1.
Sheet music
–
Sheet music is a handwritten or printed form of music notation that uses modern musical symbols to indicate the pitches, rhythms and/or chords of a song or instrumental musical piece. The first printed sheet music made with a press was made in 1473. Sheet music is the form in which Western classical music is notated so that it can be learned and performed by solo singers or instrumentalists or musical ensembles. Many forms of traditional and popular Western music are commonly learned by singers and musicians by ear, Score is a common alternative term for sheet music, and there are several types of scores, as discussed below. Sheet music from the 20th and 21st century typically indicates the title of the song or composition on a page or cover, or on the top of the first page. If the song or piece is from a movie, Broadway musical, or opera, if the songwriter or composer is known, her or his name is typically indicated along with the title. Black market sheet music, such as illegal jazz fake books may or may not indicate the songwriter or composer, the type of musical notation varies a great deal by genre or style of music. In most classical music, the melody and accompaniment parts are notated on the lines of a staff using round note heads, the lyrics, if present, are written near the melody notes. However, music from the Baroque music era or earlier eras may have neither a tempo marking nor a dynamic indication. The singers and musicians of that era were expected to know what tempo and loudness to play or sing a song or piece due to their musical experience. In the contemporary music era, and in some cases before, composers often used their native language for tempo indications. These conventions of music notation, and in particular the use of English tempo instructions, are also used for sheet music versions of 20th. Popular music songs often indicate both the tempo and genre, slow blues or uptempo rock, pop songs often contain chord names above the staff using letter names, so that an acoustic guitarist or piano player can improvise a chordal accompaniment. In other styles of music, different musical notation methods may be used, in jazz, while most professional performers can read classical-style notation, many jazz tunes are notated using chord charts, which indicate the chord progression of a song and its form. Like popular music songs, jazz tunes often indicate both the tempo and genre, slow blues or fast bop, professional country music session musicians typically use music notated in the Nashville Number System, which indicates the chord progression using numbers. Chord charts using letter names, numbers, or Roman numerals are widely used for notating music by blues, R&B, rock music. Many guitar players and electric bass players learn songs and note tunes using tablature, tab is widely used rock music and heavy metal guitarists. Singers in many music styles learn a song using only a lyrics sheet
Sheet music
–
Tibetan musical score from the 19th century.
Sheet music
–
A conductor's score
Sheet music
–
Excerpt from a 13th-century Dominican missal (parchment manuscript)
Sheet music
–
Frontispiece to Petrucci's Odhecaton
2.
Hymn
–
A hymn is a type of song, usually religious, specifically written for the purpose of adoration or prayer, and typically addressed to a deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification. The word hymn derives from Greek ὕμνος, which means a song of praise, a writer of hymns is known as a hymnodist. The singing of hymns is called hymnody, collections of hymns are known as hymnals or hymn books. Hymns may or may not include instrumental accompaniment, although most familiar to speakers of English in the context of Christianity, hymns are also a fixture of other world religions, especially on the Indian subcontinent. Hymns also survive from antiquity, especially from Egyptian and Greek cultures, some of the oldest surviving examples of notated music are hymns with Greek texts. Surviving from the 3rd century BC is a collection of six literary hymns by the Alexandrian poet Callimachus, patristic writers began applying the term ὕμνος, or hymnus in Latin, to Christian songs of praise, and frequently used the word as a synonym for psalm. Originally modeled on the Psalms and other passages in the Scriptures. Many refer to Jesus Christ either directly or indirectly, since the earliest times, Christians have sung psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, both in private devotions and in corporate worship. One definition of a hymn is. a lyric poem, reverently and devotionally conceived, which is designed to be sung, others are used to encourage reverence for the Holy Bible or to celebrate Christian practices such as the eucharist or baptism. A writer of hymns is known as a hymnodist, and the practice of singing hymns is called hymnody, a collection of hymns is called a hymnal or hymnary. These may or may not include music, a student of hymnody is called a hymnologist, and the scholarly study of hymns, hymnists and hymnody is hymnology. The music to which a hymn may be sung is a hymn tune, in many Evangelical churches, traditional songs are classified as hymns while more contemporary worship songs are not considered hymns. The reason for this distinction is unclear, but according to some it is due to the shift of style and devotional thinking that began with the Jesus movement. In ancient and medieval times, stringed instruments such as the harp, lyre and lute were used with psalms, since there is a lack of musical notation in early writings, the actual musical forms in the early church can only be surmised. During the Middle Ages a rich hymnody developed in the form of Gregorian chant or plainsong and this type was sung in unison, in one of eight church modes, and most often by monastic choirs. While they were originally in Latin, many have been translated. Later hymnody in the Western church introduced four-part vocal harmony as the norm, adopting major and minor keys and it shares many elements with classical music. Today, except for choirs, more musically inclined congregations and a cappella congregations, hymns are sung in unison
Hymn
3.
Adeste Fideles
–
The original four verses of the hymn were extended to a total of eight, and these have been translated into many languages. The English translation of O Come, All Ye Faithful by the English Catholic priest Frederick Oakeley, the present harmonisation is from the English Hymnal. An original manuscript of the oldest known version, dating from 1751, is held by Stonyhurst College in Lancashire, thomas Arne, whom Wade knew, is another possible composer. Wade included it in his own publication of Cantus Diversi and it was published again in the 1760 edition of Evening Offices of the Church. It also appeared in Samuel Webbes An Essay on the Church Plain Chant, there are additional Latin verses in various sources
Adeste Fideles
–
Start of "Adeste fideles" Play (
help ·
info)
4.
Word
–
In linguistics, a word is the smallest element that can be uttered in isolation with semantic or pragmatic content. This contrasts deeply with a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning, a word may consist of a single morpheme, or several, whereas a morpheme may not be able to stand on its own as a word. A complex word will typically include a root and one or more affixes, words can be put together to build larger elements of language, such as phrases, clauses, and sentences. The term word may refer to a word or to a written word. Spoken words are made up of units of sound called phonemes, the difficulty of deciphering a word depends on the language. Dictionaries categorize a languages lexicon into lemmas and these can be taken as an indication of what constitutes a word in the opinion of the writers of that language. The most appropriate means of measuring the length of a word is by counting its syllables or morphemes, when a word has multiple definitions or multiple senses, it may result in confusion in a debate or discussion. Leonard Bloomfield introduced the concept of Minimal Free Forms in 1926, words are thought of as the smallest meaningful unit of speech that can stand by themselves. However, some words are not minimal free forms as they make no sense by themselves. Some semanticists have put forward a theory of so-called semantic primitives or semantic primes, according to this theory, semantic primes serve as the basis for describing the meaning, without circularity, of other words and their associated conceptual denotations. In the Minimalist school of theoretical syntax, words are construed as bundles of features that are united into a structure with form. For example, the word koalas has semantic features, category features, number features, phonological features, the task of defining what constitutes a word involves determining where one word ends and another word begins—in other words, identifying word boundaries. There are several ways to determine where the boundaries of spoken language should be placed, Potential pause, A speaker is told to repeat a given sentence slowly. The speaker will tend to insert pauses at the word boundaries, however, this method is not foolproof, the speaker could easily break up polysyllabic words, or fail to separate two or more closely linked words. Indivisibility, A speaker is told to say a sentence out loud, thus, I have lived in this village for ten years might become My family and I have lived in this little village for about ten or so years. These extra words will tend to be added in the boundaries of the original sentence. However, some languages have infixes, which are put inside a word, similarly, some have separable affixes, in the German sentence Ich komme gut zu Hause an, the verb ankommen is separated. Phonetic boundaries, Some languages have rules of pronunciation that make it easy to spot where a word boundary should be
Word
–
Letters and words
5.
Refrain
–
A refrain is the line or lines that are repeated in music or in verse, the chorus of a song. Poetic fixed forms that feature refrains include the villanelle, the virelay, the use of refrains is particularly associated with where the verse-chorus-verse song structure typically places a refrain in almost every song. The refrain or chorus often contrasts the verse melodically, rhythmically, and harmonically. Chorus form, or strophic form, is a sectional and/or additive way of structuring a piece of music based on the repetition of one section or block played repeatedly. In music, a refrain has two parts, the lyrics of the song, and the melody, a similar refrain is found in the Battle Hymn of the Republic, which affirms in successive verses that Our God, or His Truth, is marching on. Refrains usually, but not always, come at the end of the verse, some songs, especially ballads, incorporate refrains into each verse. Fa la la la la la la la la, as one grew bright as is the sun, Lay the bent to the bonny broom So coal black grew the other one. Here, the refrain is syntactically independent of the poem in the song, and has no obvious relationship to its subject. The device can also convey material which relates to the subject of the poem, such a refrain is found in Dante Gabriel Rossettis Troy Town, Heavenborn Helen, Spartas queen, O Troy Town. Had two breasts of heavenly sheen, The sun and moon of the desire, All Loves lordship lay between, A sheen on the breasts I Love. O Troys down, Tall Troys on fire, phrases of apparent nonsense in refrains, and solfege syllables such as fa la la, familiar from the Christmas carol Deck the Halls with Boughs of Holly, have given rise to much speculation. Some believe that the traditional refrain Hob a derry down O encountered in some English folksongs is in fact an ancient Celtic phrase meaning dance around the oak tree, there are two distinct uses of the word chorus. In the thirty-two bar song form that was most common in the earlier twentieth-century popular music, beginning in the rock music of the 1950s, another form became more common in commercial pop music, which was based in an open-ended cycle of verses instead of a fixed 32-bar form. In this form, choruses with fixed lyrics are alternated with verses in which the lyrics are different with each repetition, in this use of the word, chorus contrasts with the verse, which usually has a sense of leading up to the chorus. Many popular songs, particularly early in this century, are in a verse. Most popular songs from the middle of the century consist only of a chorus, according to the musicologists Ralf von Appen and Markus Frei-Hauenschild, In German, the term, Refrain, is used synonymously with chorus when referring to a chorus within the verse/chorus form. At least one English-language author, Richard Middleton, uses the term in the same way, in this usage, the refrain does not constitute a discrete, independent section within the form. A large number of Tin-Pan Alley songs using thirty-two bar form are central to the jazz repertoire
Refrain
–
Musical notation for the chorus of "Jingle Bells" Play (
help ·
info)
6.
Opera
–
Opera is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text and musical score, usually in a theatrical setting. In traditional opera, singers do two types of singing, recitative, a style and arias, a more melodic style. Opera incorporates many of the elements of theatre, such as acting, scenery. The performance is given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble. Opera is a key part of the Western classical music tradition, in the 18th century, Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe, attracting foreign composers such as George Frideric Handel. Opera seria was the most prestigious form of Italian opera, until Christoph Willibald Gluck reacted against its artificiality with his operas in the 1760s. The first third of the 19th century saw the point of the bel canto style, with Gioachino Rossini, Gaetano Donizetti. It also saw the advent of Grand Opera typified by the works of Auber and Meyerbeer, the mid-to-late 19th century was a golden age of opera, led and dominated by Richard Wagner in Germany and Giuseppe Verdi in Italy. The popularity of opera continued through the era in Italy and contemporary French opera through to Giacomo Puccini. During the 19th century, parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe, the 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles, such as atonality and serialism, Neoclassicism, and Minimalism. With the rise of recording technology, singers such as Enrico Caruso, since the invention of radio and television, operas were also performed on these mediums. Beginning in 2006, a number of opera houses began to present live high-definition video transmissions of their performances in cinemas all over the world. In 2009, an opera company offered a download of a complete performance. The words of an opera are known as the libretto, some composers, notably Wagner, have written their own libretti, others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists, e. g. Mozart with Lorenzo Da Ponte. Vocal duets, trios and other ensembles often occur, and choruses are used to comment on the action, in some forms of opera, such as singspiel, opéra comique, operetta, and semi-opera, the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue. Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of, or instead of, the terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail below. Over the 18th century, arias were accompanied by the orchestra. Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagners example, though some, the changing role of the orchestra in opera is described in more detail below
Opera
–
The performers from the Atlanta Opera sing the finale of
Lucia di Lammermoor. The
opera orchestra is visible in the lowered area in front of the stage.
Opera
–
The
Palais Garnier of the
Paris Opéra, one of the world's most famous
opera houses.
Opera
–
Claudio Monteverdi
Opera
–
George Frideric Handel, 1733
7.
