1.
Lyon
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Lyon or Lyons is a city in east-central France, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, about 470 km from Paris and 320 km from Marseille. Inhabitants of the city are called Lyonnais, Lyon had a population of 506,615 in 2014 and is Frances third-largest city after Paris and Marseille. Lyon is the capital of the Metropolis of Lyon and the region of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, the metropolitan area of Lyon had a population of 2,237,676 in 2013, the second-largest in France after Paris. The city is known for its cuisine and gastronomy and historical and architectural landmarks and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Lyon was historically an important area for the production and weaving of silk. It played a significant role in the history of cinema, Auguste, the city is also known for its famous light festival, Fête des Lumières, which occurs every 8 December and lasts for four days, earning Lyon the title of Capital of Lights. Economically, Lyon is a centre for banking, as well as for the chemical, pharmaceutical. The city contains a significant software industry with a focus on video games. Lyon hosts the headquarters of Interpol, Euronews, and International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon was ranked 19th globally and second in France for innovation in 2014 and it ranked second in France and 39th globally in Mercers 2015 liveability rankings. These refugees had been expelled from Vienne by the Allobroges and were now encamped at the confluence of the Saône and Rhône rivers, dio Cassius says this task was to keep the two men from joining Mark Antony and bringing their armies into the developing conflict. The Roman foundation was at Fourvière hill and was officially called Colonia Copia Felix Munatia, a name invoking prosperity, the city became increasingly referred to as Lugdunum. The earliest translation of this Gaulish place-name as Desired Mountain is offered by the 9th-century Endlicher Glossary, in contrast, some modern scholars have proposed a Gaulish hill-fort named Lugdunon, after the Celtic god Lugus, and dúnon. It then became the capital of Gaul, partly due to its convenient location at the convergence of two rivers, and quickly became the main city of Gaul. Two emperors were born in city, Claudius, whose speech is preserved in the Lyon Tablet in which he justifies the nomination of Gallic senators. Today, the archbishop of Lyon is still referred to as Primat des Gaules, the Christians in Lyon were martyred for their beliefs under the reigns of various Roman emperors, most notably Marcus Aurelius and Septimus Severus. Local saints from this period include Blandina, Pothinus, and Epipodius, in the second century AD, the great Christian bishop of Lyon was the Easterner, Irenaeus. Burgundian refugees fleeing the destruction of Worms by the Huns in 437 were re-settled by the commander of the west, Aëtius. This became the capital of the new Burgundian kingdom in 461, in 843, by the Treaty of Verdun, Lyon, with the country beyond the Saône, went to Lothair I
2.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
3.
Rapid transit
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Rapid transit, also known as heavy rail, metro, subway, tube, or underground, is a type of high-capacity public transport generally found in urban areas. The stations typically have high platforms, without steps inside the trains and they are typically integrated with other public transport and often operated by the same public transport authorities. However, some transit systems have at-grade intersections between a rapid transit line and a road or between two rapid transit lines. It is unchallenged in its ability to transport large numbers of people quickly over short distances with little use of land, variations of rapid transit include people movers, small-scale light metro, and the commuter rail hybrid S-Bahn. The worlds first rapid-transit system was the partially underground Metropolitan Railway which opened as a railway in 1863. In 1868, New York opened the elevated West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway, china has the largest number of rapid transit systems in the world. The worlds longest single-operator rapid transit system by length is the Shanghai Metro. The worlds largest single rapid transit service provider by both length of revenue track (665 miles and number of stations is the New York City Subway. The busiest rapid transit systems in the world by annual ridership are the Tokyo subway system, the Seoul Metropolitan Subway, the Moscow Metro, the Beijing Subway, Metro is the most common term for underground rapid transit systems used by non-native English speakers. One of these terms may apply to a system, even if a large part of the network runs at ground level. In Scotland, however, the Glasgow Subway underground rapid transit system is known as the Subway, in the US, underground mass transit systems are primarily known as subways, whereas the term metro is a shortened reference to a metropolitan area. In that vein, Chicagos commuter rail system, serving the area, is called Metra. Exceptions in naming rapid transit systems are Washington DCs subway system the Washington Metro, Los Angeles Metro Rail, and the Miami Metrorail, the opening of Londons steam-hauled Metropolitan Railway in 1863 marked the beginning of rapid transit. Initial experiences with steam engines, despite ventilation, were unpleasant, experiments with pneumatic railways failed in their extended adoption by cities. Electric traction was more efficient, faster and cleaner than steam, in 1890 the City & South London Railway was the first electric-traction rapid transit railway, which was also fully underground. Both railways were merged into London Underground. The 1893 Liverpool Overhead Railway was designed to use electric traction from the outset, budapest in Hungary and Glasgow, Chicago and New York all converted or purpose-designed and built electric rail services. Advancements in technology have allowed new automated services, hybrid solutions have also evolved, such as tram-train and premetro, which incorporate some of the features of rapid transit systems
4.
Transports en commun lyonnais
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The Transports en commun lyonnais is the Lyon public transport agency. It is the second largest public transport system in France, and covers 62 communes, including all 57 communes of the Urban Community of Lyon, spread over 606 square kilometres. The TCL manages,4 metro lines A B C D. and 2 funiculars 5 tramway lines T1 • T2 • T3 • T4,2 funicular lines 26 strong bus lines Over 100 bus lines, including electric trolleybuses. Other stations less important but which are connections between lines like metro or tram lines and bus lines, Vaise, Laurent Bonnevay. Perrache is also a big train and bus station, saxe-Gambetta TCL is managed by two companies, Sytral sets policies and finances the infrastructure, while Keolis Lyon runs the network on a day-to-day basis. Several bus lines run one bus per hour throughout the night, there are four such lines, labelled Pleine Lune
5.
