular bread product in North America, especially in cities with a large Jewish population, many with alternative ways of making them. Like other bakery products, bagels are available in major supermarkets in those countries. Contrary to some beliefs, the bagel was not created in the shape of a stirrup to commemorate the victory of Polands King John III Sobieski over the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Vienna in 1683. In the 16th and first half of the 17th centuries, the became a staple of Polish cuisine. Its name derives from the Yiddish word beygal from the German dialect word beugel, variants of the word beugal are used in Yiddish and in Austrian German to refer to a similar form of sweet-filled pastry (Mohnbeugel and Nussbeugel, or in southern German dialects. In the Brick Lane district and surrounding area of London, England and they were often displayed in the windows of bakeries on vertical wooden dowels, up to a metre in length, on racks. The bagel came into general use throughout North America in the last quarter of the 20th century with automation. Murray also invented pre-slicing the bagel, around 1900, the bagel brunch became popular in New York City. The bagel brunch consists of a topped with lox, cream cheese, capers, tomato. This and similar combinations of toppings have remained associated with bagels into the 21st century in the US, in Japan, the first kosher bagels were brought by BagelK from New York in 1989. BagelK created green tea, chocolate, maple-nut, and banana-nut flavors for the market in Japan, there are three million bagels exported from the U. S. annually, and it has a 4%-of-duty classification of Japan in 2000. Some Japanese bagels, such as sold by BAGEL & BAGEL, are soft and/or sweet, others. At its most basic, traditional bagel dough contains flour, salt, water. Bread flour or other high gluten flours are preferred to create the firm, dense but spongy bagel shape and chewy texture
Bagel
–
A plain commercially produced bagel (as evidenced by grate marks used in steaming, rather than boiling)
Bagel
–
Bagels with
cream cheese and
lox (cured salmon) are considered a traditional part of American
Jewish cuisine (colloquially known as lox and a schmear).
Bagel
–
Three
Montreal-style bagels: one
poppy and two
sesame bagels
Bagel
–
Saturday morning bagel queue at
St-Viateur Bagel, Montreal, Quebec.
18.
Zongzi
–
Zongzi, or simply zong, is a traditional Chinese food, made of glutinous rice stuffed with different fillings and wrapped in bamboo, reed, or other large flat leaves. They are cooked by steaming or boiling, in the Western world, they are also known as rice dumplings, or sticky rice dumplings. As it diffused to other regions of Asia over many centuries, pya Htote in Burmese-speaking areas, Nom Chang in Cambodia, and Bachang or Khanom Chang in Laos and Thailand. Vietnamese cuisine has also copied this dish as Bánh ú tro or Bánh tro, in Singapore, Indonesia, and Malaysia, zongzi is known as bakcang, bacang, or zang, as Hokkien is commonly used among overseas Chinese. Similarly, zongzi is more known as machang among Chinese Filipinos in the Philippines. Zongzi are traditionally eaten during the Duanwu Festival, which falls on the day of the fifth month of the lunar calendar. A popular belief amongst the Chinese of eating zongzi involved commemorating the death of Qu Yuan, known for his patriotism, Qu Yuan tried unsuccessfully to warn his king and countrymen against the expansionism of their Qin neighbors. When the Qin general Bai Qi took Yingdu, the Chu capital, in 278 BC, according to legend, packets of rice were thrown into the river to prevent the fish from eating the poets body. Although it may have originally been a food, zongzi are available year-round in most major cities with a significant Chinese population. The shapes of zongzi vary, and range from being approximately tetrahedral in southern China to a cone in northern China. Wrapping a zongzi neatly is a skill that is passed down through families, making zongzi is traditionally a family event of which everyone helps out. While traditional zongzi are wrapped in leaves, the leaves of lotus, reed, maize, banana, canna, shell ginger. Each kind of leaf imparts its own unique aroma and flavor to the rice, the fillings used for zongzi vary from region to region, but the rice used is almost always glutinous rice. Depending on the region, the rice may be lightly precooked by stir-frying or soaked in water before using, in the north, fillings are mostly red bean paste and tapioca or taro. Northern style zongzi tend to be sweet and dessert-like, Southern-style zongzi, however, tend to be more savory or salty. Fillings of Southern-style zongzi include salted duck egg, pork belly, taro, shredded pork or chicken, Chinese sausage, pork fat, Zongzi need to be steamed or boiled for several hours depending on how the rice is made prior to being added, along with the fillings. Jiaxing zongzi, It is one kind of zongzi in mainland China named after the city Jiaxing. The filling is typically pork but also can be mung beans, jia zong, Instead of glutinous rice, balls of glutinous rice flour are used to enclose the fillings of the zongzi
Zongzi
–
A bunch of rice dumplings tied together with twine
Zongzi
–
Northern-style (left) and Southern-style (right) zongzi
Zongzi
–
Zongzi both ready to eat (left) and still wrapped in a bamboo leaf (right)
Zongzi
19.
