1.
Bolt action
–
Bolt-action firearms are most often rifles, but there are some bolt-action shotguns and a few handguns as well. Examples of this date as far back as the early 19th century. From the late 19th century, all the way through both World Wars, the rifle was the standard infantry firearm for most of the worlds militaries. Bolt-action firearms are still popular for hunting and target shooting. The first bolt-action rifle was produced in 1824 by Johann Nikolaus von Dreyse, von Dreyse would perfect his Nadelgewehr by 1836, and it was adopted by the Prussian Army in 1841. It however was not the first bolt-action weapon to see combat as it was not fielded until 1864, during the American Civil War, the bolt-action Palmer carbine was patented in 1863, and by 1865,1000 were purchased for use as cavalry weapons. The French Army adopted its first bolt-action rifle, the Chassepot rifle, in 1866, ultimately the military turned to bolt-action rifles using a box magazine, the first of its kind was the M1885 Remington–Lee, but the first to be generally adopted was the British 1888 Lee–Metford. World War I marked the height of the bolt-action rifles use, there are, however, many semi-automatic sniper rifle designs, especially in the designated marksman role. Today, bolt-action rifles are used as hunting rifles. These rifles can be used to hunt anything from vermin, to deer, to game, especially big game caught on a safari. Bolt-action shotguns are considered a rarity among modern firearms, but were formerly a commonly used action for.410 entry-level shotguns, as well as for low-cost 12 gauge shotguns. The M26 Modular Accessory Shotgun System is the most advanced and recent example of a bolt-action shotgun, some pistols utilize a bolt action, although this is uncommon, and such examples are typically specialized target handguns. Most of the bolt-action designs involve the shooters doing a turn + pull handle movement to open the bolt, cock the firing pin, there are three major turning bolt-action system designs, the Mauser system, the Lee–Enfield system, and the Mosin–Nagant system. The vast majority of bolt-action rifles utilize one of three systems, with other designs seeing only limited use. The Mauser system is stronger than that of the Lee–Enfield due to two locking lugs just behind the head which make it better able to handle higher pressure cartridges. The 8×68mm S and 9. 3×64mm Brenneke magnum rifle cartridge families were designed for the Mauser M98 bolt action. A novel safety feature was the introduction of a locking lug present at the rear of the bolt that normally did not lock the bolt. The Mauser system features cock on opening, meaning the upward rotation of the bolt when the rifle is opened cocks the action, a drawback of the Mauser M98 system is that it cannot be cheaply mass-produced very easily
Bolt action
–
Opened bolt on a
Winchester Model 70. The bolt has a
engine turned finish.
Bolt action
–
A disassembled
Karabiner 98k action
Bolt action
–
Close-up of the action on an SMLE Mk III rifle, showing the bolt-head, magazine cut-off, and
charger clip guide.
Bolt action
–
The
Mannlicher M95 /30
2.
Banana Wars
–
These military interventions were most often carried out by the United States Marine Corps, which developed a manual, The Strategy and Tactics of Small Wars based on its experiences. On occasion, the Navy provided gunfire support and Army troops were also used, with the Treaty of Paris, Spain ceded control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the United States. Thereafter, the United States conducted military interventions in Cuba, Panama, Honduras, Nicaragua, Mexico, Haiti, the series of conflicts ended with the withdrawal of troops from Haiti in 1934 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The term was popularized in 1983 by writer Lester D. Langley and his book on the Banana wars encompasses the United States tropical empire that overtook the western hemisphere spanning throughout both of the Roosevelt presidencies. The Banana Wars began with injustices, corruption, lawless societies, Banana workers began what was comparable to a civil rights movement in the tropical fruit trade. Warring tropical countries stemmed from maltreatment and abusive working conditions gave rise to one of the earliest and most militant labor movements in early Latin America, the discourse and corruption facing Latin American people and governments is what prompted the United States influence. US motivations for these conflicts were largely economic and military, the term Banana Wars was coined much later to cast the motivations for these interventions as almost exclusively the preservation of petty US commercial interests in the region. Panama, U. S. interventions in the isthmus go back to the 1846 Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty, in 1903, Panama seceded from the Republic of Colombia, backed by the U. S. government, during the Thousand Days War. The Panama Canal was under construction by then, and the Panama Canal Zone, spanish–American War, U. S. forces seize Cuba and Puerto Rico from Spain in 1898. Dominican Republic, action in 1903,1904, and 1914, Nicaragua, which, after intermittent landings and naval bombardments in the previous decades, was occupied by the U. S. almost continuously from 1912–1933. Mexico, The U. S. military