Track gauge
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In rail transport, track gauge is the spacing of the rails on a railway track and is measured between the inner faces of the load-bearing rails. All vehicles on a network must have running gear that is compatible with the track gauge, as the dominant parameter determining interoperability, it is still frequently used as a descriptor of a route or network. There is a distinction between the gauge and actual gauge at some locality, due to divergence of track components from the nominal. Railway engineers use a device, like a caliper, to measure the actual gauge, the nominal track gauge is the distance between the inner faces of the rails. In current practice, it is specified at a distance below the rail head as the inner faces of the rail head are not necessarily vertical. In some cases in the earliest days of railways, the company saw itself as an infrastructure provider only. Colloquially the wagons might be referred to as four-foot gauge wagons, say and this nominal value does not equate to the flange spacing, as some freedom is allowed for. An infrastructure manager might specify new or replacement track components at a variation from the nominal gauge for pragmatic reasons. Track is defined in old Imperial units or in universally accepted metric units or SI units, Imperial units were established in United Kingdom by The Weights and Measures Act of 1824. In addition, there are constraints, such as the load-carrying capacity of axles. Narrow gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives, as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels. Narrow gauge is often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. Broader gauge railways are generally expensive to build and require wider curves. There is no single perfect gauge, because different environments and economic considerations come into play, a narrow gauge is superior if ones main considerations are economy and tight curvature. For direct, unimpeded routes with high traffic, a broad gauge may be preferable, the Standard, Russian, and 46 gauges are designed to strike a reasonable balance between these factors. In addition to the general trade-off, another important factor is standardization, once a standard has been chosen, and equipment, infrastructure, and training calibrated to that standard, conversion becomes difficult and expensive. This also makes it easier to adopt an existing standard than to invent a new one and this is true of many technologies, including railroad gauges. The reduced cost, greater efficiency, and greater economic opportunity offered by the use of a common standard explains why a number of gauges predominate worldwide
6.
Standard gauge
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The standard gauge is a widely used railway track gauge. Approximately 55% of the lines in the world are this gauge, all high-speed rail lines, except those in Russia, Uzbekistan, and Finland, are standard gauge. The distance between the edges of the rails is defined to be 1435 mm except in the United States. It is also called the UIC gauge or UIC track gauge, as railways developed and expanded, one of the key issues was the track gauge to be used. The result was the adoption throughout a large part of the world of a gauge of 1435 mm. In North East England, some lines in colliery areas were 4 ft 8 in. All these lines had been widened to standard gauge by 1846, parts of the United States, mainly in the Northeast, adopted the same gauge, because some early trains were purchased from Britain. However, until well into the half of the 19th century, Britain. The American gauges converged as the advantages of equipment interchange became increasingly apparent, notably, all the 5 ft broad gauge track in the South was converted to standard gauge over the course of two days beginning on 31 May 1886. See Track gauge in the United States, snopes categorized this legend as false, but commented that. It is perhaps more fairly labelled as True, but for trivial, the historical tendency to place the wheels of horse-drawn vehicles approximately 5 feet apart probably derives from the width needed to fit a carthorse in between the shafts. Others were 4 ft 4 in or 4 ft 7 1⁄2 in, the English railway pioneer George Stephenson spent much of his early engineering career working for the coal mines of County Durham. He favoured 4 ft 8 in for wagonways in Northumberland and Durham, the Hetton and Springwell wagonways also used this gauge. Stephensons Stockton and Darlington railway was primarily to transport coal from mines near Shildon to the port at Stockton-on-Tees. The initial gauge of 4 ft 8 in was set to accommodate the existing gauge of hundreds of horse-drawn chaldron wagons that were already in use on the wagonways in the mines. The railway used this gauge for 15 years before a change was made to 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in gauge, George Stephenson used the 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in gauge for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, authorised in 1826 and opened 30 September 1830. The success of this led to Stephenson and his son Robert being employed to engineer several other larger railway projects. Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway, authorised 1824 and opened 1825, used 4 ft 6 in, Dundee and Newtyle Railway, authorised 1829 and opened 1831, used 4 ft 6 1⁄2 in
7.
Rail profile
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The rail profile is the cross sectional shape of a railway rail, perpendicular to its length. Early rails were made of wood, cast iron or wrought iron, all modern rails are hot rolled steel with a cross section approximate to an I-beam, but asymmetric about a horizontal axis. The head is profiled to resist wear and to give a ride. Unlike some other uses of iron and steel, railway rails are subject to high stresses and are made of very high quality steel. It took many decades to improve the quality of the materials, minor flaws in the steel that may pose no problems in other applications can lead to broken rails and dangerous derailments when used on railway tracks. By and large, the heavier the rails and the rest of the trackwork, the rails represent a substantial fraction of the cost of a railway line. Only a small number of sizes are made by steelworks at one time. Worn, heavy rail from a mainline is often reclaimed and downgraded for re-use on a branchline, the weight of a rail per length is an important factor in determining rails strength and hence axleloads and speeds. Weights are measured in pounds per yard or kilograms per metre, rails in Canada, the United Kingdom and United States are described using imperial units. In Australia, metric units are used as in mainland Europe, commonly, in rail terminology Pound is a contraction of the expression pounds per yard and hence a 132–pound rail means a rail of 132 pounds per yard. Rails are made in a number of different sizes. Some common European rail sizes include, In the countries of former USSR65 kg/m rails and 75 kg/m rails are common, the American Society of Civil Engineers specified rail profiles in 1893 for 5-pound-per-yard increments from 40 to 100 lb/yd. Height of rail equaled width of foot for each ASCE tee-rail weight, ASCE90 lb/yd profile was adequate, but heavier weights were less satisfactory. In 1909, the American Railway Association specified standard profiles for 10 lb/yd increments from 60 to 100 lb/yd, the trend was to increase rail height/foot-width ratio and strengthen the web. Disadvantages of the foot were overcome through use of tie-plates. AREA recommendations reduced the weight of rail head down to 36%. Attention was also focused on improved fillet radii to reduce stress concentration at the web junction with the head, AREA recommended the ARA90 lb/yd profile. Old ASCE rails of lighter weight remained in use, and satisfied the demand for light rail for a few decades
8.