Glutinous rice
–
Glutinous rice is a type of rice grown mainly in Southeast and East Asia and parts of South Asia, which has opaque grains, very low amylose content, and is especially sticky when cooked. It is called glutinous in the sense of being glue-like or sticky, while often called sticky rice, it differs from non-glutinous strains of japonica rice which also become sticky to some degree when cooked. There are numerous cultivars of rice, which include japonica, indica. In China, glutinous rice has been grown for at least 2,000 years. Glutinous rice is grown in Laos, Pakistan, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, Bangladesh, Northeast India, China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, an estimated 85% of Lao rice production is of this type. The rice has been recorded in the region for at least 1,100 years, the improved rice varieties adopted throughout Asia during the Green Revolution were non-glutinous, and Lao farmers rejected them in favor of their traditional sticky varieties. Over time, higher-yield strains of rice have become available from the Lao National Rice Research Programme. By 1999, more than 70% of the area along the Mekong River Valley were of these newer strains, Glutinous rice is distinguished from other types of rice by having no amylose, and high amounts of amylopectin. Amylopectin is responsible for the quality of glutinous rice. The difference has been traced to a mutation that was selected for by farmers. Like all types of rice, glutinous rice does not contain dietary gluten, Glutinous rice can be used either milled or unmilled. Milled glutinous rice is white in color and fully opaque, whereas the bran can give unmilled glutinous rice a purple or black color, black and purple glutinous rice are distinct strains from white glutinous rice. In developing Asia, there is little regulation, and some governments have issued advisories about toxic dyes being added to colour adulterated rice, both black and white glutinous rice can be cooked as discrete grains, or ground into flour and cooked as a paste or gel. Sticky rice is used in many recipes throughout Southeast and East Asia, sticky rice, called bora saul is the core component of Assamese sweets, snacks and breakfast. They are widely used in every kind of sweets of Assam which are very different from traditional sweets of India of which basic component is milk. Such traditional sweets in Assam are Pitha, also, its powder form is used as breakfast or other light meal directly with milk. They are called Pitha guri or Handoh guri, the soaked rice is also cooked with no added water inside a special kind of bamboo. This meal is called sunga saul, during religious ceremonies, Assamese people make Mithoi using Gnud with it
Glutinous rice
–
Uncooked glutinous rice from Thailand
Glutinous rice
–
Glutinous rice flour
Glutinous rice
Glutinous rice
20.