involvements with Mexico in this period are related to the general commercial and political causes. President Woodrow Wilson refused to recognize, in the years prior to World War I, the U. S. was also alert to the regional balance of power against Germany. Only twice during the Mexican Revolution did the U. S. military occupy Mexico, during the occupation of Veracruz in 1914. General John Pershing led U. S. Army forces on a search for Pancho Villa. This period included the First and Second Caco Wars, the writer O. Henry coined the term Banana republic in 1904 to describe Honduras. Other Latin American nations were influenced or dominated by American economic policies and/or commercial interests to the point of coercion, from 1909-1913, President William Howard Taft and his Secretary of State Philander C. Knox asserted a more peaceful and economic Dollar Diplomacy foreign policy, although that too was backed by force, the first decades of Honduras history is marked by instability in terms of politics and economy. Indeed, the political context gave way to 210 armed conflicts between independence and the rise to power of the Carias government and this instability was due in part to the American involvement in the country
Banana Wars
–
United States Marines and a Haitian guide patrolling the jungle in 1915 during the
Battle of Fort Dipitie
Banana Wars
–
United States Marines with the captured flag of
Augusto César Sandino of
Nicaragua in 1932
Banana Wars
–
William Allen Rogers cartoon depicting
Theodore Roosevelt 's
Big Stick ideology
Banana Wars
–
American warships
off Veracruz in 1914
3.
Mexican Revolution
–
The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle c. 1910–1920 that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Although recent research has focused on local and regional aspects of the Revolution and its outbreak in 1910 resulted from the failure of the 35-year long regime of Porfirio Díaz to find a managed solution to the presidential succession. This meant there was a crisis among competing elites and the opportunity for agrarian insurrection. Madero challenged Díaz in 1910 presidential election, and following the rigged results, armed conflict ousted Díaz from power and a new election was held in 1911, bringing Madero to the presidency. The origins of the conflict were broadly based in opposition to the Díaz regime, with the 1910 election, elements of the Mexican elite hostile to Díaz, led by Madero, expanded to the middle class, the peasantry in some regions, and organized labor. In October 1911, Madero was overwhelmingly elected in a free, Huerta remained in power from February 1913 until July 1914, when he was forced out by a coalition of different regional revolutionary forces. Then the revolutionaries attempt to come to a political agreement following Huertas ouster failed, Zapata was assassinated in 1919, by agents of President Carranza. The armed conflict lasted for the part of a decade, until around 1920. Revolutionary forces unified against Huertas reactionary regime defeated the Federal forces, although the conflict was primarily a civil war, foreign powers that had important economic and strategic interests in Mexico figured in the outcome of Mexicos power struggles. The United States played a significant role. Out of Mexicos population of 15 million, the losses were high, perhaps 1.5 million people died, nearly 200,000 refugees fled abroad, especially to the United States. Politically, the promulgation of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 is seen by scholars as the end point of the armed conflict. The period 1920–1940 is often considered to be a phase of the Revolution, during which power was consolidated, after the presidency of his ally, General Manuel González, Díaz ran for the presidency again and legally remained in office until 1911. The constitution had been amended to allow presidential re-election, Díazs re-election was ironic, since he had challenged Benito Juárez on the platform no re-election. During the Porfiriato there were regular elections although there were contentious irregularities, the contested 1910 election, was a key political event that led to the Mexican Revolution. As Díaz aged, the question of succession became increasingly important. In 1906, the office of president was revived, with Díaz choosing his close ally Ramón Corral from among his Cientifico advisers to serve in the post. By the 1910 election, the Díaz regime had become highly authoritarian and he had been a national hero, opposing the French Intervention in the 1860s and distinguishing himself in the Battle of Puebla on 5 May 1862
Mexican Revolution
–
Collage of the Mexican Revolution
Mexican Revolution
–
General
Porfirio Díaz, President of Mexico
Mexican Revolution
–
Anti-Diaz newspaper,
Regeneración, the official publication of the
Mexican Liberal Party (PLM).
Mexican Revolution
–
A vanner (1903) at the office of opposition magazine El hijo de Ahuizote reads: "The Constitution has died" (La Constitución ha muerto).
4.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
World War I
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
World War I
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
World War I
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
World War I
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
5.