Libretto
–
A libretto is the text used in, or intended for, an extended musical work such as an opera, operetta, masque, oratorio, cantata or musical. The term libretto is also used to refer to the text of major liturgical works, such as the Mass, requiem and sacred cantata. Libretto, from Italian, is the diminutive of the word libro, sometimes other language equivalents are used for libretti in that language, livret for French works and Textbuch for German. A libretto is distinct from a synopsis or scenario of the plot, in that the libretto contains all the words and stage directions, while a synopsis summarizes the plot. The relationship of the librettist to the composer in the creation of a work has varied over the centuries, as have the sources. In the context of a modern English language musical theatre piece, Libretti for operas, oratorios and cantatas in the 17th and 18th centuries generally were written by someone other than the composer, often a well-known poet. Metastasio was one of the most highly regarded librettists in Europe and his libretti were set many times by many different composers. Another noted 18th-century librettist was Lorenzo Da Ponte, who wrote the libretti for three of Mozarts greatest operas, as well as for other composers. Eugène Scribe was one of the most prolific librettists of the 19th century, providing the words for works by Meyerbeer, Auber, Bellini, Donizetti, Rossini and Verdi. The French writers duo Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy wrote a number of opera and operetta libretti for the likes of Jacques Offenbach, Jules Massenet. Arrigo Boito, who wrote libretti for, among others, Giuseppe Verdi and Amilcare Ponchielli, the libretto is not always written before the music. Some composers wrote their own libretti, Richard Wagner is perhaps most famous in this regard, with his transformations of Germanic legends and events into epic subjects for his operas and music dramas. Hector Berlioz, too, wrote the libretti for two of his works, La Damnation de Faust and Les Troyens. Alban Berg adapted Georg Büchners play Woyzeck for the libretto of Wozzeck, sometimes the libretto is written in close collaboration with the composer, this can involve adaptation, as was the case with Rimsky-Korsakov and his librettist Belsky, or an entirely original work. In the case of musicals, the music, the lyrics, thus, a musical such as Fiddler on the Roof has a composer, a lyricist and the writer of the book. In rare cases, the composer writes everything except the dance arrangements - music, lyrics and libretto, Other matters in the process of developing a libretto parallel those of spoken dramas for stage or screen. A famous case of the latter is Wagners 1861 revision of the original 1845 Dresden version of his opera Tannhäuser for Paris, since the late 19th century some opera composers have written music to prose or free verse libretti. The libretto of a musical, on the hand, is almost always written in prose
Libretto
–
Cover of a 1921 libretto for Giordano's
Andrea Chénier
Libretto
–
The composer of
Cavalleria rusticana,
Pietro Mascagni, flanked by his librettists,
Giovanni Targioni-Tozzetti and
Guido Menasci.
Libretto
–
Pages from an 1859 libretto for
Ernani, with the original Italian lyrics, English translation and musical notation for one of the arias.
Libretto
–
Henry Purcell (1659–1695) whose operas were written to English libretti.
8.
Librettist
–
A libretto is the text used in, or intended for, an extended musical work such as an opera, operetta, masque, oratorio, cantata or musical. The term libretto is also used to refer to the text of major liturgical works, such as the Mass, requiem and sacred cantata. Libretto, from Italian, is the diminutive of the word libro, sometimes other language equivalents are used for libretti in that language, livret for French works and Textbuch for German. A libretto is distinct from a synopsis or scenario of the plot, in that the libretto contains all the words and stage directions, while a synopsis summarizes the plot. The relationship of the librettist to the composer in the creation of a work has varied over the centuries, as have the sources. In the context of a modern English language musical theatre piece, Libretti for operas, oratorios and cantatas in the 17th and 18th centuries generally were written by someone other than the composer, often a well-known poet. Metastasio was one of the most highly regarded librettists in Europe and his libretti were set many times by many different composers. Another noted 18th-century librettist was Lorenzo Da Ponte, who wrote the libretti for three of Mozarts greatest operas, as well as for other composers. Eugène Scribe was one of the most prolific librettists of the 19th century, providing the words for works by Meyerbeer, Auber, Bellini, Donizetti, Rossini and Verdi. The French writers duo Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy wrote a number of opera and operetta libretti for the likes of Jacques Offenbach, Jules Massenet. Arrigo Boito, who wrote libretti for, among others, Giuseppe Verdi and Amilcare Ponchielli, the libretto is not always written before the music. Some composers wrote their own libretti, Richard Wagner is perhaps most famous in this regard, with his transformations of Germanic legends and events into epic subjects for his operas and music dramas. Hector Berlioz, too, wrote the libretti for two of his works, La Damnation de Faust and Les Troyens. Alban Berg adapted Georg Büchners play Woyzeck for the libretto of Wozzeck, sometimes the libretto is written in close collaboration with the composer, this can involve adaptation, as was the case with Rimsky-Korsakov and his librettist Belsky, or an entirely original work. In the case of musicals, the music, the lyrics, thus, a musical such as Fiddler on the Roof has a composer, a lyricist and the writer of the book. In rare cases, the composer writes everything except the dance arrangements - music, lyrics and libretto, Other matters in the process of developing a libretto parallel those of spoken dramas for stage or screen. A famous case of the latter is Wagners 1861 revision of the original 1845 Dresden version of his opera Tannhäuser for Paris, since the late 19th century some opera composers have written music to prose or free verse libretti. The libretto of a musical, on the hand, is almost always written in prose
Librettist
–
Cover of a 1921 libretto for Giordano's
Andrea Chénier
Librettist
–
The composer of
Cavalleria rusticana,
Pietro Mascagni, flanked by his librettists,
Giovanni Targioni-Tozzetti and
Guido Menasci.
Librettist
–
Pages from an 1859 libretto for
Ernani, with the original Italian lyrics, English translation and musical notation for one of the arias.
Librettist
–
Henry Purcell (1659–1695) whose operas were written to English libretti.
9.
Musical form
–
The term musical form refers to the overall structure or plan of a piece of music, and it describes the layout of a composition as divided into sections. According to Richard Middleton, musical form is the shape or structure of the work and he describes it through difference, the distance moved from a repeat, the latter being the smallest difference. Difference is quantitative and qualitative, how far, and of what type, in many cases, form depends on statement and restatement, unity and variety, and contrast and connection. This phrase may be regarded as the unit of musical form. Even at this level, the importance of the principles of repetition and contrast, weak and strong, climax and repose, thus, form may be understood on three levels of organization. For the purpose of exposition, these levels can be roughly designated as passage, piece. The smallest level of construction concerns the way musical phrases are organized into musical sentences and this may be compared to, and is often decided by, the verse form or meter of the words or the steps of a dance. In the analysis of form, any components that can be defined on the time axis are conventionally designated by letters. Upper-case letters are used for the most fundamental, while lower-case letters are used for sub-divisions, if one such section returns in a varied or modified form, a numerical digit or an appropriate number of prime symbols appears after the letter. Even at this simplest level, there are patterns that may be re-used on larger timescales, for example, consider the analogy with rhyme schemes, The following verse is composed of two differently-rhymed couplets, and thus its organization is binary or twofold. Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are, up above the world so high, like a diamond in the sky. There once was a fellow from Leeds Who swallowed a packet of seeds, in less than an hour he burst into flower And he died trying to pull up the weeds. The next level concerns the structure of any single self-contained musical piece. If the hymn, ballad, blues or dance alluded to above simply repeats the same musical material indefinitely then the piece is said to be in strophic form overall. If it repeats with distinct, sustained changes each time, for instance in setting, ornamentation or instrumentation, then the piece is a theme and variations. If the theme is played, then a new theme is introduced, great arguments and misunderstanding can be generated by such terms as ternary and binary, as a complex piece may have elements of both at different organizational levels. The grandest level of organization may be referred to as cyclical form and it concerns the arrangement of several self-contained pieces into a large-scale composition. For example, a set of songs with a theme may be presented as a song-cycle
Musical form
–
Thought-form of the Music of
Gounod, according to
Annie Besant and
C.W. Leadbeater in Thought Forms (1901)
10.
Articulation (music)
–
In music, articulation refers to the direction or performance technique which affects the transition or continuity on a single note or between multiple notes or sounds. There are many types of articulation, each with a different effect on how the note is played, in music notation articulation marks include the slur, phrase mark, staccato, staccatissimo, accent, sforzando, rinforzando, and legato. A different symbol, placed above or below the note, represents each articulation, woodwind and brass instruments generally produce articulations by tonguing, the use of the tongue to break the airflow into the instrument. Certain palate cues can help student musicians master articulations, for example, the syllable dah demonstrates one placement of the tongue to articulate notes. In most cases, using the tip of the tongue, is the best way of articulation. However, different articulation markings require different tongue placement, smooth, connected passages may require an articulation more reminiscent of the syllable la, while heavy, sharp notes may be attacked with an articulation similar to tah. Furthermore, the implementation of double-tonguing may be required when many articulations are required in rapid succession, double-tonguing can be simulated by repeating the syllables dig and guh in rapid succession. Double-tonguing is a primarily used by brass players, however. A third, rare form of articulation for wind players is doodle tonguing, the name of this articulation comes from the sound, doodle, one would make if she were to sound her voice while performing the articulation. Doodle-tonguing is achieved by moving the tip of the tongue up and down quickly to block the air stream momentarily on the way up, bowed stringed instruments use different bowing techniques to achieve different articulations. One of these techniques is pizzicato, occasionally, articulations can be combined to create stylistically or technically correct sounds. For example, when staccato marks are combined with a slur, tenuto markings under a slur are called hook bows. This name is less commonly applied to staccato or martellato markings. Apagados refers to notes that are played dampened or muted, without sustain, the term is written above or below the notes with a dotted or dashed line drawn to the end of the group of notes that are to be played dampened. The technique is chiefly written for bowed or plucked instruments, modernists refer to the apogado as palm mute. On the guitar, the musician dampens the strings with the palm of the hand, strictly speaking, the term dampened is correct for this effect in music, since to mute means to silence. Illustration of the apagados may be found in the work of composer for Spanish guitar, see, https, //web. archive. org/web/20110714065232/http, //www. mednetconnection. com/18051/18020. html List of musical symbols, Articulation Marks Tonguing Cooper, Helen. Basic Guide to How to Read Music, GNU Lilypond Notation Softwares List of Articulation Symbols
Articulation (music)
–
Articulations from legato to staccatissimo. Legato (
help ·
info), Portato (
help ·
info), Staccato (
help ·
info), Staccatissimo (
help ·
info)
Articulation (music)
–
General
11.
Symmetry
–
Symmetry in everyday language refers to a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance. In mathematics, symmetry has a precise definition, that an object is invariant to any of various transformations. Although these two meanings of symmetry can sometimes be told apart, they are related, so they are discussed together. The opposite of symmetry is asymmetry, a geometric shape or object is symmetric if it can be divided into two or more identical pieces that are arranged in an organized fashion. This means that an object is symmetric if there is a transformation that moves individual pieces of the object, an object has rotational symmetry if the object can be rotated about a fixed point without changing the overall shape. An object has symmetry if it can be translated without changing its overall shape. An object has symmetry if it can be simultaneously translated and rotated in three-dimensional space along a line known as a screw axis. An object has symmetry if it does not change shape when it is expanded or contracted. Fractals also exhibit a form of symmetry, where small portions of the fractal are similar in shape to large portions. Other symmetries include glide reflection symmetry and rotoreflection symmetry, a dyadic relation R is symmetric if and only if, whenever its true that Rab, its true that Rba. Thus, is the age as is symmetrical, for if Paul is the same age as Mary. Symmetric binary logical connectives are and, or, biconditional, nand, xor, the set of operations that preserve a given property of the object form a group. In general, every kind of structure in mathematics will have its own kind of symmetry, examples include even and odd functions in calculus, the symmetric group in abstract algebra, symmetric matrices in linear algebra, and the Galois group in Galois theory. In statistics, it appears as symmetric probability distributions, and as skewness, symmetry in physics has been generalized to mean invariance—that is, lack of change—under any kind of transformation, for example arbitrary coordinate transformations. This concept has one of the most powerful tools of theoretical physics. See Noethers theorem, and also, Wigners classification, which says that the symmetries of the laws of physics determine the properties of the found in nature. Important symmetries in physics include continuous symmetries and discrete symmetries of spacetime, internal symmetries of particles, in biology, the notion of symmetry is mostly used explicitly to describe body shapes. Bilateral animals, including humans, are more or less symmetric with respect to the plane which divides the body into left
Symmetry
–
Symmetric arcades of a portico in the
Great Mosque of Kairouan also called the Mosque of Uqba, in
Tunisia.
Symmetry
Symmetry
–
Many animals are approximately mirror-symmetric, though internal organs are often arranged asymmetrically.
Symmetry
–
The ceiling of
Lotfollah mosque,
Isfahan,
Iran has 8-fold symmetries.
12.
Rapping
–
The components of rapping include content, flow, and delivery. Rap differs from spoken-word poetry in that rap is performed in time to a beat. Rapping is often associated with and an ingredient of hip-hop music. Rapping is also used in Kwaito music, a genre originated in Johannesburg, South Africa. Another form of rap that predates hip hop was boxer Muhammad Alis rhythmic poetry used to taunt his opponents in the 1960s and 1970s, rapping can be delivered over a beat, typically provided by a DJ, turntablist or Beatboxer, or without accompaniment. Stylistically, rap occupies an area between speech, prose, poetry, and singing. The word, as used to describe quick speech or repartee, the word had been used in British English since the 16th century. It was part of the African American dialect of English in the 1960s meaning to converse, today, the terms rap and rapping are so closely associated with hip-hop music that many writers use the terms interchangeably. The English verb rap has various meanings, such as to strike, especially with a quick, smart, or light blow, as well to utter sharply or vigorously, to rap out a command. The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary gives a date of 1541 for the first recorded use of the word with the meaning to utter sharply, vigorously and it is these meanings from which the musical form of rapping derives, and this definition may be from a shortening of repartee. A rapper refers to a performer who raps, by the late 1960s, when Hubert G. Brown changed his name to H. Rap was used to describe talking on records as early as 1971, on Isaac Hayes album Black Moses with track names such as Ikes Rap, Ikes Rap II, Ikes Rap III, Hayes husky-voiced sexy spoken raps became key components in his signature sound. Del the Funky Homosapien similarly states that rap was used to refer to talking in a manner in the early 1970s. Back then what rapping meant, basically, was you trying to convey something—youre trying to convince somebody, thats what rapping is, its in the way you talk. Rapping can be traced back to its African roots, centuries before hip-hop music existed, the griots of West Africa were delivering stories rhythmically, over drums and sparse instrumentation. Such connections have been acknowledged by modern artists, modern day griots, spoken word artists, mainstream news sources. Grammy-winning blues musician/historian Elijah Wald and others have argued that the blues were being rapped as early as the 1920s, Wald went so far as to call hip hop the living blues. A notable recorded example of rapping in blues music was the 1950 song Gotta Let You Go by Joe Hill Louis, not just jazz music and lyrics but also jazz poetry
Rapping
–
The
Memphis Jug Band, an early blues group, whose lyrical content and rhythmic singing predated rapping.