Ramen noodles
–
It consists of Chinese-style wheat noodles served in a meat- or fish-based broth, often flavored with soy sauce or miso, and uses toppings such as sliced pork, dried seaweed, menma, and green onions. Nearly every region in Japan has its own variation of ramen, the origin of ramen is unclear. Some sources say it is of Chinese origin, other sources say it was invented in Japan in the early 20th century. The name ramen is the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese lamian, until the 1950s, ramen was called shina soba but today chūka soba or just Ramen are more common, as the word 支那 has acquired a pejorative connotation. By 1900, restaurants serving Chinese cuisine from Canton and Shanghai offered a simple dish of noodles, a few toppings. Many Chinese living in Japan also pulled portable food stalls, selling ramen, by the mid-1900s, these stalls used a type of a musical horn called a charumera to advertise their presence, a practice some vendors still retain via a loudspeaker and a looped recording. By the early Shōwa period, ramen had become a dish when eating out. According to ramen expert Hiroshi Osaki, the first specialized ramen shop opened in Yokohama in 1910, after World War II, cheap flour imported from the United States swept the Japanese market. At the same time, millions of Japanese troops had returned from China, many of these returnees had become familiar with Chinese cuisine and subsequently set up Chinese restaurants across Japan. Eating ramen, while popular, was still an occasion that required going out. In 1958, instant noodles were invented by Momofuku Ando, the Taiwanese-Japanese founder and chairman of Nissin Foods, named the greatest Japanese invention of the 20th century in a Japanese poll, instant ramen allowed anyone to make an approximation to this dish simply by adding boiling water. Beginning in the 1980s, ramen became a Japanese cultural icon and was studied around the world from many perspectives, at the same time, local varieties of ramen were hitting the national market and could even be ordered by their regional names. A ramen museum opened in Yokohama in 1994, a wide variety of ramen exists in Japan, with geographical and vendor-specific differences even in varieties that share the same name. Ramen can be categorized by its two main ingredients, noodles and broth. Making noodles with kansui lends them a yellowish hue as well as a firm texture, eggs may also be substituted for kansui. Ramen comes in various shapes and lengths and it may be thick, thin, or even ribbon-like, as well as straight or wrinkled. Ramen soup is made from stock based on chicken or pork, combined with a variety of ingredients such as kombu, katsuobushi, niboshi, beef bones, shiitake. The resulting combination is generally divided into five categories, shōyu ramen usually has curly noodles rather than straight ones, but this is not always the case
Ramen noodles
–
Shōyu (soy-based broth) ramen
Ramen noodles
–
Fresh ramen
Ramen noodles
–
Shio ramen
Ramen noodles
–
Tonkotsu ramen
21.
Kutsinta
–
Puto kutsinta or kutsinta is a type of steamed rice cake found throughout the Philippines. It is made from a mixture of flour, brown sugar and lye, enhanced with yellow food coloring or annatto extract. The cooked cakes are topped with fresh grated meat from mature coconut and it is consumed year-round as a merienda or snack, and is frequently sold along with puto. Unlike its counterpart, which has a texture, kutsina has a jelly-like. It can be enhanced by adding latik for a sweeter taste. Puto Philippine cuisine List of steamed foods
Kutsinta
–
Kutsinta
Kutsinta
Kutsinta
–
Chinese
22.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
23.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
–
The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
–
FDA Building 31 houses the Office of the Commissioner and the Office of Regulatory Affairs.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
–
Food and Drug Administration
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
–
Regulation of therapeutic goods in the United States
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
–
FDA Building 51 houses the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research.
24.