Irish war of independence
–
The Irish War of Independence or Anglo-Irish War or the Tan War was a guerrilla war fought from 1919 to 1921 between the Irish Republican Army and the British security forces in Ireland. It was an escalation of the Irish revolutionary period into armed conflict, in the December 1918 election, the Irish republican party Sinn Féin won a landslide victory in Ireland. On 21 January 1919 they formed a government and declared independence from Britain. Later that day, two members of the British-organized armed police force, the Royal Irish Constabulary, were dead in County Tipperary by IRA members acting on their own initiative. This is often seen as the beginning of the conflict, for much of 1919, IRA activity primarily involved capturing weapons and freeing republican prisoners. In September that year the British government outlawed the Dáil and Sinn Féin, the IRA began ambushing RIC and British Army patrols, attacking their barracks and forcing isolated barracks to be abandoned. The British government bolstered the RIC with recruits from Britain—the Black and Tans and Auxiliaries—who became notorious for ill-discipline, the conflict as a result is often referred to as the Black and Tan War or simply the Tan War. While around 300 people had killed in the conflict up to late 1920. A week later, seventeen Auxiliaries were killed by the IRA in an ambush at Kilmichael in County Cork, the British government declared martial law in much of southern Ireland. The centre of Cork City was burnt out by British forces in December 1920, violence continued to escalate over the next seven months, when 1,000 people were killed and 4,500 republicans were interned. The fighting was concentrated in Munster, Dublin and Belfast. These three locations saw over 75% of the conflicts fatalities, violence in Ulster, especially Belfast, was notable for its sectarian character and its high number of Catholic civilian victims. Both sides agreed to a truce on 11 July 1921, the post-ceasefire talks led to the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty on 6 December 1921. However, six counties remained within the United Kingdom. After the ceasefire, political and sectarian violence between republicans and loyalists continued in Northern Ireland for many months, in June 1922, disagreement among republicans over the Anglo-Irish Treaty led to an eleven-month civil war. The Irish Free State awarded 62,868 medals for service during the War of Independence, since the 1880s, Irish nationalists in the Irish Parliamentary Party had been demanding Home Rule, or self-government, from Britain. Fringe organisations, such as Arthur Griffiths Sinn Féin instead argued for some form of Irish independence, in turn, nationalists formed their own paramilitary organisation, the Irish Volunteers. But a significant minority of the Irish Volunteers opposed Irelands involvement in the war, the Volunteer movement split, a majority leaving to form the National Volunteers under Redmond
Irish war of independence
–
The Birth of the Irish Republic; painting by Walter Paget
Irish war of independence
–
Volunteers of the IRA
3rd Tipperary Brigade during the war
Irish war of independence
–
Police wanted poster for
Dan Breen, one of those involved in the
Soloheadbeg Ambush in 1919.
Irish war of independence
–
Wall plaque in Great Denmark Street, Dublin where the Dublin IRA Active Service Unit was founded.
6.
Irish Civil War
–
The civil war was waged between two opposing groups, Irish republicans and Irish nationalists, over the Anglo-Irish Treaty. The forces of the Provisional Government supported the Treaty, while the Republican opposition saw it as a betrayal of the Irish Republic, many of those who fought on both sides in the conflict had been members of the Irish Republican Army during the War of Independence. The Civil War was won by the Free State forces, which were armed with weapons provided by the British Government. The conflict may have claimed more lives than the War of Independence that preceded it, today, two of the main political parties in the Republic of Ireland, Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, are direct descendants of the opposing sides of the war. The Anglo-Irish Treaty was agreed to end the 1919–1921 Irish War of Independence between the Irish Republic and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the treaty provided for a self-governing Irish state, having its own army and police. The Treaty also allowed Northern Ireland to opt out of the new state, the British suggested this dominion in secret correspondence even before treaty negotiations began, but Sinn Féin leader Éamon de Valera rejected the dominion. The treaty also stipulated that members of the new Irish Oireachtas would have to take the following Oath of Allegiance I and this oath was highly objectionable to many Irish Republicans. Furthermore, the partition of Ireland, which had already decided by the Westminster parliament in the Government of Ireland Act 1920, was effectively confirmed in the Anglo-Irish treaty. All these issues were the cause of a split in the IRA, however, anti-treaty militants in 1922 believed that the treaty would never deliver full Irish independence. The split over the treaty was deeply personal, many of the leaders on both sides had been close friends and comrades during the War of Independence. This made their disagreement over the treaty all the more bitter and he said that he felt deeply betrayed when de Valera refused to stand by the agreement that the plenipotentiaries had negotiated with David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill. De Valera, for his part, was furious that Collins, Dáil Éireann narrowly passed the Anglo-Irish Treaty by 64 votes to 57 on 7 January 1922. Following the Treatys ratification, in accordance with article 17 of the Treaty and its authority under the Treaty was to provide a provisional arrangement for the administration of Southern Ireland during the interval before the establishment of the Irish Free State. In accordance with the Treaty, the British Government transferred the powers, before the British Government transferred such powers, the members of the Provisional Government each signified in writing acceptance of. Upon the Treatys ratification, de Valera resigned as President of the Republic and he challenged the right of the Dáil to approve the treaty, saying that its members were breaking their oath to the Irish Republic. De Valera continued to promote a compromise whereby the new Irish Free State would be in association with the British Commonwealth rather than be a member of it. In early March, he formed the Cumann na Poblachta party while remaining a member of Sinn Féin and commenced a speaking tour of the more republican province of Munster on 17 March 1922. In a letter to the Irish Independent on 23 March, de Valera accepted the accuracy of their report of his comment about wading through blood, but deplored that the newspaper had published it
Irish Civil War
–
National Army soldiers armed with
Lewis machine guns aboard an impromptu-
gunboat during the Civil War.