13.
Lyre
–
The lyre is a string instrument known for its use in Greek classical antiquity and later periods. The lyre is similar in appearance to a small harp but with distinct differences, the word comes via Latin from the Greek, the earliest reference to the word is the Mycenaean Greek ru-ra-ta-e, meaning lyrists and written in the Linear B script. The lyres of Ur, excavated in ancient Mesopotamia, date to 2500 BC, the earliest picture of a lyre with seven strings appears in the famous sarcophagus of Hagia Triada. The sarcophagus was used during the Mycenaean occupation of Crete, the recitations of the Ancient Greeks were accompanied by lyre playing. The lyre of classical antiquity was ordinarily played by being strummed with a plectrum, the fingers of the free hand silenced the unwanted strings in the chord. However, later lyres were played with a bow in Europe, one example from Wales that has been resurrected recently is the crwth. In organology, lyres are defined as yoke lutes, being lutes in which the strings are attached to a yoke which lies in the plane as the sound-table. A classical lyre has a body or sound-chest, which. Extending from this sound-chest are two raised arms, which are hollow, and are curved both outward and forward. They are connected near the top by a crossbar or yoke, an additional crossbar, fixed to the sound-chest, makes the bridge which transmits the vibrations of the strings. They were stretched between the yoke and bridge, or to a tailpiece below the bridge, according to ancient Greek mythology, the young god Hermes stole a herd of sacred cows from Apollo. In order not to be followed, he made shoes for the cows which forced them to walk backwards, Apollo, following the trails, could not follow where the cows were going. Along the way, Hermes slaughtered one of the cows and offered all, from the entrails and a tortoise/turtle shell, he created the Lyre. Apollo, figuring out it was Hermes who had his cows, Apollo was furious, but after hearing the sound of the lyre, his anger faded. Apollo offered to trade the herd of cattle for the lyre, hence, the creation of the lyre is attributed to Hermes. Other sources credit it to Apollo himself, locales in southern Europe, western Asia, or north Africa have been proposed as the historic birthplace of the genus. The instrument is played in north-eastern parts of Africa. Some of the cultures using and developing the lyre were the Aeolian and Ionian Greek colonies on the coasts of Asia bordering the Lydian empire, some mythic masters like Musaeus, and Thamyris were believed to have been born in Thrace, another place of extensive Greek colonization
Lyre
–
Greek vase with muse playing the
phorminx, a type of lyre
Lyre
–
Lyre with tortoiseshell body (
rhyton, 480–470 BC)
Lyre
–
The Hagia Triada
Mycenaean sarcophagus, 14th century BCE, depicting the earliest lyre with seven strings, held by a man with long robe, third from the left.
Lyre
–
Pothos (Desire), restored as
Apollo Citharoedus during the Roman era (1st or 2nd century AD, based on a Greek work ca. 300 BC); the cithara strings are not extant
14.
Standard of Ur
–
The Standard of Ur comes from the ancient city of Ur. It is approximately 4,500 years old and was constructed in the form of a hollow wooden box with scenes of war. Although interpreted as a standard by its discoverer, its purpose remains enigmatic. It was found in a tomb in Ur in the 1920s next to the skeleton of a ritually sacrificed man who may have been its bearer. It is now on display, in a form, in the British Museum in London. The artifact was found in one of the largest royal tombs in Ur, tomb PG779, associated with Ur-Pabilsag, a king who died around 2550 BC. Sir Leonard Woolleys excavations in Mesopotamia in 1927–28 uncovered the artifact in the corner of a chamber, for this reason, Woolley interpreted it as a standard, giving the object its popular name, although subsequent investigation has failed to confirm this assumption. The discovery was unexpected, as the tomb in which it occurred had been thoroughly plundered by robbers in ancient times. As one corner of the last chamber was being cleared, a workman spotted a piece of shell inlay, Woolley later recalled that the next minute the foremans hand, carefully brushing away the earth, laid bare the corner of a mosaic in lapis lazuli and shell. The Standard of Ur survived in only a fragmentary condition, the ravages of time over more than four thousand years caused the decay of the wooden frame and bitumen glue which had cemented the mosaics in place. The soils weight crushed the object, fragmenting it and breaking its end panels and this made excavating the Standard a challenging task. When the remains of the Standard were discovered by the excavators, they found that the pieces had kept their form in the soil. They carefully uncovered small sections measuring about 3 square centimetres and covered them with wax, the present form of the artifact is a reconstruction, presenting a best guess of its original appearance. It has been interpreted as a wooden box measuring 21.59 centimetres wide by 49.53 centimetres long, inlaid with a mosaic of shell, red limestone. The box has a shape with end pieces in the shape of truncated triangles, making it wider at the bottom than at the top. Inlaid mosaic panels cover each side of the Standard. Each presents a series of scenes displayed in three registers, upper, middle and bottom, the two mosaics have been dubbed War and Peace for their subject matter, respectively a representation of a military campaign and scenes from a banquet. The panels at each end originally showed fantastical animals but they suffered significant damage while buried, War is one of the earliest representations of a Sumerian army, engaged in what is believed to be a border skirmish and its aftermath
Standard of Ur
–
"War" panel
Standard of Ur
–
"Peace," detail showing
lyrist and possibly a singer.
Standard of Ur
–
External media
15.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
16.
Ancient Greek language
–
Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
Ancient Greek language
–
Inscription about the construction of the statue of
Athena Parthenos in the
Parthenon, 440/439 BC
Ancient Greek language
–
Ostracon bearing the name of
Cimon,
Stoa of Attalos
Ancient Greek language
–
The words ΜΟΛΩΝ ΛΑΒΕ as they are inscribed on the marble of the 1955
Leonidas Monument at
Thermopylae
17.
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey
–
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, KG, was an English aristocrat and one of the founders of English Renaissance poetry. He was a first cousin of both Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard, the second and fifth wives of King Henry VIII. Like his father and grandfather, he was a brave and able soldier, serving in Henry VIIIs French wars as Lieutenant General of the King on Sea and Land. He was repeatedly imprisoned for rash behaviour, on one occasion for striking a courtier and he assumed the title Earl of Surrey in 1524 when his grandfather died and his father became Duke of Norfolk. In 1532 he accompanied his first cousin Anne Boleyn, the King, in 1536 Surrey also served with his father against the Pilgrimage of Grace rebellion protesting against the Dissolution of the Monasteries. He married Frances de Vere, the daughter of John de Vere, 15th Earl of Oxford and they had two sons and three daughters, Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, married Mary FitzAlan Margaret Audley Elizabeth Leyburne. Henry Howard, 1st Earl of Northampton, who died unmarried, jane Howard, who married Charles Neville, 6th Earl of Westmorland. Margaret Howard, who married Henry Scrope, 9th Baron Scrope of Bolton, katherine Howard, who married Henry Berkeley, 7th Baron Berkeley. The Howards had little regard for the new men who had risen to power at court, such as Thomas Cromwell, Surrey was less circumspect than his father in concealing his disdain. The Howards had many enemies at court, Henry VIII, consumed by paranoia and increasing illness, became convinced that Surrey had planned to usurp the crown from his son Edward. The King had Surrey imprisoned and his father sentenced to death on 13 January 1547, Surrey was beheaded on 19 January 1547 on a charge of treasonably quartering the royal arms. His father survived impending execution only by it being set for the day after the king happened to die, surreys son Thomas became heir to the dukedom of Norfolk instead, inheriting it on the 3rd dukes death in 1554. He is buried in a spectacular painted alabaster tomb in the church of St Michael the Archangel, together, Wyatt and Surrey, due to their excellent translations of Petrarchs sonnets, are known as Fathers of the English Sonnet. Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey was portrayed by actor David OHara in The Tudors, house of Treason, the Rise and Fall of a Tudor Dynasty. A Tudor Tragedy, Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk, the Ebbs and Flows of Fortune, Life of Thomas Howard, the Duke of Norfolk. London, Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 23–28, Henry VIIIs Last Victim, The Life and Times. Selected Poems by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, the Poems of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey. —with a memoir by the editor Brigden, Susan
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey
–
Henry Howard
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey
–
Hans Holbein, Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, c.1542
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey
–
Frances Howard, by
Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1535
18.
Petrarch
–
Francesco Petrarca, commonly anglicized as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar and poet in Renaissance Italy, and one of the earliest humanists. Petrarchs rediscovery of Ciceros letters is often credited with initiating the 14th-century Renaissance, Petrarch is often considered the founder of Humanism. In the 16th century, Pietro Bembo created the model for the modern Italian language based on Petrarchs works, as well as those of Giovanni Boccaccio, Petrarch would be later endorsed as a model for Italian style by the Accademia della Crusca. Petrarchs sonnets were admired and imitated throughout Europe during the Renaissance and he is also known for being the first to develop the concept of the Dark Ages. This standing back from his time was possible because he straddled two worlds—the classical and his own modern day, Petrarch was born in the Tuscan city of Arezzo in 1304. He was the son of Ser Petracco and his wife Eletta Canigiani and his given name was Francesco Petracco. The name was Latinized to Petrarca, Petrarchs younger brother was born in Incisa in Val dArno in 1307. Dante was a friend of his father, Petrarch spent his early childhood in the village of Incisa, near Florence. He spent much of his life at Avignon and nearby Carpentras. He studied law at the University of Montpellier and Bologna with a lifelong friend, because his father was in the profession of law he insisted that Petrarch and his brother study law also. Petrarch however was interested in writing and Latin literature and considered these seven years wasted. Additionally he proclaimed that through legal manipulation his guardians robbed him of his small property inheritance in Florence and he protested, I couldnt face making a merchandise of my mind, as he viewed the legal system as the art of selling justice. Petrarch was a letter writer and counted Boccaccio among his notable friends to whom he wrote often. After the death of their parents, Petrarch and his brother Gherardo went back to Avignon in 1326 and this work gave him much time to devote to his writing. With his first large work, Africa, an epic in Latin about the great Roman general Scipio Africanus. On April 8,1341, he became the poet laureate since antiquity and was crowned by Roman Senatori Giordano Orsini. He traveled widely in Europe, served as an ambassador, and has called the first tourist because he traveled just for pleasure. During his travels, he collected crumbling Latin manuscripts and was a mover in the recovery of knowledge from writers of Rome
Petrarch
–
Petrarch
Petrarch
–
Santa Maria della Pieve in
Arezzo
Petrarch
–
Original lyrics by Petrarch, found in 1985 in
Erfurt
Petrarch
19.
Sonnet
–
A sonnet is a poem in a specific form which originated in Italy, Giacomo da Lentini is credited with its invention. The term sonnet is derived from the Italian word sonetto, by the thirteenth century it signified a poem of fourteen lines that follows a strict rhyme scheme and specific structure. Conventions associated with the sonnet have evolved over its history, writers of sonnets are sometimes called sonneteers, although the term can be used derisively. The sonnet was created by Giacomo da Lentini, head of the Sicilian School under Emperor Frederick II, guittone dArezzo rediscovered it and brought it to Tuscany where he adapted it to his language when he founded the Siculo-Tuscan School, or Guittonian school of poetry. Other Italian poets of the time, including Dante Alighieri and Guido Cavalcanti, wrote sonnets, other fine examples were written by Michelangelo. The structure of a typical Italian sonnet of the included two parts that together formed a compact form of argument. First, the octave, forms the proposition, which describes a problem, or question, followed by a sestet, typically, the ninth line initiates what is called the turn, or volta, which signals the move from proposition to resolution. Even in sonnets that dont strictly follow the structure, the ninth line still often marks a turn by signaling a change in the tone, mood. Later, the abba, abba pattern became the standard for Italian sonnets, for the sestet there were two different possibilities, cde, cde and cdc, cdc. In time, other variants on this scheme were introduced. Petrarch typically used an abba, abba pattern for the octave, in English, both the English or Shakespearean sonnet, and the Italian Petrarchan sonnet are traditionally written in iambic pentameter. Early twentieth-century American poet Edna St. Vincent Millay also wrote mostly Petrarchan sonnets, on His Blindness by Milton, gives a sense of the Petrarchan rhyme scheme, Most Sonnets in Dantes La Vita Nuova are Petrarchan. Chapter VII gives sonnet O voi che per la via, with two sestets and two quatrains, and Ch. VIII, Morte villana, with two sestets and two quatrains and it was written by Paolo Lanfranchi da Pistoia and is addressed to Peter III of Aragon. It employs the rhyme scheme a-b-a-b, a-b-a-b, c-d-c-d-c-d and this poem is historically interesting for its information on north Italian perspectives concerning the War of the Sicilian Vespers, the conflict between the Angevins and Aragonese for Sicily. It congratulates Robert of Naples on his recent victory, there are also two poorly regarded sonnets by the Italian Dante de Maiano. By the late 17th century poets on increasingly relied on stanza forms incorporating rhymed couplets, and by the 18th century fixed-form poems – and, in particular, the resulting versification – less constrained by meter and rhyme patterns than Renaissance poetry – more closely mirrored prose. The Romantics were responsible for a return to many of the poems used during the 15th and 16th centuries. The sonnet however was used until the Parnassians brought it back into favor
Sonnet
–
Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, c.1542 by
Hans Holbein
Sonnet
–
Literature
Sonnet
–
William Shakespeare, in the famous
"Chandos" portrait. Artist and authenticity unconfirmed.