Buses in Lyon
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The Lyon surface bus network is operated by Keolis Lyon on behalf of SYTRAL for TCL. It includes over 140 lines of buses and trolleybuses spread out through Lyon, four nocturnal lines operate from 1,00 am to 4,00 am from Thursday to Saturday during university periods. Only urban and departmental lines owned by TCL are listed here, most vehicles belong to Irisbus brand. Since January 2007, all lines of the network have been used by MPA. The return to this mode of operation took place gradually in the half of 2006. On 1 January 2007, the former network Gibus of Givors was integrated into the TCL network as Line 80,81,82, official site of TCL Lyon en Lignes Tecelyon – the buses of Lyon
9.
Trolleybuses in Lyon
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The Lyon trolleybus system is part of the public transport network of the city and commune of Lyon, France. Opened in 1935, it combines with the Lyon Metro, the Lyon tramway network, Lyon was one of the first cities in France to experience trolleybuses. It is the capitale du trolleybus français, in 1961, the Lyon trolleybus system had the largest number of trolleybuses ever to operate simultaneously in France. In the 21st century, it has been a leader in the development of new trolley buses, the system is owned by SYTRAL, and, like most of the rest of the all-four scheme, is operated by Keolis Lyon on behalf of Transports en commun lyonnais. Since 2006, it has expanded by the electrification of two major new lines. As of 2015, the system consisted of nine lines.00 am to 8.00 pm and they provide an attractive and permanent service throughout the year, including during school holiday periods. Lines C1 to C3 are equipped with a priority system, dedicated lanes for almost their entire routes. The principle of three lines dates back to 2006, and the creation of lignes fortes Cristalis, designated by the letter C. Cristalis a was a model of built by Irisbus. The principle was extended on 29 August 2011 to 23 other lines, some operated by trolleybuses, the letter C has been retained a designator of these lines, but no longer has no any other meaning. Lyon database / photo gallery and Lyon trolleybus list at Urban Electric Transit – in various languages, including English
10.
Lyon Metro Line A
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Line A is a line on the Lyon Metro that runs between Perrache and Vaulx-en-Velin La Soie. It was constructed using the method, and went into service on 2 May 1978. It, together with Line B, were the lines of the Lyon Metro. An extension of Line A from Laurent Bonnevay, Astroballe to Vaul-en-Velin, the line currently serves 14 stations, and is 9.2 kilometres long. Line A trains run on rather than steel wheels, it is a rubber-tired metro line. This extension opened on 2 October 2007 and cost €53 million, transports en Commun Lyonnais Extension to Vaulx-en-Velin La Soie
11.
Lyon Metro Line B
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Line B is a line on the Lyon Metro that runs between Charpennes and Gare dOullins. It was constructed using the method, and went into service on May 2,1978. Together with Line A, it was one of the lines of the Lyon Metro. It has since been extended three times, from Part-Dieu to Jean Macé in 1981, from Jean Macé to Stade de Gerland in 2000, the line serves 10 stations, and is 7.7 kilometres long. Line B trains run on rather than steel wheels, it is a rubber-tired metro line. A tunnel had to be built under the Rhône River and this extension opened on 11 December 2013 at 2pm. In the long term, the line should be automatised and equipped with rolling stock similar to the one of the Line 14 in Paris, transports en Commun Lyonnais Extension to Oullins
12.
Lyon Metro Line D
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Line D is a line on the Lyon Metro with driverless trains with rubber tyres. Line D commenced operation under human control on 4 September 1991 and it was extended to Gare de Vénissieux on 11 December 1992, when it switched to automatic operation. On April 28,1997, it was extended again to Gare de Vaise, being the deepest of the lines in Lyon, it was constructed mainly using boring machines and passes under both rivers, the Rhône and the Saône. At 12.5 kilometres long and serving 15 stations, it is also the longest metro line in Lyon, Gare de Vaise Valmy Gorge de Loup Vieux Lyon - Cathédrale St
13.
Funiculars of Lyon
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The Funiculars of Lyon is a network of funicular railways in Lyon, France. No fewer than five lines, nicknamed ficelles were built. The first line opened in 1862 and linked Rue Terme and Boulevard de la Croix-Rousse, the funicular was closed and converted to a road tunnel in 1968. The second line opened in 1891 and served the Butte de la Croix Rousse, the line was converted into a rack railway in 1972 and rebuilt and extended at both ends to become Line C of the Lyon Metro in 1978. The third line opened in 1878 linking Saint-Jean to Saint-Just with a station at Minimes. The line was converted to a railway in 1901 and back to a funicular in 1958. The fourth and fifth lines were opened in 1900, linking the Tour Metallique on Fourvière hill to Saint-Paul, the first was closed in 1937 and the second was modernised in 1970 with a change of gauge from 1,000 mm to 1,300 mm. The Fourvière - Saint-Jean line is 431 metres long with a 30% incline, both lines still in service were modernised again in 1986 and 1987. A new station at Saint-Jean was built in 1991 to serve the new line D of the Metro, funicular car n°1 is preserved at the AMTUIR. It operated on the track line from Saint-Jean to the Basilique de Fourvière. The line it served on was modernised in 1970 and equipped with new cars, the car was given to the AMTUIR by the Transports en Commun de la Région Lyonnaise on 27 May 1970. List of funicular railways Plan of Lyon metro and funiculars Picture library of transport in Lyon
14.