Irish Civil War
–
National Army soldiers during the Civil War
Irish Civil War
–
The Four Courts along the
River Liffey quayside. The building was occupied by anti-treaty forces during the Civil War, whom the National Army subsequently bombarded into surrender. The Irish national archives in the buildings were destroyed in the subsequent fire. The building was badly damaged but was fully restored after the war.
Irish Civil War
–
National Army soldiers escorting an IRA prisoner of war
7.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
8.
Second Sino-Japanese War
–
The Second Sino-Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan from July 7,1937 to September 9,1945. The First Sino-Japanese War was fought from 1894 to 1895, China fought Japan, with some economic help from Germany, the Soviet Union and the United States. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the war merged into the conflict of World War II as a major front of what is broadly known as the Pacific War. Many scholars consider the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 to have been the beginning of World War II, the Second Sino-Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century. The war was the result of a decades-long Japanese imperialist policy to expand its influence politically and militarily in order to access to raw material reserves, food. The period after World War One brought about increasing stress on the Japanese polity, leftists sought universal suffrage and greater rights for workers. Increasing textile production from Chinese mills was adversely affecting Japanese production, the Depression brought about a large slowdown in exports. All of this contributed to militant nationalism, culminating in the rise to power of a militarist fascist faction and this faction was led at its height by the Imperial Rule Assistance Associations Hideki Tojo cabinet under the edict from Emperor Shōwa. Before 1937, China and Japan fought in small, localized engagements, the last of these incidents was the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937, which is traditionally seen as the beginning of total war between the two countries. Since 2017 the Chinese Government has regarded the invasion of Manchuria by the Kwantung Army in 1931, initially the Japanese scored major victories, such as the Battle of Shanghai, and by the end of 1937 captured the Chinese capital of Nanjing. After failing to stop the Japanese in Wuhan, the Chinese central government was relocated to Chongqing in the Chinese interior, by 1939, after Chinese victories in Changsha and Guangxi, and with Japans lines of communications stretched deep into the Chinese interior, the war reached a stalemate. The Japanese were also unable to defeat the Chinese communist forces in Shaanxi, on December 7,1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, and the following day the United States declared war on Japan. The United States began to aid China via airlift matériel over the Himalayas after the Allied defeat in Burma that closed the Burma Road, in 1944 Japan launched the invasion, Operation Ichi-Go, that conquered Henan and Changsha. However, this failed to bring about the surrender of Chinese forces, in 1945, the Chinese Expeditionary Force resumed its advance in Burma and completed the Ledo Road linking India to China. At the same time, China launched large counteroffensives in South China and retook the west Hunan, the remaining Japanese occupation forces formally surrendered on September 9,1945 with the following International Military Tribunal for the Far East convened on April 29,1946. China was recognized as one of the Big Four of Allies during the war, in the Chinese language, the war is most commonly known as the War of Resistance Against Japan, and also known as the Eight Years War of Resistance, simply War of Resistance. It is also referred to as part of the Global Anti-Fascist War, which is how World War 2 is perceived by the Communist Party of China, in Japan, nowadays, the name Japan–China War is most commonly used because of its perceived objectivity. In Japan today, it is written as 日中戦争 in shinjitai, the word incident was used by Japan, as neither country had made a formal declaration of war
Second Sino-Japanese War
–
The dead bodies of victims massacred in the
Rape of Nanking on the shore of the
Qinhuai River, with a Japanese soldier standing nearby.