Soap making
–
In chemistry, a soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Household uses for soaps include washing, bathing, and other types of housekeeping, in industry they are also used in textile spinning and are important components of some lubricants. Metal soaps are also included in modern artists oil paints formulations as a rheology modifier, soaps for cleaning are obtained by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strong base, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide in an aqueous solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides, three molecules of fatty acids attach to a molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is often called lye, induces saponification, the glycerin, a useful byproduct, can remain in the soap product as a softening agent, or be isolated for other uses. Soaps are key components of most lubricating greases, which are usually emulsions of calcium soap or lithium soap, many other metallic soaps are also useful, including those of aluminium, sodium, and mixtures of them. Such soaps are also used as thickeners to increase the viscosity of oils, in ancient times, lubricating greases were made by the addition of lime to olive oil. When used for cleaning, soap allows insoluble particles to become soluble in water, for example, oil/fat is insoluble in water, but when a couple of drops of dish soap are added to the mixture, the oil/fat solubilizes into the water. Anything that is soluble will be washed away with the water, the type of alkali metal used determines the kind of soap product. Sodium soaps, prepared from sodium hydroxide, are firm, whereas potassium soaps, historically, potassium hydroxide was extracted from the ashes of bracken or other plants. Lithium soaps also tend to be hard—these are used exclusively in greases, soaps are derivatives of fatty acids. Traditionally they have made from triglycerides. Triglyceride is the name for the triesters of fatty acids. Tallow, i. e. rendered beef fat, is the most available triglyceride from animals and its saponified product is called sodium tallowate. Typical vegetable oils used in soap making are palm oil, coconut oil, olive oil, each species offers quite different fatty acid content and hence, results in soaps of distinct feel. The seed oils give softer but milder soaps, Soap made from pure olive oil is sometimes called Castile soap or Marseille soap, and is reputed for being extra mild. The term Castile is also applied to soaps from a mixture of oils. The earliest recorded evidence of the production of soap-like materials dates back to around 2800 BC in ancient Babylon, a formula for soap consisting of water, alkali, and cassia oil was written on a Babylonian clay tablet around 2200 BC
Soap making
–
A collection of decorative soaps, as often found in
hotels
Soap making
–
Box for Amigo del Obrero (Worker's Friend) soap from the 20th century, part of the
Museo del Objeto del Objeto collection
Soap making
–
Advertisement for Pears' Soap, 1889
Soap making
–
A 1922 magazine advertisement for
Palmolive Soap
25.
Slow cooker
–
A slow cooker, also known as a Crock-Pot, is a countertop electrical cooking appliance used to simmer at a lower temperature than other cooking methods, such as baking, boiling, and frying. This facilitates unattended cooking for hours of dishes that would otherwise be boiled, pot roast, soups, stews. A wide variety of dishes can be prepared in slow cookers, including ones typically made quickly, such as cocoa, the Naxon Utilities Corporation of Chicago, under the leadership of Irving Naxon, developed the Naxon Beanery All-Purpose Cooker. Naxon was inspired by a story his Jewish grandmother told about how back in her native Lithuanian town, her mother made a stew called cholent, a 1950 advertisement shows a slow cooker called the Simmer Crock, made by the Industrial Radiant Heat Corp. of Gladstone, NJ. The Rival Company bought Naxon in 1970 and reintroduced it under the Crock-Pot name in 1971, slow cookers achieved popularity in the US during the 1970s, when many women began to work outside the home. They could start dinner cooking in the morning going to work. In 1974, Rival introduced removable stoneware inserts making the appliance easier to clean, the brand now belongs to Sunbeam Products, a subsidiary of Jarden Corporation. Other brands of this appliance include Cuisinart, GE, Hamilton Beach, KitchenAid, Magic Chef, West Bend Housewares, and the now defunct American Electric Corporation. A basic slow cooker consists of a round or oval cooking pot made of glazed ceramic or porcelain, surrounded by a housing, usually metal. The lid itself is made of glass, and seated in a groove in the pot edge, condensed vapor collects in the groove. The contents of a pot are effectively at atmospheric pressure. A slow cooker is quite different from a pressure cooker and presents no danger of a pressure release. The crock, or ceramic pot, itself acts as both a container and a heat reservoir. Slow cookers come in capacities from 500 mL to 7 L, because the heating elements are generally located at the bottom and often also partway up the sides, most slow cookers have a minimum recommended liquid level to avoid uncontrolled heating. Many slow cookers have two or more heat settings, some have continuously variable power, most slow cookers have no temperature control and deliver a constant heat to the contents. The temperature of the contents rises till it reaches boiling point, at a lower setting, it may just simmer at a temperature below the boiling point. Newer programmable rice cookers may be used as slow cookers, to use a slow cooker, the cook places raw food and a liquid, such as stock, water, or wine, in the slow cooker. Some recipes call for pre-heated liquid, the cook puts the lid on the slow cooker and turns it on
Slow cooker
–
A newer slow cooker. This one has a removable ceramic "crock" (upper left), glass lid (lower left), and heater–housing (right) with push button controls, instead of the original single knob.
Slow cooker
–
An oval shaped slow cooker with button controls and a digital timer
26.