National Portrait Gallery (UK).
20.
Greek lyric
–
Greek lyric is the body of lyric poetry written in dialects of Ancient Greek. It is primarily associated with the early 7th to the early 5th centuries BC, sometimes called the Lyric Age of Greece, culturally, Greek lyric is the product of the political, social and intellectual milieu of the Greek polis. Much of Greek lyric is occasional poetry, composed for public or private performance by a soloist or chorus to mark particular occasions, the symposium was one setting in which lyric poems were performed. Lyric indicates that these poems were conceived of as belonging to the tradition of poetry sung or chanted to the accompaniment of the lyre, also known as melic poetry. Modern surveys of Greek lyric often include relatively short poems composed for similar purposes or circumstances that were not strictly song lyrics in the sense, such as elegies. Greek lyric poems celebrate athletic victories, commemorate the dead, exhort soldiers to valor, and offer religious devotion in the forms of hymns, paeans, partheneia, maiden-songs, were sung by choruses of maidens at festivals. Love poems praise the beloved, express unfulfilled desire, proffer seductions, in this last mood, love poetry might blur into invective, a poetic attack aimed at insulting or shaming a personal enemy, an art at which Archilochus, the earliest known Greek lyric poet, excelled. The themes of Greek lyric include politics, war, sports, drinking, money, youth, old age, death, the heroic past, the gods, and hetero- and homosexual love. In the 3rd century BC, the movement at Alexandria produced a canon of the nine melic poets, Alcaeus, Alcman, Anacreon, Bacchylides, Ibycus, Pindar, Sappho, Simonides. Only a small sampling of lyric poetry from Archaic Greece, the period when it first flourished, survives. For example, the poems of Sappho are said to have filled nine papyrus rolls in the Library of Alexandria, today, only one of Sapphos poems exists intact, with fragments from other sources that would scarcely fill a chapbook. Greek poetry meters are based on patterns of long and short syllables, apart from the shift between long and short syllables, stress must be considered when reading Greek poetry. The interplay between the metric shifts, the syllables and caesuras is an integral part of the poetry. It allows the poet to stress certain words and shape the meaning of the poem. The nine melic poets composed in complex triadic forms of strophe, antistrophe, Iambic and trochaic meters, most commonly iambic trimeter and trochaic tetrameter, alternate long and short syllables. Iambic meters were thought to reflect most closely the rhythms of Greek as spoken in everyday life, earlier, it was usually used for invective or satire, as suggested by the word iambos, which meant lampoon or scurrilous abuse, and as found in Archilochus and Hipponax. Semonides of Amorgos uses iambic trimeter for both his misogynistic satirizing of women and for his poem on the theme of the vanity of human wishes, literary histories usually treat elegies, a category which includes any poetry written in elegiac couplets, as part of the lyric tradition. Since the first line of a couplet is dactylic hexameter
Greek lyric
–
Alcaeus and Sappho (
Brygos Painter,
Attic red-figure kalathos, ca. 470 BC)
21.
Cithara
–
The cithara or kithara was an ancient Greek musical instrument in the lyre or lyra family. In modern Greek the word kithara has come to mean guitar, the kithara was a professional version of the two-stringed lyre. As opposed to the lyre, which was a folk-instrument. The kitharas origins are likely Asiatic, the barbiton was a bass version of the kithara popular in the eastern Aegean and ancient Asia Minor. In the Middle Ages, cythara was used generically for stringed instruments including lyres. The use of the name throughout the Middle Ages looked back to the original Greek cithara, the kithara had a deep, wooden sounding box composed of two resonating tables, either flat or slightly arched, connected by ribs or sides of equal width. At the top, its strings were knotted around the crossbar or yoke or to rings threaded over the bar, the other end of the strings was secured to a tail-piece after passing over a flat bridge, or the tail-piece and bridge were combined. The kithara was played primarily to accompany dances and epic recitations, rhapsodies, odes and it was also played solo at the receptions, banquets, national games, and trials of skill. The music from this instrument was said to be the lyre for drinking parties and is considered an invention of Terpander, aristotle said that these string instruments were not for educational purposes but for pleasure only. The kithara was the instrument, generally known as taking a great deal of skill. Sappho is closely associated with music, especially string instruments like the kithara and she was a woman of high social standing and composed songs that focused on the emotions. A Greek mythology story goes that she ascended the slopes of Mount Parnassus where she was welcomed by the Muses. She wandered through the grove and came upon the cave of Apollo. The sacred nymphs danced while she stroked the strings with much talent to bring forth sweet musical melodies from the resonant kithara, Music and Image in Classical Athens, New York, Cambridge University Press Schlesinger, Kathleen. MMA staff, The Kithara in Ancient Greece | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, retrieved 2016-10-25 Hagel, Stefan, Ancient Greek Music, Oeaw. ac. In its recording DEuripide aux premiers chretiens, musique de lantiquité grecque et romaine, pictures of its instruments can be seen on their website
Cithara
–
Apollo Citharoedus with kithara
Cithara
–
Greek vase drawing depicting a man playing a kithara with eight strings.
Cithara
–
Alcaeus of Mytilene playing a kithara while Sappho listens by
Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1881).
The Walters Art Museum.
22.
Aulos
–
An aulos or tibia was an ancient Greek wind instrument, depicted often in art and also attested by archaeology. An aulete was the musician who performed on an aulos, the ancient Roman equivalent was the tibicen, from the Latin tibia, pipe, aulos. There were several kinds of aulos, single or double, the most common variety was a reed instrument. Archeological finds, surviving iconography and other evidence indicate that it was double-reeded, like the modern oboe, a single pipe without a reed was called the monaulos. A single pipe held horizontally, as the flute, was the plagiaulos. A pipe with a bag to allow for sound, that is a bagpipe, was the askaulos. Like the Great Highland Bagpipe, the aulos has been used for martial music and it was the standard accompaniment of the passionate elegiac poetry. It also accompanied physical activities such as wrestling matches, the broad jump, plato associates it with the ecstatic cults of Dionysus and the Korybantes, banning it from his Republic but reintroducing it in Laws. It appears that some variants of the instrument were loud, shrill, sometimes a second strap was used over the top of the head to prevent the phorbeiá from slipping down. Aulos players are depicted with puffed cheeks. The playing technique almost certainly made use of breathing, very much like the Sardinian launeddas and Armenian duduk. Nevertheless, such musicians could achieve fame, the Romano-Greek writer Lucian discusses aulos playing in his dialogue Harmonides, in which Alexander the Greats aulete Timotheus discusses fame with his pupil Harmonides. Timotheus advises him to impress the experts within his profession rather than seek popular approval in big public venues, if leading musicians admire him, popular approval will follow. However, Lucian reports that Harmonides died from excessive blowing during practicing, in myth, Marsyas the satyr was supposed to have invented the aulos, or else picked it up after Athena had thrown it away because it caused her cheeks to puff out and ruined her beauty. But Apollo and his lyre beat Marsyas and his aulos, and since the pure lord of Delphis mind worked in different ways from Marsyass, he celebrated his victory by stringing his opponent up from a tree and flaying him alive. King Midas was cursed with donkeys ears for judging Apollo as the lesser player, Marsyass blood and the tears of the Muses formed the river Marsyas in Asia Minor. This tale was a warning against committing the sin of hubris, or overweening pride, some of this is a result of 19th century AD classical interpretation, i. e. Apollo versus Dionysus, or Reason opposed to Madness. In the temple to Apollo at Delphi, there was also a shrine to Dionysus, and his Maenads are shown on drinking cups playing the aulos, so a modern interpretation can be a little more complicated than just simple duality
Aulos
–
Aulos
Aulos
–
Drawing of a plagiaulos.
Aulos
–
The competition between Marsyas and Apollo on a Roman
sarcophagus (290–300)
Aulos
–
Theatrical scene from a
Pompeiian mosaic showing a masked performer with an aulos and two goatskin-wearing actors
23.
Nine Lyric Poets
–
The Nine Lyric or Melic Poets were a canonical group of ancient Greek poets esteemed by the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria as worthy of critical study. In the Palatine Anthology, they are stated to have established lyric song, the ancient scholars defined the genre on the basis of the musical accompaniment, not the content. Thus, some types of poetry which would be included under the label lyric poetry in modern criticism—namely, the Nine Lyric Poets are traditionally divided among those who primarily composed choral and those who composed monodic verse. This division is, however, contested by modern scholars
Nine Lyric Poets
–
The nine
muses: Clio, Thalia, Erato, Euterpe, Polyhymnia, Calliope, Terpsichore, Urania, Melpomene
24.
Lyric poetry
–
Lyric poetry is a formal type of poetry which expresses personal emotions or feelings, typically spoken in the first person. The term derives from a form of Ancient Greek literature, the lyric, the term owes its importance in literary theory to the division developed by Aristotle between three broad categories of poetry, lyrical, dramatic and epic. Much lyric poetry depends on regular meter based either on number of syllables or on stress, the most common meters are as follows, Iambic – two syllables, with the short or unstressed syllable followed by the long or stressed syllable. Trochaic – two syllables, with the long or stressed syllable followed by the short or unstressed syllable, in English, this metre is found almost entirely in lyric poetry. Pyrrhic – Two unstressed syllables Anapestic – three syllables, with the first two short or unstressed and the last long or stressed, dactylic – three syllables, with the first one long or stressed and the other two short or unstressed. Spondaic – two syllables, with two successive long or stressed syllables, some forms have a combination of meters, often using a different meter for the refrain. For the ancient Greeks, lyric poetry had a technical meaning, verse that was accompanied by a lyre, cithara. Because such works were sung, it was also known as melic poetry. The lyric or melic poet was distinguished from the writer of plays, the writer of trochaic and iambic verses, the writer of elegies, the scholars of Hellenistic Alexandria created a canon of nine lyric poets deemed especially worthy of critical study. These archaic and classical musician-poets included Sappho, Alcaeus, Anacreon, archaic lyric was characterized by strophic composition and live musical performance. Some poets, like Pindar extended the metrical forms to a triad, including strophe, antistrophe, among the major extant Roman poets of the classical period, only Catullus and Horace wrote lyric poetry, which however was no longer meant to be sung but instead read or recited. What remained were the forms, the meters of the Greeks adapted to Latin. Catullus was influenced by both archaic and Hellenistic Greek verse and belonged to a group of Roman poets called the Neoteroi who spurned epic poetry following the lead of Callimachus, instead, they composed brief, highly polished poems in various thematic and metrical genres. The varying forms of the new Chu ci provided more rhythm, originating in 10th-century Persian, a ghazal is a poetic form consisting of couplets that share a rhyme and a refrain. Formally, it consists of a short lyric composed in a meter with a single rhyme throughout. Notable authors include Hafiz, Amir Khusro, Auhadi of Maragheh, Alisher Navoi, Obeid e zakani, Khaqani Shirvani, Anvari, Farid al-Din Attar, Omar Khayyam, and Rudaki. The ghazal was introduced to European poetry in the early 19th century by the Germans Schlegel, Von Hammer-Purgstall, and Goethe, lyric in European literature of the medieval or Renaissance period means a poem written so that it could be set to music—whether or not it actually was. A poems particular structure, function, or theme might all vary, the lyric poetry of Europe in this period was created by the pioneers of courtly poetry and courtly love largely without reference to the classical past
Lyric poetry
–
Henry Oliver Walker 's 1896 Lyric Poetry in the
Library of Congress 's
Thomas Jefferson Building
Lyric poetry
–
Literature
Lyric poetry
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Alcaeus and
Sappho depicted on an
Attic red-figure
kalathos c. 470 BC
Lyric poetry
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Benjamin Haydon 's 1842 portrait of
William Wordsworth
25.