Lyon tramway
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The Lyon tramway comprises six lines, five lines operated by TCL and one by Rhônexpress in the city of Lyon in Rhône-Alpes, France. The original tramway network in Lyon was developed in 1879, Line T1 opened in 2001, T2 opened in 2001, T3 opened at the end of 2006, line T4 opened in 2009, line Rhônexpress opened in 2010, and line T5 opened in 2012. The tramway system complements the Lyon metro and forms a part to the public transportation system in Lyon. The network of 5 tram lines operated by TCL runs 53.3 kilometres, the network is currently served by 73 Alstom Citadis 302 trams. Line T1 extends from Debourg to IUT Feyssine via Perrache, Part-Dieu Vivier-Merle, Line T2 runs from Perrache to Saint-Priest – Bel-Air via Jean-Macé, Grange-Blanche and Porte des Alpes. Line T3 goes from Part-Dieu - Villette to Meyzieu Z. I. via Vaulx – La Soie, T4 Line connects La Doua at the Clinic Feyzin via Charpennes, Part Dieu Villette, Jet dEau and Gare de Vénissieux. The first steam-driven tram line, the number 12, linked Lyon, the network was electrified between 1893 and 1899. Extensions to the suburbs were built until 1914 and this was the height of the network - high quality service, low price, high frequency and high profitability for shareholders. The inflation after World War II made the network unprofitable, beginning in the 1930s, tramways were progressively replaced with trolleybuses and later buses. A modernization plan, including sections in the city centre. The last urban tram ran on line 4 in January 1956 and the last suburban tram, the first tram network was built and operated by the Compagnie des Omnibus et tramways de Lyon, founded in 1879. It consisted of ten 1,435 mm, horse-drawn lines with a length of 44 km serving Lyon, Villeurbanne. The first line to open was line 5, from Place Bellecour to Vaise along the Saône river, lines 1 and 7 followed the approximate routes of the current metro lines D and A, respectively. The network was extended, by the OTL and by acquisitions of competing operators. 1,000 mm lines to the northwest, acquired by the OTL in 1894,19, Pont-Mouton - Écully 20, Pont-Mouton - Saint-Cyr-au-Mont-dOr 21, Pont-Mouton - Champagne-au-Mont-dOr, extended to Limonest. Metre gauge, steam powered lines on the bank of the Rhône river. Became the Nouvelle Compagnie Lyonnaise des Tramways in 1902, then acquired by the OTL in 1906,23, Pont Lafayette - Cimetière de la Guillotière, extended to Monplaisir-la-Plaine. The extension of the line, electrified to Saint-Priest used the number 34 from 1925 à1935,24, Pont Lafayette - Asile de Bron, extended to Bron
15.
Gare de Lyon-Part-Dieu
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Gare de la Part-Dieu is the primary railway station in Lyon, France. It is situated on the Paris-Lyon-Marseille railway, the train services are operated by SNCF. This zone is served by the metro line B, tram T1, T3, T4, the station was constructed in 1978 as part of the new Part-Dieu urban neighborhood project. Before the construction of the Gare de la Part-Dieu, the neighborhood was served by the Gare des Brotteaux and it closed in 1982 and its operations were absorbed into this station. While Part-Dieu is routinely the busiest, five stations operate in Lyon, Perrache, Lyon-Vaise, Saint-Paul, Gorge de Loup. Part-Dieu is a significant railway hub, connected to the French, the station is served by Frances high-speed rail service, TGV, in addition to Intercity and regional TER trains. Part-Dieu also has connections to Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport by TGV and has assigned the XYD airport code. The SNCF is proposing connection services to CDG under code sharing agreement with many airlines, the station has significantly surpassed its initial traffic expectations, from a moderate 35,000 passengers a day in 1983 to 80,000 passengers on 500 trains a day in 2001. Because of the traffic, the station was renovated from 1995–2001 to increase the number of platforms. In 2010, the station served roughly 51.1 million passengers, Lyon Part-Dieu has direct access to the Lyon Metro and tramways T1, T3, and T4. Transport in Rhône-Alpes TER Rhône Alpes Timetables TER Rhône-Alpes
16.
Gare de Lyon-Perrache
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Lyon-Perrache is a large railway station located in the Perrache district, in the 2nd arrondissement of Lyon, France. The station was opened in 1855 and is located on the Paris–Marseille railway, Lyon–Geneva railway, the train services are operated by SNCF and includes TGV, Intercity and local services. The station was built in 1855 by Alexis Cendrier for the CF du PLM, the building was built in classical style and is composed of a double rooftop and a large passenger building. The station lost its view of the city when the transport interchange, the platforms are covered by two twin iron rooftops. It is the terminus of the LGV Sud-Est line, the railway line from Paris. It is also served by trains from other parts of France. It is also the terminus of one of the Lyon tram lines, today, however, Perrache is no longer the primary rail station serving Lyon. A rebuilding of the station is planned for completion by 2020, with a view to improving the interchange, saint-Étienne, Roanne, Bourgoin-Jallieu, Villefranche, Vienne, Bourg-en-Bresse and Ambérieu
17.
Gare de Lyon-Vaise
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Gare de Lyon-Vaise is a railway station in Lyon, located in the district of Vaise, in the 9th arrondissement. The station is on the Paris-Lyon-Marseille main line, it is served by metro line D. Lyon-Vaise was destroyed during the bombings of 26 May 1944. It was provisionally rebuilt in wood, then a new station was opened in 1956, in 1997, a new multimodal space was built to facilitate connections between the train, metro and bus. Transport in Rhône-Alpes Lyon metro Timetables TER Rhône-Alpes
18.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
19.