Proto-Indo-European
–
Proto-Indo-European is the linguistic reconstruction of the common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, the most widely spoken language family in the world. Far more work has gone into reconstructing PIE than any other proto-language and these methods supply all of the knowledge concerning PIE, since there is no written record of the language. PIE is estimated to have spoken as a single language around 3500 B. C. E. during the Neolithic Age. According to the prevailing Kurgan hypothesis, the homeland of the Proto-Indo-Europeans may have been in the Pontic–Caspian steppe of Eastern Europe. Work has also gone into reconstructing their culture and religion, PIE had a complex system of morphology that included inflectional suffixes as well as ablaut and accent. PIE nominals and pronouns had a system of declension. The PIE phonology, particles, numerals, and copula are also well-reconstructed, today, the most widely-spoken daughter languages of PIE are Spanish, English, Hindustani, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, Punjabi, German, French, and Marathi. There is no evidence of PIE. It has been reconstructed from its present-day descendants using the comparative method, the comparative method is based on the Neogrammarian rule that the Indo-European sound laws are applied without exception. The method compares languages and applies the laws to find a common ancestor. For example, compare the pairs of words in Italian and English, piede and foot, padre and father, pesce and fish. Since there is a consistent correspondence of the consonants that is far too frequent to be coincidental. Although his name is associated with this observation, he was not the first to make it. In many ways Jones work was less accurate than his predecessors, as he erroneously included Egyptian, Japanese and Chinese in the Indo-European languages, while omitting Hindi. In 1818, Rasmus Christian Rask elaborated the set of correspondences to include other Indo-European languages, such as Sanskrit and Greek, and the full range of consonants involved. In 1816 Franz Bopp published On the System of Conjugation in Sanskrit in which he investigated a common origin of Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, and German. In 1833 he began publishing the Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slavic, Gothic, in 1822, Jacob Grimm formulated what is now known as Grimms law as a general rule in his Deutsche Grammatik. Grimm showed correlations between the Germanic and other Indo-European languages, and showed that sound change affects an entire language systematically, august Schleichers A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin Languages was an early attempt to reconstruct the proto-Indo-European language
Proto-Indo-European
–
Classification of Indo-European languages. Red: Extinct languages. White: categories or unattested proto-languages. Left half:
centum languages; right half:
satem languages
27.
Saturday
–
Saturday is the day of the week following Friday and preceding Sunday. The Romans named Saturday Sāturni diēs no later than the 2nd century for the planet Saturn, however, the name was selected as a calque of the god Saturn, after whom the planet was named. The day was referred to as Sæternes dæġe in an Old English translation of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. In Old English, Saturday was also known as sunnanæfen, between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD, the Roman Empire gradually replaced the eight-day Roman nundinal cycle with the seven-day week. The astrological order of the days was explained by Vettius Valens, according to these authors, it was a principle of astrology that the heavenly bodies presided, in succession, over the hours of the day. The association of the weekdays with the deities is thus indirect, the days are named for the planets. The Germanic peoples adapted the system introduced by the Romans but glossed their indigenous gods over the Roman deities in a known as interpretatio germanica. Otherwise Old Norse and Old High German did not borrow the name of the Roman god, the Octoechos contains hymns on these themes, arranged in an eight-week cycle, that are chanted on Saturdays throughout the year. For the Orthodox, Saturday — with the exception of Holy Saturday — is never a strict fast day. When a Saturday falls during one of the seasons the fasting rules are always lessened to an extent. The Great Feast of the Exaltation of the Cross and the Beheading of St. John the Baptist are normally observed as strict fast days, but if they fall on a Saturday or Sunday, the fast is lessened. For Jews, Messianics, Seventh Day Baptists and Seventh-day Adventists, Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches distinguish between Saturday and the Lords Day. Other Protestant groups, such as Seventh-day Adventists, hold that the Lords Day is the Sabbath, from Scriptures, Jesus rested in the grave on the Sabbath day, which is the day after the day of preparation. In this way, Jesus rested as God rested after creating the world, quakers traditionally referred to Saturday as Seventh Day, eschewing the pagan origin of the name. In Islamic countries, Fridays are considered as the last day of the week and are holidays along with Thursdays, Saturday is called Sabt and it is the first day of the week in many Arab countries. In Scandinavian countries, Saturday is called lördag, lørdag, or laurdag and this is due to the Viking practice of bathing on Saturdays. The roots lör, laugar and so forth are cognate to the English word lye, the Finnish and Estonian names for the day, lauantai and laupäev, respectively, are also derived from this term. Today, Saturday is officially called Samstag in all German-speaking countries, Samstag is always used in Austria, Liechtenstein, and the German-speaking part of Switzerland, and generally used in southern and western Germany
Saturday
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Saturnus, Caravaggio, 16th century
Saturday
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Saturday is named after the planet Saturn, which in turn was named after the Roman god Saturn
28.