Sir John Stainer
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Sir John Stainer was an English composer and organist whose music, though not generally much performed today, was very popular during his lifetime. His work as trainer and organist set standards for Anglican church music that are still influential. He was also active as an academic, becoming Heather Professor of Music at Oxford, Stainer was born in Southwark, London in 1840, the son of a cabinet maker. He became a chorister at St Pauls Cathedral when aged ten and was appointed to the position of organist at St Michaels College and he later became organist at Magdalen College, Oxford, and subsequently organist at St Pauls Cathedral. When he retired due to his eyesight and deteriorating health. He died unexpectedly while on holiday in Italy in 1901, John Stainer was the eighth of nine children born to William Stainer and his wife Ann on 6 June 1840. At least three of the children died in infancy, and John was much younger than his brother, William, the family lived in Southwark, London, where his father was a cabinet maker and later a vestry clerk and registrar of births. He was also a musician and player of the piano, violin. He built a chamber organ at home on which the precocious John used to accompany him when he played hymn tunes on the violin. His sister Ann also used it – she was the regular organist at Magdalen Hospital and it was a happy family, and young John seems to have been spoiled by his elders. He was precocious and could play Bachs Fugue in E major at the age of seven, in 1849, after a years probation, Stainer became a chorister at St Pauls Cathedral. He was already a player on keyboard instruments and possessed perfect pitch. In 1854 he was invited to sing in the first English performance of Bachs St Matthew Passion under William Sterndale Bennett at the Hanover Square Rooms and he travelled each day between his home in Streatham and the cathedral by steamboat. The choristers were required to sing for services at 9.30 a. m. and 3.15 p. m, a house in the cathedrals present choir school has since been named after him. He received organ lessons at St. Sepulchres Church, Holborn from George Cooper and he may have met future composer Arthur Sullivan, his junior by two years, there. At any rate they became friends and undertook activities together on half-holidays, in 1855 he was offered a six-month contract as organist at St Benets, Pauls Wharf. He proved successful, and his contract was renewed several times for further six-month terms, as he was still a minor, his salary of £30 per year was paid to his father. During this period, he deputised for the regular organists, Goss and Cooper
Sir John Stainer
–
Sir John Stainer
Sir John Stainer
–
St Michael's College, Tenbury
Sir John Stainer
–
Interior of Magdalen College Chapel
Sir John Stainer
–
St Paul's Cathedral at about the time Stainer was organist
26.
Poem
–
Poetry has a long history, dating back to the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. Early poems evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the Sanskrit Vedas, Zoroastrian Gathas, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancient attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotles Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on such as repetition, verse form and rhyme. From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more generally regarded as a creative act employing language. Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretation to words, devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly figures of such as metaphor, simile and metonymy create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm. Some poetry types are specific to cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition, playing with and testing, among other things, in todays increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniques from diverse cultures and languages. Some scholars believe that the art of poetry may predate literacy, others, however, suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. The oldest surviving poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, comes from the 3rd millennium BCE in Sumer. An example of Egyptian epic poetry is The Story of Sinuhe, other forms of poetry developed directly from folk songs. The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry, the efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in poetics—the study of the aesthetics of poetry. Some ancient societies, such as Chinas through her Shijing, developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance, Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Later aestheticians identified three major genres, epic poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry, Aristotles work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, as well as in Europe during the Renaissance. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability and this romantic approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic
Poem
–
Aristotle
Poem
–
Literature
Poem
–
John Keats
Poem
–
Archibald MacLeish
27.
Music
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Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch, rhythm, dynamics, different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. The word derives from Greek μουσική, Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as the harmony of the spheres and it is music to my ears point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, There is no noise, the creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. There are many types of music, including music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious ceremonies. For example, it can be hard to draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock and heavy metal, within the arts, music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art or as an auditory art. People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing cello in a youth orchestra, the word derives from Greek μουσική. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the music is derived from mid-13c. Musike, from Old French musique and directly from Latin musica the art of music and this is derived from the. Greek mousike of the Muses, from fem. of mousikos pertaining to the Muses, from Mousa Muse. In classical Greece, any art in which the Muses presided, Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. With the advent of recording, records of popular songs. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their songs, which serve as a self-portrait. An environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved, amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure, and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings, There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians, in community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras. However, there are many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers
Music
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A painting on an Ancient Greek vase depicts a music lesson (c. 510 BC).
Music
–
Jean-Gabriel Ferlan performing at a 2008 concert at the collège-lycée Saint-François Xavier
Music
–
The composer
Michel Richard Delalande, pen in hand.
Music
–
Funk places most of its emphasis on rhythm and
groove, with entire songs based around a
vamp on a single chord. Pictured are the influential funk musicians
George Clinton and
Parliament Funkadelic in 2006.
28.
Melody
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A melody, also tune, voice, or line, is a linear succession of musical tones that the listener perceives as a single entity. In its most literal sense, a melody is a combination of pitch and rhythm, while more figuratively and it may be considered the foreground to the background accompaniment. A line or part need not be a foreground melody, melodies often consist of one or more musical phrases or motifs, and are usually repeated throughout a composition in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches, pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence, the true goal of music—its proper enterprise—is melody. All the parts of harmony have as their purpose only beautiful melody. Therefore, the question of which is the significant, melody or harmony, is futile. Beyond doubt, the means is subordinate to the end, given the many and varied elements and styles of melody many extant explanations confine us to specific stylistic models, and they are too exclusive. Paul Narveson claimed in 1984 that more than three-quarters of melodic topics had not been explored thoroughly, melodies in the 20th century utilized a greater variety of pitch resources than ha been the custom in any other historical period of Western music. While the diatonic scale was used, the chromatic scale became widely employed. Composers also allotted a structural role to the dimensions that previously had been almost exclusively reserved for pitch. Kliewer states, The essential elements of any melody are duration, pitch, and quality, texture, for example, Jazz musicians use the term lead or head to refer to the main melody, which is used as a starting point for improvisation. Rock music, melodic music, and other forms of popular music, indian classical music relies heavily on melody and rhythm, and not so much on harmony, as the music contains no chord changes. Balinese gamelan music often uses complicated variations and alterations of a melody played simultaneously. In western classical music, composers often introduce an initial melody, or theme, classical music often has several melodic layers, called polyphony, such as those in a fugue, a type of counterpoint. Often, melodies are constructed from motifs or short melodic fragments, richard Wagner popularized the concept of a leitmotif, a motif or melody associated with a certain idea, person or place. Appropriation Hocket Parsons code, a notation used to identify a piece of music through melodic motion—the motion of the pitch up. Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2nd ed. p. 517–19, the Art of Melody, p. xix–xxx. A Textbook of Melody, A course in functional melodic analysis, a History Of Melody, Barrie and Rockliff, London
Melody
–
"
Pop Goes the Weasel " melody Play (
help ·
info)
Melody
29.
Rule Britannia
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Rule, Britannia. is a British patriotic song, originating from the poem Rule, Britannia by James Thomson and set to music by Thomas Arne in 1740. It is strongly associated with the Royal Navy, but also used by the British Army, Thomson was a Scottish poet and playwright, who spent most of his adult life in England and hoped to make his fortune at Court. He had an interest in helping foster a British identity, including and transcending the older English, Irish, Welsh and Scottish identities and this might have some bearing on the songs famous refrain Britons never will be slaves. Incidentally, Thomson wrote the word never only once, but it has been corrupted to never, never, never. The same theme was repeated in the Navys own Heart of Oak, in 1751 Mallet altered the lyrics, omitting three of the original six stanzas and adding three others, written by Lord Bolingbroke. This version known as Married to a Mermaid became extremely popular when Mallet produced his masque of Britannia at Drury Lane Theatre in 1755, the song soon developed an independent life of its own, separate from the masque of which it had formed a part. First heard in London in 1745, it achieved instant popularity and it quickly became so well known that Handel quoted it in his Occasional Oratorio in the following year. Handel used the first phrase as part of the Act II soprano aria, Prophetic visions strike my eye, similarly, Rule, Britannia. was seized upon by the Jacobites, who altered Thomsons words to a pro-Jacobite version. However, Thomsons original words remained best-known, Britain and France were at war for much of the century and hostile in between and the French Bourbons were undoubtedly the prime example of haughty tyrants, whose slaves Britons should never be. At the time it appeared the song was not a celebration of a state of naval affairs. The time was still to come when the Royal Navy would be a dominant force on the oceans. The jesting lyrics of the century would assume a material. The melody was the theme for a set of variations for piano by Ludwig van Beethoven and he used it in Wellingtons Victory. Richard Wagner wrote an overture in D major based on the theme in 1837. The French organist-composer Alexandre Guilmant included this tune in his Fantaisie sur deux mélodies anglaises for organ Op.43, arthur Sullivan, Britains leading composer during the reign of Queen Victoria, quoted from Rule, Britannia. On at least three occasions in music for his comic operas written with W. S. Gilbert and Bolton Rowe, in Utopia Limited, Sullivan used airs from Rule, Britannia. to highlight references to Great Britain. In The Zoo Sullivan applied the tune of Rule, Britannia. to an instance in which Rowes libretto quotes directly from the patriotic march. Finally, to celebrate the jubilee of Queen Victoria in 1887, Sullivan added a chorus of Rule, Britannia. to the finale of HMS Pinafore, which was playing in revival at the Savoy Theatre
Rule Britannia
–
Britannia rule the waves: decorated plate made in Liverpool circa 1793–1794.
Rule Britannia
–
First page of an 1890s edition of the sheet music. A PDF is available
here.
30.
And did those feet in ancient time
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And did those feet in ancient time is a short poem by William Blake from the preface to his epic Milton a Poem, one of a collection of writings known as the Prophetic Books. The date of 1804 on the page is probably when the plates were begun. Today it is best known as the anthem Jerusalem, with music written by Sir Hubert Parry in 1916 and it is not to be confused with another poem, much longer and larger in scope, but also by Blake, called Jerusalem The Emanation of the Giant Albion. The poems theme is linked to the Book of Revelation describing a Second Coming, the Christian church in general, and the English Church in particular, has long used Jerusalem as a metaphor for Heaven, a place of universal love and peace. In the most common interpretation of the poem, Blake implies that a visit by Jesus would briefly create heaven in England, Blakes poem asks four questions rather than asserting the historical truth of Christs visit. Thus the poem implies that there may, or may not, have been a divine visit. This view has been linked to the fate of the Albion Flour Mills, designed by John Rennie and Samuel Wyatt, it was built on land purchased by Wyatt in Southwark. This rotary steam-powered flour mill by Matthew Boulton and James Watt used grinding gears by Rennie to produce 6000 bushels of flour per week, the factory could have driven independent traditional millers out of business, but it was destroyed in 1791 by fire, perhaps deliberately. Londons independent millers celebrated with placards reading, Success to the mills of Albion, opponents referred to the factory as satanic, and accused its owners of adulterating flour and using cheap imports at the expense of British producers. A contemporary illustration of the shows a devil squatting on the building. The mills were a short distance from Blakes home, Blakes phrase resonates with a wider theme in his works, what he envisioned as a physically and spiritually repressive ideology based on a quantified reality. /. Another interpretation, amongst Nonconformists, is that the phrase refers to the established Church of England and this church preached a doctrine of conformity to the established social order and class system, in contrast to Blake. The line from the poem Bring me my Chariot of fire, the phrase has become a byword for divine energy, and inspired the title of the 1981 film Chariots of Fire. The plural phrase chariots of fire refers to 2 Kings 6, Blake lived in London for most of his life, but wrote much of Milton while living in the village of Felpham in West Sussex. Amanda Gilroy argues that the poem is informed by Blakes evident pleasure in the Felpham countryside, the phrase green and pleasant land has become a collocation for identifiably English landscape or society. It appears as a headline, title or sub-title in numerous articles, sometimes it refers, whether with appreciation, nostalgia or critical analysis, to idyllic or enigmatic aspects of the English countryside. In other contexts it can suggest the perceived habits and aspirations of rural middle-class life, sometimes it is used ironically, e. g. in the Dire Straits song Iron Hand. Several of Blakes poems and paintings express a notion of universal humanity and he retained an active interest in social and political events for all his life, but was often forced to resort to cloaking social idealism and political statements in Protestant mystical allegory
And did those feet in ancient time
–
The preface to Milton, as it appeared in Blake's own illuminated version
And did those feet in ancient time
–
Albion Flour Mills
And did those feet in ancient time
–
The first reference to Satan's "mills", next to images of megaliths (
Milton a Poem, copy C, object 4)
31.