SNCF
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SNCF is Frances national state-owned railway company and manages the rail traffic in France and the Principality of Monaco. SNCF operates the national rail services, including the TGV. Its functions include operation of services for passengers and freight. SNCF employs more than 180,000 people in 120 countries around the globe, the railway network consists of about 32,000 km of route, of which 1,800 km are high-speed lines and 14,500 km electrified. About 14,000 trains are operated daily, since July 2013, SNCF headquarters are located in a Parisian suburb at 2, place aux Étoiles,93200 Saint Denis. In 2010 SNCF was ranked 22nd in France and 214th globally on the Fortune Global 500 list and it is the main business of the SNCF group, which in 2014 employed 245,763 people and had €27.2 billion of sales in 120 countries. The chairman of the SNCF group is Guillaume Pépy, SNCF operates almost all of Frances railway system, including the TGV, In the 1970s, SNCF began the TGV high-speed train programme with the intention of creating the worlds fastest railway network. It came to fruition in 1981, when the first TGV service, today, SNCF operates 1,850 km of designated high-speed track that accommodate more than 800 high-speed services per day. SNCF’s TGV trains carry more than 100 million passengers a year, TGV lines and TGV technology are now spread across several European countries in addition to South Korea.8 km/h. SNCF has a safety record. After nearly 30 years in operation, SNCF’s TGV system has experienced one fatal accident. SNCF also owns the tracks and the stations, since the 1990s, SNCF has been selling railway carriages to regional governments, with the creation of the Train Express Régional brand. SNCF also maintains a broad scope of business that includes work on freight lines, inter-city lines. SNCF experts provide logistics, design, construction, operations and maintenance services, SNCF operates the international ticketing agency, Voyages SNCF. SNCF has employees in 120 countries offering extensive overseas and cross border consulting and those projects include, Israel, Assistance and Training. SNCF International provides assistance to Israel Railways in every area of operations including projects to upgrade the networks general safety regulations. Other assistance and training programmes involve Infrastructure and the Traction Division, SNCF supervised the prime contractor responsible for construction of the Taiwan Railways Administration’s main high-speed rail line. It also trained rail traffic controllers, drivers, and crew members, on behalf of the Government of Taiwan, SNCF managed the high-speed railway Command Control Centre
20.
Loading gauge
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A loading gauge defines the maximum height and width for railway vehicles and their loads to ensure safe passage through bridges, tunnels and other structures. Classification systems vary between different countries and gauges may vary across a network, even if the track gauge remains constant, containerisation and a trend towards larger shipping containers has led rail companies to increase structure gauges to compete effectively with road haulage. Compliance with a loading gauge can be checked with a car which in the past were simple wooden frames or physical feelers mounted on rolling stock. The difference between the two is called the clearance, the terms dynamic envelope or kinematic envelope – which include factors such as suspension travel, overhang on curves and lateral motion on the track – are sometimes used in place of loading gauge. The height of platforms is also a consideration when considering the loading gauge of passenger trains, where the two are not directly compatible, steps may be required which will increase loading times. Where long carriages are used on a platform, gaps will occur between the platform and the carriage door, causing additional risk. Problems increase where trains of several different loading gauges and train floor heights use the same platform, the size of load that can be carried on a railway of a particular gauge is also influenced by the design of the rolling stock. Low-deck rolling stock can sometimes be used to carry taller 9 ft 6 in shipping containers on lower gauge lines although their low-deck rolling stock cannot then carry as many containers. Larger out-of-gauge loads can also sometimes be conveyed by taking one or more of the measures, operate at low speed. Cross over from a track with inadequate clearance to another track with greater clearance, prevent operation of other trains on adjacent tracks. Use refuge loops to allow trains to operate on other tracks, use of Schnabel cars that manipulate the load up and down or left and right to clear obstacles. Use gauntlet track to shift the train to side or center, for locomotives that are too heavy, ensure that fuel tanks are nearly empty. Turn off power in overhead wiring or in third rail, rapid Transit railways generally have a very small loading gauge. This reduces the cost of tunnel construction and these systems only use their own rolling stock. The loading gauge on the lines of Great Britain, most of which were built before 1900, is generally smaller than in other countries. In mainland Europe, the slightly larger Berne gauge was agreed to in 1913, as a result, British trains have noticeably and considerably smaller loading gauges and smaller interiors, despite the track being standard gauge along with much of the world. This results in increased costs for purchasing trains as they must be designed for the British network. The International Union of Railways has developed a series of loading gauges named A, B, B+
21.
Montreal Metro
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The Montreal Metro is a rubber-tired, underground rapid transit system and the main form of public transport in the city of Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The Metro, operated by the Montreal Transit Corporation, was inaugurated on October 14,1966, in 2013,356.1 million trips on the Metro were completed. According to the STM, the Metro system had transported over 7 billion passengers as of 2010, with the Metro, Montreal has built one of North Americas largest urban rapid transit schemes, attracting the second-highest ridership per capita behind New York City. The Montreal Metro was inspired by the Paris Métro, which is seen in the Metros station design. Urban transit began in Montreal in 1861 when a line of cars started to operate on Craig. Eventually, as the then Canadian metropolis grew, a network of streetcar lines provided service almost everywhere. But urban congestion started to take its toll on streetcar punctuality, in 1902, as European and American cities were inaugurating their first subway systems, the federal government created the Montreal Subway Company to promote the idea in Canada. Starting in 1910, many proposals were tabled but the Montreal Metro would prove to be an elusive goal, first, the Montreal Street Railway Company, the Montreal Central Terminal Company and the Montreal Underground and Elevated Railway Company undertook fruitless negotiations with the city. The Montreal Tramways Company was the first to receive the approval of the government in 1913. The reluctance of elected city officials to advance funds foiled this first attempt, the issue of a subway remained present in the newspapers but World War I and the following recession hitting Montreal prevented any execution. The gradual return of the financial health during the 1920s