Drain cleaner
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A drain cleaner is a chemical-based consumer product that unblocks sewer pipes or helps to prevent the occurrence of clogged drains. The term may refer to the individual who uses performs the activity with chemical drain cleaners or devices known as plumbers snake. Drain cleaners can be classified in two categories, chemical, or device, chemical drain cleaners, plungers, handheld drain augers, air burst drain cleaners, and home remedy drain cleaners are intended for this purpose. Electric drain cleaners and sewer jetters are intended for this purpose, each type of drain cleaner has advantages, disadvantages, and safety considerations as described below. Chemical drain cleaners can be in solid or liquid form that are available through hardware stores. Alkaline drain cleaners are available in solid or liquid state while the acidic ones are usually in liquid form. Prior to this time, Americans often discarded the dirty water collected in basins after use, limited piping systems gradually developed with lead materials, but after WWI when the poisonous properties of lead became more well-known, piping was reconstructed with galvanized iron. Once corrosion occurred down to the metal, plaques and rust would form. Thus, the first motivation for drain cleaners came to be, the struggle against corroding galvanized iron pipes eventually led to a replacement by copper or plastic piping by the 1960s. Copper and plastic do not possess that zinc layer that naturally corrodes to expose the metal to decay. Still, however, natural substances such as hair, grease, or other oils continued to be an issue in drain clogs, and so, alkaline drain openers primarily contain sodium hydroxide and some may contain potassium hydroxide. They may appear in liquid or solid form, solid formulations of corrosive alkaline drain cleaners are composed of a caustic substance, aluminum particles, and additives. The aluminum granules that are included in the solid caustic drain cleaner is an oxide that breaks down. The components of this reaction are shown below, because the release of hydrogen gas is overall an exothermic reaction, the extra heat released helps to break down the greases, oils, etc. that form the clog. Breakdown of Aluminum Oxide, Al2O3 + 2NaOH + 3H2O ---> 2Na 2, oxidation of Aluminum metal, 2Al + 2NaOH + 6H2O ---> 2Na + 3H2 The actual breakdown of a clog occurs by reaction with the basic sodium hydroxide. Clogs are often composed of substances such as hair, fats, oils, etc. and breakdown occurs via a saponification reaction of a base. Essentially, the ions from the basic lye attack the carbonyl carbons of the fat. Otherwise, the lye itself will absorb water and actually create a mass itself, liquid formulations of corrosive alkaline drain cleaners can contain sodium hypochlorite and lye in concentrations up to 50 percent
Drain cleaner
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Bottles of alkaline drain cleaners containing
sodium hydroxide can dissolve greases and hair.
Drain cleaner
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Solid Formulation of an alkaline drain cleaner.
Drain cleaner
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Acidic drain cleaners usually contain
sulfuric acid at a high concentration which turns a piece of
pH paper red and chars it instantly.
Drain cleaner
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Apart from grease and hair, an acidic drain cleaner containing sulfuric acid can be also used to dissolve tissue paper inside water pipes.
29.