Second Sino-Japanese War
–
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Allied Commander-in-Chief in the China theatre from 1942 to 1945.
Second Sino-Japanese War
–
Japanese troops entering
Shenyang during the Mukden Incident
Second Sino-Japanese War
–
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek announced the
Kuomintang policy of resistance against Japan at
Lushan on July 10, 1937, three days after the
Marco Polo Bridge Incident.
9.
Chinese Civil War
–
The Chinese Civil War was fought between forces loyal to the Kuomintang -led government of the Republic of China, and forces loyal to the Communist Party of China. The civil war began in August 1927, with Generalissimo Chiang Kai-sheks Northern Expedition and it can generally be divided into two stages, the first being from 1927 to 1937, and the second being from 1946 to 1950 with the Second Sino-Japanese War separating them. The war represented a split between the Communist CPC and the KMTs brand of Nationalism. It continued intermittently until late 1937, when the two came together to form the Second United Front to counter the Japanese threat and prevent the country from crumbling. Chinas full-scale civil war resumed in 1946, a year after the end of hostilities with Japan, to this day no armistice or peace treaty has ever been signed, and there is debate about whether the Civil War has legally ended. The ROC mutually claims mainland China, and they continue the fight over diplomatic recognition. The Qing Dynasty, the last of the ruling Chinese dynasties, collapsed in 1911 and finally fell in 1912 with the abdication of the last emperor, Puyi. China fell into what became known as the era, when control of much of the country was divided among a group of powerful independent warlords. Sun Yat-sens efforts to aid from the Western countries were ignored, however. Thus the struggle for power in China began between the KMT and the CPC, in 1923, a joint statement by Sun and Soviet representative Adolph Joffe in Shanghai pledged Soviet assistance for Chinas unification. The Sun-Joffe Manifesto was a declaration of cooperation among the Comintern, KMT, Comintern agent Mikhail Borodin arrived in China in 1923 to aid in the reorganization and consolidation of the KMT along the lines of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The CPC joined the KMT to form the First United Front, in 1923, Sun Yat-sen sent Chiang Kai-shek, one of his lieutenants from his Tongmeng Hui days, for several months of military and political study in Moscow. By 1924 Chiang became the head of the Whampoa Military Academy, the Soviets provided the academy with much educational material, organization and equipment, including munitions. They also provided education in many of the techniques for mass mobilization, with this aid, Sun Yat-sen was able to raise a dedicated army of the party, with which he hoped to defeat the warlords militarily. CPC members were present in the academy, and many of them became instructors, including Zhou Enlai. Communist members were allowed to join the KMT on an individual basis, the CPC itself was still small at the time, having a membership of 300 in 1922 and only 1,500 by 1925. The KMT in 1923 had 50,000 members, however, after Sun died, the KMT split into left- and right-wing movements. KMT members worried that the Soviets were trying to destroy the KMT from inside using the CPC, the CPC then began movements in opposition of the Northern Expedition, passing a resolution against it at a party meeting
Chinese Civil War
–
Clockwise from the top: Communist troops at the
Battle of Siping,
Muslim soldiers of the NRA,
Mao Zedong in the 1930s,
Chiang Kai-shek inspecting soldiers, CCP general
Su Yu investigating the front field shortly before the
Menglianggu Campaign
Chinese Civil War
–
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Commander-in-Chief of the
National Revolutionary Army, emerged from the
Northern Expedition as the leader of the
Republic of China.
Chinese Civil War
–
A Communist leader addressing "Long March" survivors.
Chinese Civil War
–
From left to right: US diplomat
Patrick J. Hurley,
Chiang Ching-kuo,
Chiang Kai-shek,
Chang Ch'ün, Wang Shi Jie (王世杰),
Mao Zedong
10.
Korean War
–
The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
Korean War
–
Clockwise from top: A column of the U.S.
1st Marine Division 's
infantry and
armor moves through Chinese lines during their
breakout from the Chosin Reservoir; UN landing at
Incheon harbor, starting point of the
Battle of Incheon; Korean refugees in front of an American
M26 Pershing tank; U.S. Marines, led by First Lieutenant
Baldomero Lopez, landing at Incheon;
F-86 Sabre fighter aircraft
Korean War
–
Three Koreans shot for pulling up rails as a protest against seizure of land without payment by the Japanese
Korean War
–
Soviet troops in Korea, October 1945
Korean War
–
U.S. troops in Korea, September 1945
11.