brought the MTC project back, World War II and the war effort in Montreal resurrected trams crowding. In 1944, the MTC proposed a network, one line running underneath Saint Catherine Street. By this point, construction was well underway on Canadas first subway line in Toronto under Yonge Street. Still, Montreal councillors remained cautious and no work was initiated, for some of them, including Jean Drapeau during its first municipal term, public transit was a thing of the past. In 1959, a company, the Société dexpansion métropolitaine, offered to build a rubber-tired metro but the Transportation Commission wanted its own network. This was the last missed opportunity, for the re-election of Jean Drapeau as mayor, in the early 1960s, the western world experienced an economic boom and Quebec underwent its Quiet Revolution. The 1961 plan reused several previous studies and planned three lines carved into the rock under the city centre to the most populated areas of the city. The main line, or number 1 was to pass between the two most important arteries, Sainte-Catherine and Sherbrooke streets, more or less under the De Maisonneuve Boulevard and it would extend between the English-speaking west at Atwater station and French-speaking east at Frontenac
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Rubber-tyred metro
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A rubber-tyred metro is a form of rapid transit system that uses a mix of road and rail technology. Most rubber-tyred trains are purpose-built and designed for the system on which they operate, guided buses are sometimes referred to as trams on tyres, and compared to rubber-tyred metros. The first idea for rubber-tyred railway vehicles was the work of Scotsman Robert William Thomson, in his patent of 1846 he describes his Aerial Wheels as being equally suitable for, the ground or rail or track on which they run. During the World War II German occupation of Paris, the Metro system was used to capacity, at the end of the war, the system was so worn out that thought was given as to how to renovate it. Rubber-tyred metro technology was first applied to the Paris Métro, developed by Michelin, who provided the tyres and guidance system, in collaboration with Renault, who provided the vehicles. Starting in 1951, a vehicle, the MP51. Line 11 Châtelet - Mairie des Lilas was the first line to be converted, in 1956, finally, Line 6 Charles de Gaulle - Étoile - Nation was converted in 1974 to cut down train noise on its many elevated sections. The first completely rubber-tyred metro system was built in Montreal, Canada, santiago Metro and Mexico City Metro are based on Paris Métro rubber-tyred trains. Paris Metro Line 14 was automated from its beginning, and Line 1 was converted to automatic in 2007-2011, the first automated rubber-tyred system opened in Kobe, Japan, in February 1981. It is the Portliner linking Sanomiya railway station with Port Island, the vehicle is in the form of electric multiple unit, with power supplied by both, of the guide bars, which thus also serves as the third rail. The return current passes through a return shoe to the top of one, the type of guideway used on a system varies between networks. Two parallel roll ways, each the width of a tyre, are used, either of concrete, concrete slab, H-Shape hot rolled steel, or flat steel. As on a railway, the driver does not have to steer, the Sapporo system is an exception as it uses a central guide rail only. The VAL system used in Lille and Toulouse has conventional track between the guide bars, in Paris these rails were also used to enable mixed traffic with rubber-tyred and steel-wheeled trains using the same track, particularly during conversion from normal railway track. Other systems have other sorts of flat tyre compensation and switching methods, rubber-tyres have higher rolling resistance when compared to traditional steel wheels, which leads to some advantages and disadvantages. Compared to steel wheel on rail, the advantages of rubber-tyred metro systems are. Shorter braking distances, allowing trains to be signalled closer together, quieter rides in open air due to use rubber-tyre. Greatly reduced rail wear with resulting reduced costs of those parts
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Alstom
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A merger with parts of the General Electric Company plc formed GEC-Alstom in 1989, the company became Alstom in 1998. In 2014, Alstom and General Electric announced that a US$17 billion bid for the power and grid divisions had been made. The GE acquisition deal for the power and grid division was accepted by EU and US anticompetition authorities in mid 2015, in 1932, Alsthom expanded into transportation by acquiring Constructions Electriques de France, Tarbes, a manufacturer of electric locomotives as well as electrical and hydraulic equipment. In 1969, Compagnie Générale dElectricité became the majority shareholder of Alsthom, in 1976, Alsthom merged with Chantiers de lAtlantique, becoming Alsthom Atlantique. Thus, the business expanded into marine, the next year, it constructed the first 1300 MW generator set for the Paluel power station, setting a world record with an output of 1500 MW. In 1978, Alsthom delivered its first TGV to SNCF, the TGV went on to break world rail speed records in 1981 and in 1990. It also set the endurance record for high-speed train lines in 2001. In 1986, Alsthom Belfort received an order from EDF for the largest gas turbine in the world, in 1988–89, holding company CGEE Alstom acquired ACEC Energie and ACEC Automatisme from the dissolution of Belgian electrical engineering company ACEC SA. Alstom acquired 100% of ACECs transport division, renaming it ACEC Transport, in 1991, Alstoms parent company CGE was renamed Alcatel Alsthom Compagnie Générale dElectricité, or Alcatel Alsthom for short. In 1994, GEC Alsthom acquired the vehicle manufacturer Linke-Hofmann-Busch from Salzgitter AG. In 1995, the acquired the remaining shares in the steam turbine manufacturer MAN Energie. In early 1998, GEC Alsthom acquired the electrical contractor Cegelec, in 1998, GEC-Alsthom bought Italian firm SASIB SpAs rail signalling subsidiary Sasib Railways, which included the former General Railway Signal. In June 1998, GEC Alsthom was listed on the Paris Stock Exchange, GEC, at the same time, the company name was changed to Alstom. In 1999, Alstoms energy division merged with ABB in a 50–50 joint company known as ABB Alstom Power, Alstom also bought Canadas Télécité, a passenger information and security solutions company, and sold its heavy-duty gas turbine business to General Electric. The next year, it bought out ABBs share in ABB Alstom Power, in 2000, Alstom sold its diesel engine businesses to MAN Group. It also acquired a 51% stake in Fiat Ferroviaria, the Italian rail manufacturer, in April 2003, Alstom sold its industrial turbine business to Siemens for €1.1 billion. By 2003, Alstom was facing a crisis due to poor sales and over $5 billion of debt liabilities. Alstoms share price had dropped 90% over two years, in 2004, the French state took a 21% stake in Alstom and received an EU-approved French government bailout worth €2.5 billion
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Rack railway