Drain opener
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A drain cleaner is a chemical-based consumer product that unblocks sewer pipes or helps to prevent the occurrence of clogged drains. The term may refer to the individual who uses performs the activity with chemical drain cleaners or devices known as plumbers snake. Drain cleaners can be classified in two categories, chemical, or device, chemical drain cleaners, plungers, handheld drain augers, air burst drain cleaners, and home remedy drain cleaners are intended for this purpose. Electric drain cleaners and sewer jetters are intended for this purpose, each type of drain cleaner has advantages, disadvantages, and safety considerations as described below. Chemical drain cleaners can be in solid or liquid form that are available through hardware stores. Alkaline drain cleaners are available in solid or liquid state while the acidic ones are usually in liquid form. Prior to this time, Americans often discarded the dirty water collected in basins after use, limited piping systems gradually developed with lead materials, but after WWI when the poisonous properties of lead became more well-known, piping was reconstructed with galvanized iron. Once corrosion occurred down to the metal, plaques and rust would form. Thus, the first motivation for drain cleaners came to be, the struggle against corroding galvanized iron pipes eventually led to a replacement by copper or plastic piping by the 1960s. Copper and plastic do not possess that zinc layer that naturally corrodes to expose the metal to decay. Still, however, natural substances such as hair, grease, or other oils continued to be an issue in drain clogs, and so, alkaline drain openers primarily contain sodium hydroxide and some may contain potassium hydroxide. They may appear in liquid or solid form, solid formulations of corrosive alkaline drain cleaners are composed of a caustic substance, aluminum particles, and additives. The aluminum granules that are included in the solid caustic drain cleaner is an oxide that breaks down. The components of this reaction are shown below, because the release of hydrogen gas is overall an exothermic reaction, the extra heat released helps to break down the greases, oils, etc. that form the clog. Breakdown of Aluminum Oxide, Al2O3 + 2NaOH + 3H2O ---> 2Na 2, oxidation of Aluminum metal, 2Al + 2NaOH + 6H2O ---> 2Na + 3H2 The actual breakdown of a clog occurs by reaction with the basic sodium hydroxide. Clogs are often composed of substances such as hair, fats, oils, etc. and breakdown occurs via a saponification reaction of a base. Essentially, the ions from the basic lye attack the carbonyl carbons of the fat. Otherwise, the lye itself will absorb water and actually create a mass itself, liquid formulations of corrosive alkaline drain cleaners can contain sodium hypochlorite and lye in concentrations up to 50 percent
Drain opener
–
Bottles of alkaline drain cleaners containing
sodium hydroxide can dissolve greases and hair.
Drain opener
–
Solid Formulation of an alkaline drain cleaner.
Drain opener
–
Acidic drain cleaners usually contain
sulfuric acid at a high concentration which turns a piece of
pH paper red and chars it instantly.
Drain opener
–
Apart from grease and hair, an acidic drain cleaner containing sulfuric acid can be also used to dissolve tissue paper inside water pipes.
30.
Fat
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Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrate and protein. Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol, the terms oil, fat, and lipid are often confused. Oil normally refers to a fat with short or unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature, lipid is the general term, as a lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride. Fats, like lipids, are generally hydrophobic, and are soluble in organic solvents. Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life, and they are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs. Some fatty acids that are set free by the digestion of fats are called essential because they cannot be synthesized in the body from simpler constituents, there are two essential fatty acids in human nutrition, alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. Other lipids needed by the body can be synthesized from these, fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the atoms in the aliphatic chain. Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain, unsaturated fats have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain. The nomenclature is based on the end of the chain. This end is called the end or the n-end. Thus alpha-linolenic acid is called an omega-3 fatty acid because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the counting from that end. Some oils and fats have double bonds and are therefore called polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be divided into cis fats, which are the most common in nature, and trans fats. Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst and this action, called hydrogenation, tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat. However, trans fats are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by a side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can easily and are typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids, olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid
Fat
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The
obese mouse on the left has large stores of adipose tissue. For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is shown on the right.
Fat
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A fat, or
triglyceride, molecule. Note the three fatty acid chains attached to the central glycerol portion of the molecule.