Ballad
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A ballad /ˈbæləd/ is a form of verse, often a narrative set to music. Ballads derive from the medieval French chanson balladée or ballade, which were originally danced songs, Ballads were particularly characteristic of the popular poetry and song of the British Isles from the later medieval period until the 19th century. They were widely used across Europe, and later in the Americas, Australia, Ballads are 13 lines with an ABABBCBC form, consisting of couplets of rhymed verse, each of 14 syllables. Many ballads were written and sold as single sheet broadsides, the form was often used by poets and composers from the 18th century onwards to produce lyrical ballads. In the later 19th century, the took on the meaning of a slow form of popular love song and is now often used for any love song. The ballad derives its name from medieval French dance songs or ballares, from which ballet is also derived, as a narrative song, their theme and function may originate from Scandinavian and Germanic traditions of storytelling that can be seen in poems such as Beowulf. Musically they were influenced by the Minnesinger, the earliest example of a recognizable ballad in form in England is Judas in a 13th-century manuscript. This means that the two words, ballad and ballet, are derived from the French language. Ballads were originally written to accompany dances, and so were composed in couplets with refrains in alternate lines and these refrains would have been sung by the dancers in time with the dance. Most northern and west European ballads are written in ballad stanzas or quatrains of alternating lines of iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter, known as ballad meter. Usually, only the second and fourth line of a quatrain are rhymed, there is considerable variation on this pattern in almost every respect, including length, number of lines and rhyming scheme, making the strict definition of a ballad extremely difficult. Ballads usually use the dialect of the people and are heavily influenced by the region in which they originate. Scottish ballads in particular are distinctively un-English, even showing some pre-Christian influences in the inclusion of elements such as the fairies in the Scottish ballad Tam Lin. The ballads do not have any known author or correct version, instead, having passed down mainly by oral tradition since the Middle Ages. The ballads remained a tradition until the increased interest in folk songs in the 18th century led collectors such as Bishop Thomas Percy to publish volumes of popular ballads. In all traditions most ballads are narrative in nature, with a story, often concise, and rely on imagery, rather than description. Themes concerning rural laborers and their sexuality are common, and there are many ballads based on the Robin Hood legend. Another common feature of ballads is repetition, sometimes of fourth lines in succeeding stanzas, as a refrain, sometimes of third and fourth lines of a stanza and sometimes of entire stanzas
Ballad
–
Illustration by
Arthur Rackham of the ballad "
The Twa Corbies "
Ballad
–
A copy of
Walter Scott 's The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border.
Ballad
–
Illustration by
Arthur Rackham to
Young Bekie.
Ballad
–
Painting based on
The Beggar's Opera, Act III Scene 2,
William Hogarth, c. 1728
32.
Blues
–
Blues is a genre and musical form originated by African Americans in the Deep South of the United States around the end of the 19th century. The genre developed from roots in African musical traditions, African-American work songs, spirituals, Blues incorporated spirituals, work songs, field hollers, shouts, chants, and rhymed simple narrative ballads. Blue notes, usually thirds or fifths flattened in pitch, are also a part of the sound. Blues shuffles or walking bass reinforce the trance-like rhythm and form a repetitive effect known as the groove, Blues as a genre is also characterized by its lyrics, bass lines, and instrumentation. Early traditional blues verses consisted of a single line repeated four times, Early blues frequently took the form of a loose narrative, often relating the troubles experienced in African-American society. Many elements, such as the format and the use of blue notes. The origins of the blues are closely related to the religious music of the Afro-American community. The first appearance of the blues is often dated to after the ending of slavery and, later and it is associated with the newly acquired freedom of the former slaves. Chroniclers began to report about blues music at the dawn of the 20th century, the first publication of blues sheet music was in 1908. Blues has since evolved from unaccompanied vocal music and oral traditions of slaves into a variety of styles and subgenres. Blues subgenres include country blues, such as Delta blues and Piedmont blues, as well as urban blues styles such as Chicago blues, World War II marked the transition from acoustic to electric blues and the progressive opening of blues music to a wider audience, especially white listeners. In the 1960s and 1970s, a form called blues rock evolved. The term blues may have come from blue devils, meaning melancholy and sadness, the phrase blue devils may also have been derived from Britain in the 1600s, when the term referred to the intense visual hallucinations that can accompany severe alcohol withdrawal. As time went on, the phrase lost the reference to devils, by the 1800s in the United States, the term blues was associated with drinking alcohol, a meaning which survives in the phrase blue law, which prohibits the sale of alcohol on Sunday. Though the use of the phrase in African-American music may be older, it has been attested to in print since 1912, in lyrics the phrase is often used to describe a depressed mood. The lyrics of traditional blues verses probably often consisted of a single line repeated four times. Two of the first published songs, Dallas Blues and Saint Louis Blues, were 12-bar blues with the AAB lyric structure. Handy wrote that he adopted this convention to avoid the monotony of lines repeated three times, the lines are often sung following a pattern closer to rhythmic talk than to a melody
Blues
–
John Lomax (left) shaking hands with musician "Uncle" Rich Brown in Sumterville,
Alabama
Blues
–
Charley Patton, one of the originators of the Delta blues style, playing with a
pick or a
bottleneck slide.
Blues
–
Sheet music from "
Saint Louis Blues " (1914)
Blues
–
Bessie Smith, an early blues singer, was known for her powerful voice.
33.
Carol (music)
–
A carol is in modern parlance a festive song, generally religious but not necessarily connected with church worship, and often with a dance-like or popular character. The word carol is derived from the Old French word carole, carols were traditionally sung in Latin by clergy of the Catholic church. Following the Protestant Reformation, reformers believed that carols were for everyone to sing, to enable the common person to sing church music, great efforts were made to translate musical texts from Latin into the native languages that people spoke. Composers such as William Byrd composed motet-like works for Christmas that they termed carols, nonetheless, some famous carols were written in this period, and they were more strongly revived from the nineteenth century and began to be written and adapted by eminent composers. Some composers have written extended works based on carols, examples include Benjamin Britten, Ralph Vaughan Williams and Victor Hely-Hutchinson
Carol (music)
34.
Folk song
–
Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival. The term originated in the 19th century, but is applied to music older than that. Some types of music are also called world music. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways, as music transmitted orally, music with unknown composers and it has been contrasted with commercial and classical styles. Starting in the century, a new form of popular folk music evolved from traditional folk music. This process and period is called the revival and reached a zenith in the 1960s. This form of music is called contemporary folk music or folk revival music to distinguish it from earlier folk forms. Smaller, similar revivals have occurred elsewhere in the world at other times and this type of folk music also includes fusion genres such as folk rock, folk metal, electric folk, and others. Even individual songs may be a blend of the two, a consistent definition of traditional folk music is elusive. The terms folk music, folk song, and folk dance are comparatively recent expressions and they are extensions of the term folklore, which was coined in 1846 by the English antiquarian William Thoms to describe the traditions, customs, and superstitions of the uncultured classes. Traditional folk music also includes most indigenous music, however, despite the assembly of an enormous body of work over some two centuries, there is still no certain definition of what folk music is. Some do not even agree that the term Folk Music should be used, Folk music may tend to have certain characteristics but it cannot clearly be differentiated in purely musical terms. One meaning often given is that of old songs, with no known composers, the fashioning and re-fashioning of the music by the community that give it its folk character. Such definitions depend upon processes rather than abstract musical types, one widely used definition is simply Folk music is what the people sing. For Scholes, as well as for Cecil Sharp and Béla Bartók, Folk music was already. seen as the authentic expression of a way of life now past or about to disappear, particularly in a community uninfluenced by art music and by commercial and printed song. In these terms folk music may be seen as part of a schema comprising four types, primitive or tribal, elite or art, folk. Music in this genre is often called traditional music. Although the term is only descriptive, in some cases people use it as the name of a genre
Folk song
–
Béla Bartók recording Slovak peasant singers in 1908
Folk song
–
Indians always distinguished between classical and folk music, though in the past even classical Indian music used to rely on the unwritten transmission of repertoire.
Folk song
–
Armenian traditional musicians
Folk song
–
Assyrians playing
zurna and
Davul, the typically used instruments for their folk music.
35.
Lied
–
Lied originally denoted in classical music the setting of German poems to music, beginning in the late-fourteenth or early fifteenth centuries. It later came especially to refer to settings of Romantic poetry during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Examples include settings by Ludwig van Beethoven and Franz Schubert, among English speakers, however, Lied is often used interchangeably with art song to encompass works that the tradition has inspired in other languages. The poems that have made into Lieder often center on pastoral themes or themes of romantic love. Typically, Lieder are arranged for a singer and piano. Some of the most famous examples of Lieder are Schuberts Der Tod und das Mädchen, Gretchen am Spinnrade, Schubert and Schumann are most closely associated with this genre, mainly developed in the Romantic era. For German-speakers, the term Lied has a long history ranging from twelfth-century troubadour songs via folk songs, the word Lied for song first came into general use in German during the early fifteenth century, largely displacing the earlier word Gesang. The poet and composer Oswald von Wolkenstein is sometimes claimed as the creator of the Lied, because of his innovations in combining words and music. The late-fourteenth-century composer known as the Monk of Salzburg wrote six two-part Lieder which are older still, in Germany, the great age of song came in the nineteenth century. Schubert wrote over 600 songs, some of them in sequences or song cycles that relate an adventure of the rather than the body. The tradition was continued by Schumann, Brahms, and Hugo Wolf, and on into the 20th century by Strauss, Mahler, partisans of atonal music, such as Arnold Schoenberg and Anton Webern, composed Lieder in their own style. England too had a flowering of song, more closely associated, however, with folk songs than with art songs, as represented by Vaughan Williams, Benjamin Britten, Ivor Gurney, and Gerald Finzi. At the end of the 19th century and during the 20th century, alphons Diepenbrock and Henk Badings composed Dutch, German, English, and French songs, as well as songs in Latin for choirs. Böker-Heil, Norbert, David Fallows, John H. Baron, James Parsons, Eric Sams, Graham Johnson, grove Music Online, edited by Deane L. Root. Oxford University Press, accessed December 26,2016, a Multitude of Voices, The Lied at Mid Century. In The Cambridge Companion to the Lied, edited by James Parsons, Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press. The Circulation of the Lied, The Double Life of an Art Form, in The Cambridge Companion to the Lied, edited by James Parsons, 301–14. Cambridge and New York, Cambridge University Press, the Oxford Companion to Music, edited by Alison Latham
Lied
–
Portrait of Franz Schubert by
Franz Eybl (1827)
Lied
–
Beethoven in 1815 portrait by
Joseph Willibrord Mähler
36.
Lullaby
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A lullaby, or cradle song, is a soothing song or piece of music, usually played for or sung to children. In some societies they are used to pass down cultural knowledge or tradition, perhaps one of the most important uses of lullabies is as a sleep aid for infants. As a result, the music is simple and repetitive. Lullabies can be found in countries, and have existed since ancient times. Lullabies tend to share exaggerated melodic tendencies, including simple pitch contours, large pitch ranges and these clarify and convey heightened emotions, usually of love or affection. When there is harmony, infants almost always prefer consonant intervals over dissonant intervals, furthermore, if there is a sequence of dissonant intervals in a song, an infant will usually lose interest and it becomes very difficult to regain its attention. To reflect this, most lullabies contain primarily consonant intervals, tonally, most lullabies are simple, often merely alternating tonic and dominant harmonies. In addition to pitch tendencies, lullabies share several structural similarities, the most frequent tendencies are intermittent repetitions and long pauses between sections. This dilutes the rate of material and appeals to infants slower capacity for processing music, lullabies are usually in triple meter or 6/8 time, giving them a characteristic swinging or rocking motion. This mimics the movement a baby experiences in the womb as a mother moves, in addition, infants preference for rhythm shares a strong connection with what they hear when they are bounced, and even their own body movements. The tempos of lullabies tend to be slow, and the utterances are short. Again, this aids in the processing of the song. Lullabies almost never have instrumental accompaniments, infants have shown a strong preference for unaccompanied lullabies over accompanied lullabies. Again, this appeals to more limited ability to process information. Lullabies are often used for their nature, even for non-infants. One study found lullabies to be the most successful type of music or sound for relieving stress and these characteristics tend to be consistent across cultures. It was found that adults of various cultural backgrounds could recognize, infants have shown a strong preferences for songs with these qualities. Lullabies are often used to pass down or strengthen cultural roles and practices, in an observation of the setting of lullabies in Albanian culture, lullabies tended to be paired with the rocking of the child in a cradle
Lullaby
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Lullaby by François Nicholas Riss (fr)
37.
March (music)
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A march, as a musical genre, is a piece of music with a strong regular rhythm which in origin was expressly written for marching to and most frequently performed by a military band. In mood, marches range from the death march in Wagners Götterdämmerung to the brisk military marches of John Philip Sousa. Marches can be written in any time signature, but the most common time signatures are 44,22, however, some modern marches are being written in 12 or 24 time. The modern march tempo is typically around 120 beats per minute, many funeral marches conform to the Roman standard of 60 beats per minute. The tempo matches the pace of walking in step. Both tempos achieve the standard rate of 120 steps per minute, each section of a march typically consists of 16 or 32 measures, which may repeat. Most importantly, a march consists of a strong and steady percussive beat reminiscent of military field drums, Marches frequently change keys once, modulating to the subdominant key, and occasionally returning to the original tonic key. If it begins in a key, it modulates to the relative major. Marches frequently have counter-melodies introduced during the repeat of a main melody, Marches frequently have a penultimate dogfight strain in which two groups of instruments alternate in a statement/response format. In most traditional American marches, there are three strains, the third strain is referred to as the trio. A military music event where various marching bands and units perform is called tattoo, Marches werent notated until the late 16th century, until then, time was generally kept by percussion alone, often with improvised fife embellishment. With the extensive development of instruments, especially in the 19th century. Composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, and Gustav Mahler wrote marches, often incorporating them into their operas, sonatas, the later popularity of John Philip Sousas band marches was unmatched. The march tempo of 120 beats or steps per minute was adapted by Napoleon Bonaparte so that his army could move faster. Since he planned to occupy the territory he conquered, instead of his soldiers carrying all of their provisions with them, they would live off the land and march faster. The French march tempo is faster than the traditional tempo of British marches, traditional American marches use the French or quick march tempo. There are two reason for this, First, U. S. military bands adopted the march tempos of France, Second, the composer of the greatest American marches, John Philip Sousa, was of Portuguese and German descent. Portugal used the French tempo exclusively—the standard Sousa learned during his musical education, a military band playing or marching at the traditional British march tempo would seem unusually slow in the United States
March (music)
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The Band of the Welsh Guards of the British Army play as guardsmen march up the Mall to change the guard
38.