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A rack railway is a steep grade railway with a toothed rack rail, usually between the running rails. The trains are fitted with one or more cog wheels or pinions that mesh with this rack rail and this allows the trains to operate on steep grades above around 7 to 10%, which is the maximum for friction-based rail. Most rack railways are mountain railways, although a few are transit railways or tramways built to overcome a steep gradient in an urban environment. The first cog railway was the Middleton Railway between Middleton and Leeds in West Yorkshire, England, UK, where the first commercially successful steam locomotive, Salamanca and this used a rack and pinion system designed and patented in 1811 by John Blenkinsop. The first mountain cog railway was the Mount Washington Cog Railway in the US state of New Hampshire, the track was completed to reach the summit of Mount Washington in 1869. The first mountain railway in continental Europe was the Vitznau-Rigi-Bahn on Mount Rigi in Switzerland. A number of different rack systems have been developed, today, the majority of rack railways use the Abt system. Blenkinsops system remained in use for 25 years on the Middleton Railway, Rack systems place the rack rail halfway between the running rails, with the exception of some early Morgan rack installations. The first successful rack railway in the US was the Mount Washington Cog Railway, the first public trial of the Marsh rack on Mount Washington was made on August 29,1866, when only one quarter of a mile of track had been completed. The Mount Washington railway opened to the public on August 14,1868, the Riggenbach rack system was invented by Niklaus Riggenbach working at about the same time as, but independently from Marsh. Riggenbach was granted a French patent in 1863 based on a model which he used to interest potential Swiss backers. During this time, the Swiss Consul to the United States visited Marshs Mount Washington Cog Railway, eager to boost tourism in Switzerland, the government commissioned Riggenbach to build a rack railway up Rigi Mountain. Following the construction of a locomotive and test track in a quarry near Bern. The Riggenbach system is similar in design to the Marsh system and it uses a ladder rack, formed of steel plates or channels connected by round or square rods at regular intervals. The Riggenbach system suffers from the problem that its fixed ladder rack is more complex, following the success of the Vitznau-Rigi-Bahn, Riggenbach established the Maschinenfabrik der Internationalen Gesellschaft für Bergbahnen - a company that produced rack locomotives to his design. The Strub rack system was invented by Emil Strub in 1896 and it uses a rolled flat-bottom rail with rack teeth machined into the head approximately 100 mm apart. Safety jaws fitted to the locomotive engage with the underside of the head to prevent derailments, strubs US Patent, granted in 1898, also includes details of how the rack rail is integrated with the mechanism of a turnout. The best-known use of the Strub system is on the Jungfraubahn in Switzerland and it is the simplest rack system to maintain and has become increasingly popular
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Third rail
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A third rail is a method of providing electric power to a railway locomotive or train, through a semi-continuous rigid conductor placed alongside or between the rails of a railway track. It is used typically in a transit or rapid transit system. Third rail systems are supplied from direct current electricity. The third-rail system of electrification is unrelated to the third used in dual gauge railways. Third-rail systems are a means of providing electric power to trains. On most systems, the rail is placed on the sleeper ends outside the running rails. The conductor rail is supported on ceramic insulators or insulated brackets, the trains have metal contact blocks called shoes which make contact with the conductor rail. The traction current is returned to the station through the running rails. The conductor rail is made of high conductivity steel. The conductor rails have to be interrupted at level crossings, crossovers, tapered rails are provided at the ends of each section, to allow a smooth engagement of the trains contact shoes. Because third rail systems present electric shock hazards close to the ground, a very high current must therefore be used to transfer adequate power, resulting in high resistive losses, and requiring relatively closely spaced feed points. The electrified rail threatens electrocution of anyone wandering or falling onto the tracks. This can be avoided by using platform screen doors, or the risk can be reduced by placing the rail on the side of the track away from the platform. There is also a risk of pedestrians walking onto the tracks at level crossings, the Paris Metro has graphic warning signs pointing out the danger of electrocution from urinating on third rails, precautions which Chicago did not have. The end ramps of conductor rails present a practical limitation on speed due to the impact of the shoe. The world speed record for a rail train is 174 km/h attained on 11 April 1988 by a British Class 442 EMU. In the event of a collision with an object, the beveled end ramps of bottom running systems can facilitate the hazard of having third rail penetrate the interior of a passenger car. This is believed to have contributed to the death of five passengers in the Valhalla train crash of 2015, third rail systems using top contact are prone to accumulations of snow, or ice formed from refrozen snow, and this can interrupt operations
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Platform screen doors
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Platform screen doors and platform edge doors at train or subway stations screen the platform from the train. They are a new addition to many metro systems around the world. They are widely used in newer Asian and European metro systems, the first stations in the world with platform screen doors are ten stations in the Saint Petersburg Metros Line 2 that opened between 1961 and 1972. The platform doors are actually openings in the wall, which support the ceiling of the platform. The track tunnels adjoining the ten island platforms were built with tunnel boring machines. Usually, TBMs bore the tunnels between stations, while the station vaults are dug out manually and contain both the tracks and the platform. These openings were covered with doors in order to prevent people from falling into the gaps between the walls. In 1987, the Singapore MRT was the first system in the world to install glass PSDs based on safety reasons, although the terms are often used interchangeably, platform screen doors can refer to both full-height and half-height barriers. The half-screen doors are only half of the height of the full-screen doors. These two types of screen doors are presently the main types in the world. These doors help to, Prevent accidental falls off the platform onto the track area, suicide attempts. Improve climate control within the station, improve security — access to the tracks and tunnels is restricted. Lower costs — eliminate the need for motormen or conductors when used in conjunction with Automatic Train Operation, Prevent litter build up on the track, which can be a fire risk. Improve the sound quality of platform announcements, as noise from the tunnels. Their primary disadvantage is their cost, installing a system typically costs several million USD per station and they also impede natural ventilation, increasing climate control costs. The doors also pose their own safety risks, the primary risk is that people may be trapped between the platform doors and the train carriage, and be subsequently crushed when the train begins to move. Cases of this happening are rare, and may depend upon door design, like full-height platform screen doors, these platform gates slide open or close simultaneously with the train doors. Half-height platform gates are cheaper to install platform screen doors