Praise song
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Contemporary worship music, also known as praise and worship music, is a loosely defined genre of Christian music used in contemporary worship. It has developed over the past sixty years and is similar to pop music. The songs are referred to as praise songs or worship songs and are typically led by a worship band or praise team. It is becoming a genre of music sung in Western churches. Many non-charismatic Protestant churches use this type of music, also, Roman Catholic churches are using this type of music in some parishes. In the early 1950s, the Taizé Community in France started to attract youths from several denominations with worship hymns based on modern melodies. Amateur musicians from these groups began playing Christian music in a popular idiom, some Christians felt that the Church needed to break from its stereotype as being structured, formal and dull to appeal to the younger generation. The Joystrings were one of the first Christian pop groups to appear on television, in Salvation Army uniform, churches began to adopt some of these songs and the styles for corporate worship. These early songs for singing were characteristically simple. Youth Praise, published in 1966, was one of the first and most famous collections of songs and was compiled and edited by Michael Baughen. As of the early 1990s, songs such as Lord, I Lift Your Name on High, Shine, Jesus, Shine, Music and Vineyard were already publishing newer styles of music. Supporters of traditional worship hoped the newer styles were a fad, while younger people cited Psalms 96,1, prior to the late 1990s, many felt Sunday morning was a time for hymns, and young people could have their music on the other six days. A modern worship renaissance helped make it clear any musical style was acceptable if true believers were using it to praise God, the changes resulted from the Cutting Edge recordings by the band Delirious. The Passion Conferences and their music, the Exodus project of Michael W. Smith, Contemporary worship music became an integral part of Contemporary Christian music. More recently songs are displayed using projectors on screens at the front of the church, and this has enabled greater physical freedom, important propagators of CWM today include Hillsong, Vineyard, Bethel Music and Soul Survivor. As CWM is closely related to the movement, the lyrics. In particular the movement is characterised by its emphasis on the Holy Spirit, personal encounter and relationship with God. Lyrically, the informal, sometimes intimate, language of relationship is employed, slang is used on occasion and imperatives, demonstrating the friendly, informal terms charismatic theology encourages for relating to God personally
Praise song
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A modern worship band playing a contemporary praise song.
39.
Round (music)
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It is one of the easiest forms of part singing, as only one line of melody need be learned by all parts, and is part of a popular musical tradition. They were particularly favoured in glee clubs, which combined amateur singing with regular drinking, the earliest known rounds date from the 12th century. Though not all rounds are nursery rhymes, Row, Row, Row Your Boat is a well-known childrens round for four voices, other well-known examples are Frère Jacques and Three Blind Mice. A catch is a round in which a phrase that is not apparent in a line of lyrics emerges when the lyrics are split between the different voices. Perpetual canon refers to the end of the melody leading back to the beginning, allowing easy, often, the final cadence is the same as the first measure. The term round first appears in English in the early 16th century, in medieval England, they were called rota or rondellus. Later, a term was roundel. Special types of rounds are the catch, and a use of the word canon, in 17th-. The oldest surviving round in English is Sumer Is Icumen In Play, however, the earliest known rounds are two works with Latin texts found in the eleventh fascicle of the Notre Dame manuscript Pluteo 29.1. They are Leto leta concio and O quanto consilio, the former dates from before 1180 and may be of German origin. The first published rounds in English were printed by Thomas Ravenscroft in 1609, the canon, or rule, of a simple round is that each voice enters after a set interval of time, at the same pitch, using the same notes. This is easiest with one chord, as in Row, Row, Row Your Boat Play, if one ignores the sixteenth notes that pass between the main chords, every single note is in the tonic triad—in this case, a C, E, or G. Examples by J. S. Bach include the canons, Var.3 and Var.24 of the Goldberg Variations. Several rounds are included amongst Arnold Schoenbergs thirty-plus canons, which within their natural limitations, are brilliant pieces, containing too much of the composers characteristically unexpected blend of seriousness, humour, vigour and tenderness to remain unperformed. Voice crossing Voice exchange Aldrich, Henry, the Aldrich Book of Catches, edited by B. W. Robinson and R. F. Hall. Rondellus, Canon, and Related Types before 1300, journal of the American Musicological Society 25, no. The NPR Classical Music Companion, Terms and Concepts from A to Z. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, reprinted as The NPR Classical Music Companion, An Essential Guide for Enlightened Listening, Paw Prints binding,2005. The Operas of Benjamin Britten, An Introduction, New York and Washington, Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers
Round (music)
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"Up and Down This World Goes Round", three voice round by
Matthew Locke (MacDonald & Jaeger 2006, 15). Play (
help ·
info)
40.
Spiritual (music)
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Spirituals are generally Christian songs that were created by African slaves in the United States. Spirituals were originally a tradition that imparted Christian values while also describing the hardships of slavery. Although spirituals were originally unaccompanied monophonic songs, they are best known today in harmonized choral arrangements and this historic group of uniquely American songs is now recognized as a distinct genre of music. Slave Songs of the United States, the first major collection of Negro spirituals, was published in 1867 and they are a result of the interaction of music and religion from Africa with music and religion of European origin. Further, this occurred only in the United States. Africans who converted to Christianity in other parts of the world, even in the Caribbean and Latin America, Negro spirituals were primarily expressions of religious faith. Some may also have served as socio-political protests veiled as assimilation to white American culture and they originated among enslaved Africans in the United States. Slavery was introduced to the British colonies in the early 17th century, in the United States, these people would remain in bondage for the entire 18th century and much of the 19th century. Most were not fully emancipated until the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1865, Slaves were forbidden from speaking their native languages, and were generally converted to Christianity. With narrow vocabularies, slaves would use the words they did know to translate biblical information, while some slave owners believed that Christian slaves would be more docile, others came to feel that stories of Moses leading the Israelites out of bondage were counterproductive. Forced conversion only worked to a point since church attendance might be required, some slaves became Christians voluntarily, either because it helped them endure hardships or because membership may have offered other benefits. Many of the Slaves turned towards the Baptist or Methodist churches, in some places enslaved Africans were permitted, or even encouraged, to hold their own prayer meetings. During these meetings, worshipers would sing, chant, dance, along with spirituals, shouts also emerged in the Praise Houses. Shouts begin slowly with the shuffling of feet and clapping of hands, drums were used as they had been in Africa, for communication. When the connection between drumming, communication, and resistance was eventually made drums were forbidden. Slaves introduced a number of new instruments to America, the bones, body percussion, and an instrument variously called the bania, banju, or banjar and they drew on native rhythms and their African heritage. They brought with them from Africa long-standing religious traditions that highlighted the importance of storytelling, Music was an essential element in communicating identity, shared social mores, traditional customs, and ethnic history. The primary function of the spirituals was as communal songs sung in a religious gathering, Negro spirituals may also have served as socio-political protests veiled as assimilation to the white American culture
Spiritual (music)
41.
Nursery rhymes
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A nursery rhyme is a traditional poem or song for children in Britain and many other countries, but usage of the term only dates from the late 18th/early 19th century. In North America the term Mother Goose Rhymes, introduced in the century, is still often used. From the mid-16th century they begin to be recorded in English plays, the first English collections, Tommy Thumbs Song Book and a sequel, Tommy Thumbs Pretty Song Book, were published before 1744. John Newberys compilation of English rhymes, Mother Gooses Melody, or, Sonnets for the Cradle, is the first record we have of many classic rhymes, the oldest childrens songs of which we have records are lullabies, intended to help a child sleep. Lullabies can be found in human culture. The English term lullaby is thought to come from lu, lu or la la sounds made by mothers or nurses to calm children, until the modern era lullabies were usually only recorded incidentally in written sources. The Roman nurses lullaby, Lalla, Lalla, Lalla, aut dormi, aut lacta, is recorded in a scholium on Persius and may be the oldest to survive. Many medieval English verses associated with the birth of Jesus take the form of a lullaby, including Lullay, my liking, my son, my sweting. However, most of those used today date from the 17th century, for example, a well known lullaby such as Rock-a-bye, baby on a tree top, cannot be found in records until the late-18th century when it was printed by John Newbery. A French poem, similar to Thirty days hath September, numbering the days of the month, was recorded in the 13th century, from the later Middle Ages there are records of short childrens rhyming songs, often as marginalia. From the mid-16th century they begin to be recorded in English plays, pat-a-cake, pat-a-cake, bakers man is one of the oldest surviving English nursery rhymes. The earliest recorded version of the rhyme appears in Thomas dUrfeys play The Campaigners from 1698. The publication of John Newberys compilation of English rhymes, Mother Gooses Melody, or, Sonnets for the Cradle, is the first record we have of many classic rhymes, about half of the currently recognised traditional English rhymes were known by the mid-18th century. In the early 19th century printed collections of rhymes began to spread to countries, including Robert Chamberss Popular Rhymes of Scotland and in the United States. Early folk song also often collected nursery rhymes, including in Scotland Sir Walter Scott and in Germany Clemens Brentano. By the time of Sabine Baring-Goulds A Book of Nursery Songs, folklore was a study, full of comments. A professional anthropologist, Andrew Lang produced The Nursery Rhyme Book in 1897, the early years of the 20th century are notable for the illustrations to childrens books including Caldecotts Hey Diddle Diddle Picture Book and Arthur Rackhams Mother Goose. The definitive study of English rhymes remains the work of Iona, many nursery rhymes have been argued to have hidden meanings and origins
Nursery rhymes
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Illustration of "
Hey Diddle Diddle ", a popular nursery rhyme
Nursery rhymes
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"
Baa, Baa, Black Sheep ", from a 1901 illustration by
William Wallace Denslow
Nursery rhymes
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"
A-Tisket, A-Tasket "
42.
Ghazal
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The ghazal is a poetic form with rhyming couplets and a refrain, each line sharing the same meter. A ghazal may be understood as an expression of both the pain of loss or separation and the beauty of love in spite of that pain. The form is ancient, originating in Arabic poetry in Arabia long before the birth of Islam and it is derived from the Arabian panegyric qasida. The structural requirements of the ghazal are similar in stringency to those of the Petrarchan sonnet, in style and content, it is a genre that has proved capable of an extraordinary variety of expression around its central themes of love and separation. The ghazal spread into South Asia in the 12th century by the influence of Sufi mystics, although the ghazal is most prominently a form of Dari poetry and Urdu poetry, it is now found in the poetry of many languages on the Indian Subcontinent. Ghazals were written by Rumi and Hafiz of Persia, the Azeri poet Fuzûlî in the Ottoman Empire, Mirza Ghalib and Muhammad Iqbal of North India, and Kazi Nazrul Islam of Bengal. Through the influence of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, the ghazal became very popular in Germany during the 19th century, the Kashmiri poet Agha Shahid Ali was a proponent of the form, both in English and in other languages, he edited a volume of real Ghazals in English. Ghazals were written by Moti Ram Bhatta, the pioneer for Ghazal writing in Nepali language and it is common in ghazals for the poets name to be featured in the last verse. The Arabic word غزل ġazal is pronounced, roughly like the English word guzzle, in English, the word is pronounced /ˈɡʌzəl/ or /ˈɡæzæl/. The most prominent subject of ghazal even after the end of era of Urdu literature has been love, specifically an unconditional. Ghazals from the Indian subcontinent have an influence of Islamic mysticism, Love is always viewed as something that will complete a human being, and if attained will lift him or her into the ranks of the wise, or will bring satisfaction to the soul of the poet. Traditional ghazal law may or may not have an element of sexual desire in it. The love may be directed to either a man or a woman, the ghazal is always written from the point of view of the unrequited lover whose beloved is portrayed as unattainable. Most often, either the beloved has not returned the love or returns it without sincerity or else the societal circumstances do not allow it. The lover is aware and resigned to this fate but continues loving nonetheless, representations of the lovers powerlessness to resist his feelings often include lyrically exaggerated violence. The beloveds power to captivate the speaker may be represented in extended metaphors about the arrows of his eyes, most ghazals can be viewed in a spiritual context, with the Beloved being a metaphor for God or the poets spiritual master. It is the intense Divine Love of Sufism that serves as a model for all the forms of love found in ghazal poetry, most ghazal scholars today recognize that some ghazal couplets are exclusively about Divine Love. Others are about love, but many of them can be interpreted in either context
Ghazal
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Concepts
43.