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Nuremberg U-Bahn
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The Nuremberg U-Bahn is a metro run by VAG Nürnberg, which itself is a member of the VGN. The Nuremberg U-Bahn is Germanys newest metro, having begun operation in 1972, in 2008, driverless and fully automated trains have been introduced and count as Germanys first automatic U-Bahn system. The current network of the Nuremberg U-Bahn is composed of three lines, serving 46 stations, and comprising 35 kilometres of operational route. Such swaps are now no longer possible, as the stock on each system has developed in ways that would require it to undergo modification for use on the other system. The newer Nuremberg trains are incompatible with the Munich system, on 20 March 1967, German transport minister Georg Leber and Nuremberg Oberbürgermeister Andreas Urschlechter had the honour of striking the first blow for the new metro. This was done in Bauernfeindstraße when they triggered the pile driver, on 1 March 1972, the first 3. 7-kilometre stretch of the system opened, U1 Langwasser Süd to Bauernfeindstraße. Over the next few years, further stretches of U1 were opened, on 28 January 1984, Nurembergs second U-Bahn line, U2, went into service between Plärrer and Schweinau. This line, too, underwent further extensions, eventually reaching the airport. In 2004,6 Munich A cars were bought by VAG to supplement its own rolling stock fleet, however, owing to the divergence in specifications between the Nuremberg and Munich systems, it turned out that the old Munich stock could not be coupled with Nuremberg stock. As a result, it was not possible to compose trains using both types, although they can at least run on the same tracks. VAG left the Munich stock in its old white and blue Munich livery, reasoning that it was not worth repainting in Nuremberg livery, on 4 December 2004, a new 1. 3-kilometre section of U1 opened in Fürth, stretching from Stadthalle station to Klinikum station. On 8 December 2007, U1 was further extended to Fürth Hardhöhe, on 14 June 2008, the newest U-Bahn line, U3, opened for service. The U-Bahn network comprises three lines, covering about 39 kilometres of route of which 35 kilometres is operational route. The network serves 46 stations which can all be reached by lift, another thing that makes this system special is the use of firm track in almost all tunnels, although not at Langwasser Mitte and the adjoining tunnel up to just before Gemeinschaftshaus. Also, ballast is still found, but only on the inbound track, Fürth Hardhöhe ←→ Langwasser Süd Within Fürth there are seven U-Bahn stations, Stadtgrenze, Jakobinenstraße, Fürth Hauptbahnhof, Rathaus, Stadthalle, Klinikum and Hardhöhe. The planned extension to Kieselbühl is now in question, because the developments in this area are partially cancelled. Nuremberg Airport ←→ Röthenbach The airport connection makes Nuremberg the only city in Germany with a subway link to an airport since the closing of Berlin Tempelhof Airport. In 1984, a new section on the line U2 named Plärrer–Schweinau began operation, at first the trains ran by day as line U21 by way of Weißer Turm and Lorenzkirche to Aufseßplatz or Langwasser Süd
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Tunnel boring machine
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A tunnel boring machine, also known as a mole, is a machine used to excavate tunnels with a circular cross section through a variety of soil and rock strata. They may also be used for microtunneling and they can bore through anything from hard rock to sand. Tunnel diameters can range from a metre to 19.25 metres to date, tunnels of less than a metre or so in diameter are typically done using trenchless construction methods or horizontal directional drilling rather than TBMs. Tunnel boring machines are used as an alternative to drilling and blasting methods in rock, TBMs have the advantages of limiting the disturbance to the surrounding ground and producing a smooth tunnel wall. This significantly reduces the cost of lining the tunnel, and makes them suitable to use in heavily urbanized areas, the major disadvantage is the upfront cost. TBMs are expensive to construct, and can be difficult to transport, the longer the tunnel, the less the relative cost of tunnel boring machines versus drill and blast methods. This is because tunneling with TBMs is much more efficient and results in shortened completion times, the first successful tunnelling shield was developed by Sir Marc Isambard Brunel to excavate the Thames Tunnel in 1825. The first boring machine reported to have built was Henri-Joseph Mauss Mountain Slicer. Commissioned by the King of Sardinia in 1845 to dig the Fréjus Rail Tunnel between France and Italy through the Alps, Maus had it built in 1846 in a factory near Turin. It consisted of more than 100 percussion drills mounted in the front of a locomotive-sized machine, the Revolutions of 1848 affected the funding, and the tunnel was not completed until 10 years later, by using less innovative and less expensive methods such as pneumatic drills. In the United States, the first boring machine to have built was used in 1853 during the construction of the Hoosac Tunnel. Made of cast iron, it was known as Wilsons Patented Stone-Cutting Machine and it drilled 10 feet into the rock before breaking down. Wilsons machine anticipated modern TBMs in the sense that it employed cutting discs, like those of a disc harrow, which were attached to the rotating head of the machine. In contrast to traditional chiseling or drilling and blasting, this method of removing rock relied on simple metal wheels to apply a transient high pressure that fractured the rock. Also in 1853, the American Ebenezer Talbot also patented a TBM that employed Wilsons cutting discs, although they were mounted on rotating arms, which in turn were mounted on a rotating plate. The cutting head of Englishs TBM consisted of a drill bit behind which were a pair of opposing arms on which were mounted cutting discs. From June 1882 to March 1883, the machine tunneled, through chalk, however, despite this success, the cross-Channel tunnel project was abandoned in 1883 after the British military raised fears that the tunnel might be used as an invasion route. During the late 19th and early 20th century, inventors continued to design, build, TBMs employing rotating arrays of drills or hammers were patented
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Rapid transit in France
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There are several rapid transit systems in France. Lille, Lyon, Marseille, Paris, Rennes and Toulouse all have metro systems, twenty-six French cities have light rail and tram systems. Trams in France go back to 1837 when a 15 km steam tram line connected Montrond-les-Bains, with the development of electric trams at the end of the 19th century, networks proliferated in French cities over a period of 15 years. Only trams lines in Lille and Saint-Étienne have operated continuously since the 19th century, since the opening of the Nantes tramway in 1985, more than twenty towns and cities across France have built new tram lines. As of 2013, there are 25 operational tram networks in France, France is also home to Alstom, a leading tram manufacturer
Media related to Lyon Metro at Wikimedia Commons