Poetry
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Poetry has a long history, dating back to the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. Early poems evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the Sanskrit Vedas, Zoroastrian Gathas, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancient attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotles Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on such as repetition, verse form and rhyme. From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more generally regarded as a creative act employing language. Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretation to words, devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly figures of such as metaphor, simile and metonymy create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm. Some poetry types are specific to cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition, playing with and testing, among other things, in todays increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniques from diverse cultures and languages. Some scholars believe that the art of poetry may predate literacy, others, however, suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. The oldest surviving poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, comes from the 3rd millennium BCE in Sumer. An example of Egyptian epic poetry is The Story of Sinuhe, other forms of poetry developed directly from folk songs. The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry, the efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in poetics—the study of the aesthetics of poetry. Some ancient societies, such as Chinas through her Shijing, developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance, Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Later aestheticians identified three major genres, epic poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry, Aristotles work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, as well as in Europe during the Renaissance. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability and this romantic approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic
Poetry
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Aristotle
Poetry
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Literature
Poetry
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John Keats
Poetry
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Archibald MacLeish
44.
Sequence (music)
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In music, a sequence is the restatement of a motif or longer melodic passage at a higher or lower pitch in the same voice. It is one of the most common and simple methods of elaborating a melody in eighteenth and nineteenth century classical music, sometimes sequential passages combine more than one of the above characteristics. In the third and fourth bars of the “Air” from J. S, the non-diatonic sequence tends to modulate to a new tonality or to cause temporarily tonicisation. Although stereotypically associated with Baroque music, and especially the music of Antonio Vivaldi, the device of sequence epitomises both the goal-directed and the hierarchical nature of common-practice tonality. Whether dull or masterly, however, the emphasis is on the process rather than the material itself. Ritornellos and the amplification from melodies to Baroque lyrics are built from sequences. There are many types of sequences, each with a unique pattern, descending fifths sequences, also known as circle of fifths sequences, are the most commonly used types of sequences, singular extended in some works of Claudio Monteverdi and Heinrich Schütz. It usually consists of a series of chords whose bass or root notes follow a pattern of descending fifths, for example, if a descending fifths sequence in C major starts with the note C, the next note will be F, a perfect fifth below the first note. The next few notes will be B, E, A, D and so on, the ascending fifths sequence, contrary to the descending fifths sequence, consists of a pattern of ascending fifths. It is much less common than the descending fifths sequence, the descending 5-6 sequences, also known as descending third sequences, consist of a series of chords whose root notes descend by a third each sequential repetition. The sequence is almost never unadorned as shown above, but is filled in with intervening chords. The standard way of filling in this descending thirds pattern is to interpolate a first inversion chord in between each of these descents by thirds. The result is a line that moves down continuously stepwise, resulting in a figured bass of 5-6, and therefore. An important subtype of the descending 5-6 sequence is the root position variant, also known as the Pachelbel sequence, due to the use of this sequence in Pachelbels Canon. The Pachelbel sequence changes the first inversion chords in the descending 5-6 sequence to root position chords, resulting in a pattern that moves down a fourth. The ascending 5-6 sequence, like the ascending sequence, adorns a stepwise ascent. It follows a root movement pattern of down a third followed by a movement up a fourth. This is often accomplished through an alternation of root position and first inversion chords, the figured bass is the same as the descending 5-6 sequence, but the bass itself follows an ascending pattern rather than a descending pattern
Sequence (music)
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For the unrelated genre of Gregorian chant, see
Sequence (poetry). For the means of triggering musical notes, see
Music sequencer.
Sequence (music)
45.
Cadence (music)
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In Western musical theory, a cadence is a melodic or harmonic configuration that creates a sense of resolution. A harmonic cadence is a progression of two chords that concludes a phrase, section, or piece of music, a rhythmic cadence is a characteristic rhythmic pattern that indicates the end of a phrase. A cadence is labeled more or less weak or strong depending on its sense of finality, harmonic rhythm plays an important part in determining where a cadence occurs. Cadences are strong indicators of the tonic or central pitch of a passage or piece, edward Lowinsky proposed that the cadence was the cradle of tonality. In music of the common practice period, cadences are divided into four types according to their progression, authentic, plagal, half. Typically, phrases end on authentic or half cadences, and the terms plagal, each cadence can be described using the Roman numeral system of naming chords, Authentic cadence, V to I. A seventh above the root is added to create V7. The The Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music and Musicians says, This cadence is a microcosm of the tonal system and it is virtually obligatory as the final structural cadence of a tonal work. A perfect cadence is a progression from V to I in major keys and this is generally the strongest type of cadence and often found at structurally defining moments. This strong cadence achieves complete harmonic and melodic closure and it has to be noted that Beethoven in particular gets so much mileage out of this cadence as for it to become one of his most characteristic and recognizable musical thumbprints. The Diabelli Variations and the C major climax of the movement of the Opus 132 String Quartet - even though it is described as being in Lydian mode on F - are two powerful examples. Imperfect authentic cadence, best divided into three categories,1. Root position IAC, similar to a PAC, but the highest voice is not the tonic, inverted IAC, similar to a PAC, but one or both chords is inverted. Leading tone IAC, the V chord is replaced with the viio/subV chord, evaded cadence, V42 to I6. Because the seventh must fall step wise, it forces the cadence to resolve to the less stable first inversion chord, usually to achieve this a root position V changes to a V42 right before resolution, thereby evading the cadence. Half cadence, any cadence ending on V, whether preceded by II, ii, vi, IV, with the addition of motion in the upper part to the sixth degree, it becomes the Landini cadence. Lydian cadence, The Lydian half-cadence is similar to the Phrygian-half, involving iv6-V in the minor, the difference is that in the Lydian-half, the whole iv6 is raised by a half-step. In other words, the Phrygian-half begins with the first chord built on scale degree P4, Burgundian cadences, Became popular in Burgundian music
Cadence (music)
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Perfect authentic cadence (V–I with roots in the bass parts and tonic in the highest voice of the final chord):
ii–V–I progression in C major, four-part harmony (Benward & Saker 2003, p.90.). Play (
help ·
info)
46.
Fortspinnung
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Fortspinnung is a German term conceived in 1915 to refer to a specific process of development of a musical motif. In this process, the motif is developed into a musical structure by using sequences. This pointing structure is missing, i. e. carefully overted in the Fortspinnung, thus the Gestalt of the Fortspinnungsthema has a rag margin, while the Periode ends more predictably. It is also possible to use the fortspinnung form term that stands for a structure with three parts, Vordersatz, The antecedent or exposition of the motif, Fortspinnung, The fortspinnung itself where the motif is developed. Epilog, The epilogue or cadence section, in Baroque music, melodies and their lyrics were prose. Rather than paired lines they consist of sentences or paragraphs consisting of an opening gesture, an amplification. For example, When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child, But when I became a man, I put away childish things. -1 Corinthians 13 The use of process of development and musical structure is focused mainly in the Baroque period
Fortspinnung
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Bach's Invention 4 (section). Play (
help ·
info)
47.
Popular music
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Popular music is music with wide appeal that is typically distributed to large audiences through the music industry. These forms and styles can be enjoyed and performed by people with little or no musical training and it stands in contrast to both art music and traditional or folk music. Art music was historically disseminated through the performances of music, although since the beginning of the recording industry. Traditional music forms such as blues songs or hymns were passed along orally, or to smaller. The original application of the term is to music of the 1880s Tin Pan Alley period in the United States, although popular music sometimes is known as pop music, the two terms are not interchangeable. Popular music songs and pieces typically have easily singable melodies, in the 2000s, with songs and pieces available as digital sound files, it has become easier for music to spread from one country or region to another. Some popular music forms have become global, while others have an appeal within the culture of their origin. Through the mixture of genres, new popular music forms are created to reflect the ideals of a global culture. The examples of Africa, Indonesia and the Middle East show how Western pop music styles can blend with local traditions to create new hybrid styles. Sales of recordings or sheet music are one measure, middleton and Manuel note that this definition has problems because multiple listens or plays of the same song or piece are not counted. Manuel states that one criticism of music is that it is produced by large media conglomerates and passively consumed by the public. He claims that the listeners in the scenario would not have been able to make the choice of their favorite music, moreover, understandings of popular music have changed with time. A societys popular music reflects the ideals that are prevalent at the time it is performed or published, david Riesman states that the youth audiences of popular music fit into either a majority group or a subculture. The majority group listens to the commercially produced styles while the subcultures find a minority style to transmit their own values and this allows youth to choose what music they identify with, which gives them power as consumers to control the market of popular music. Form in popular music is most often sectional, the most common sections being verse, chorus or refrain, other common forms include thirty-two-bar form, chorus form *, and twelve-bar blues. Popular music songs are rarely composed using different music for each stanza of the lyrics, the verse and chorus are considered the primary elements. Each verse usually has the melody, but the lyrics change for most verses. The chorus usually has a phrase and a key lyrical line which is repeated
Popular music
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The 19th century singer
Jenny Lind depicted performing
La sonnambula
48.
Pronoun
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In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun is a word that substitutes for a noun or noun phrase. It is a case of a pro-form. Pronouns have traditionally regarded as one of the parts of speech. Subtypes include personal pronouns, reflexive and reciprocal pronouns, possessive pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns, the use of pronouns often involves anaphora, where the meaning of the pronoun is dependent on an antecedent. This applies especially to third-person personal pronouns, and to relative pronouns, for example, in the sentence That poor man looks as if he needs a new coat, the antecedent of the pronoun he is the noun phrase that poor man. The adjective associated with pronoun is pronominal, a pronominal is also a word or phrase that acts as a pronoun. For example, in Thats not the one I wanted, the phrase the one is a pronominal, personal pronouns may be classified by person, number, gender and case. English has three persons and two numbers, in the person singular there are also distinct pronoun forms for male, female. Principal forms are shown in the adjacent table, English personal pronouns have two cases, subject and object. Subject pronouns are used in subject position, object pronouns are used for the object of a verb or preposition. Other distinct forms found in some languages include, Second person informal and formal pronouns, like tu, there is no such distinction in standard modern English, though Elizabethan English marked the distinction with thou and you, and this is preserved in some dialects. Inclusive and exclusive first person pronouns, which indicate whether or not the audience is included. There is no distinction in English. Intensive pronouns, which re-emphasize a noun or pronoun that has already been mentioned, English uses the same forms as the reflexive pronouns, for example, I did it myself. Direct and indirect object pronouns, such as le and lui in French, English uses the same form for both, for example, Mary loves him, Mary sent him a letter. Prepositional pronouns, used after a preposition, English uses ordinary object pronouns here, Mary looked at him. Disjunctive pronouns, used in isolation or in other special grammatical contexts. No distinct forms exist in English, for example, Who does this belong to, strong and weak forms of certain pronouns, found in some languages such as Polish
Pronoun
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Adjectives
49.
My Generation
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My Generation is a song by the English rock band The Who, which became a hit and one of their most recognisable songs. The song was named the 11th greatest song by Rolling Stone Magazine on its list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and 13th on VH1s list of the 100 Greatest Songs of Rock & Roll. Its also part of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fames 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll and is inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame for historical, artistic, in 2009 it was named the 37th Greatest Hard Rock Song by VH1. The song has been said to have encapsulated the angst of being a teenager, the song was released as a single on 29 October 1965, reaching No.2 in the UK, The Whos highest charting single in their home country and No.74 in America. My Generation also appeared on The Whos 1965 debut album, My Generation, the Who re-recorded the song for the Ready Steady Who. EP in 1966, but it was not included on the EP, the main difference between this version and the original is that instead of the hail of feedback which ends the original, the band play a chaotic rendition of Edward Elgars Land of Hope and Glory. In the albums liner notes the song is credited to both Townshend and Elgar, Townshend has also credited Mose Allisons Young Man Blues as the inspiration for the song, saying Without Mose I wouldnt have written My Generation. Townshend told Rolling Stone magazine in 1985 that My Generation was very much trying to find a place in society. He said that, for him, when he wrote the lyrics, perhaps the most striking element of the song is the lyrics, considered one of the most distilled statements of youthful rebellion in rock history. The tone of the track helped make it an acknowledged forebear of the punk rock movement. One of the most quoted—and patently rewritten—lines in rock history is I hope I die before I get old, like much of The Whos earlier Mod output, the song boasts clear influences of American rhythm and blues, most explicitly in the call and response form of the verses. This call and response is mirrored in the break with solo emphasis passing from Townshends guitar to Entwistles bass. Another salient aspect of My Generation is Daltreys delivery, an angry, various stories exist as to the reason for this distinct delivery. One is that the song began as a talking blues number without the stutter. Another reason is that it was suggested to Daltrey that he stutter to sound like a British mod on speed. It is also proposed, albeit less frequently, that the stutter was introduced to give the group a framework for implying an expletive in the lyrics, however, producer Shel Talmy insisted it was simply one of those happy accidents that he thought they should keep. Roger Daltrey has also commented that he had not rehearsed the song prior to the recording, was nervous, the stutter came about as he tried to fit the lyrics to the music as best he could, and the band decided it worked well enough to keep. The BBC initially refused to play My Generation because it did not want to offend people who stutter, the instrumentation of the song duly reflects the lyrics, fast and aggressive
My Generation
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Swedish release
My Generation
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Roger Daltrey's famous lyrical approach in "My Generation" was inspired by bluesman
John Lee Hooker
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