Cuban Revolution
–
The Cuban Revolution was an armed revolt conducted by Fidel Castros 26th of July Movement and its allies against the right-wing authoritarian government of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista. The revolution began in July 1953, and continued sporadically until the rebels finally ousted Batista on 1 January 1959, the 26th of July Movement later reformed along communist lines, becoming the Communist Party in October 1965. Castro’s organized attack set up on the end of Santiago de Cuba against the military barracks ended in despair. The Cuban Revolution had powerful domestic and international repercussions, in particular, it transformed Cubas relationship with the United States. Efforts to improve diplomatic relations have gained momentum in recent years, in the immediate aftermath of the revolution, Castros government began a program of nationalization and political consolidation that transformed Cubas economy and civil society. The revolution also heralded an era of Cuban intervention in military conflicts, including the Angolan Civil War. Although Batista had been relatively progressive during his first term, in the 1950s he proved far more dictatorial, Batista developed a powerful security infrastructure to silence political opponents. In the months following the March 1952 coup, Fidel Castro, then a lawyer and activist, petitioned for the overthrow of Batista. However, Castros constitutional arguments were rejected by the Cuban courts, after deciding that the Cuban regime could not be replaced through legal means, Castro resolved to launch an armed revolution. Striking their first blow against the Batista government, Fidel and Raúl Castro gathered 123 Movement fighters, on 26 July 1953, the rebels attacked the Moncada Barracks in Santiago and the barracks in Bayamo, only to be decisively defeated by government soldiers. The staged attack was in hope to spark a revolt against Batista’s government. He had around 150 factory and farm workers, after an hour of fighting the rebel leader fled to the mountains. Due to the large number of men, Hunt revised the number to be around 60 members taking at the opportunity to flee to the mountains along with Castro. Among the dead was Abel Santamaría, Castros second-in-command, who was imprisoned, tortured, numerous key Movement revolutionaries, including the Castro brothers, were captured shortly afterwards. In a highly political trial, Fidel spoke for four hours in his defense, ending with the words Condemn me. Through Castro’s defense he used nationalism, the representation and beneficial programs for the non-elite Cubans, Fidel was sentenced to 15 years in the Presidio Modelo prison, located on Isla de Pinos, while Raúl was sentenced to 13 years. However, in 1955, under political pressure, the Batista government freed all political prisoners in Cuba. Fidels Jesuit childhood teachers succeeded in persuading Batista to include Fidel, soon, the Castro brothers joined with other exiles in Mexico to prepare for the overthrow of Batista, receiving training from Alberto Bayo, a leader of Republican forces in the Spanish Civil War
Cuban Revolution
–
Revolutionary leaders
Che Guevara (left) and
Fidel Castro (right) in 1961.
Cuban Revolution
–
Raúl Castro (left), with his arm around his second-in-command,
Ernesto "Che" Guevara, in their Sierra de Cristal mountain stronghold in
Oriente Province, Cuba, in 1958.
Cuban Revolution
–
Map of Cuba showing the location of the arrival of the rebels on the
Granma in late 1956, the rebels' stronghold in the
Sierra Maestra, and Guevara and Cienfuegos's route towards
Havana via
Las Villas Province in December 1958.
Cuban Revolution
–
Fidel Castro (far left) and
Che Guevara (centre) lead a memorial march in Havana on 5 May 1960, for the victims of the
La Coubre freight ship explosion.
12.
Hukbalahap Rebellion
–
The Hukbalahap Rebellion was a rebellion staged by former Hukbalahap or Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon soldiers against the Philippine government. It started during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines in 1942 and continued during the presidency of Manuel Roxas, during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines, the Hukbalahap created a strong resistance army against the Japanese forces in Central Luzon. The Huk Resistance, as it popularly known, created a stronghold against the Japanese in the villages through guerrilla warfare. During this time, the area was protected by Huks. The aftermath of the liberation from Japan was characterized by chaos, the Philippine Government, following orders from the United States of America, disarmed and arrested the Huks for allegedly being communists. Harassment and abuses against peasant activists became common, largely consisting of peasant farmers, the Huks feared for their lives as United States Army Forces in the Far East and the Philippine Constabulary hunted them down. The Huks decided to go back to the mountains and their lifestyle as a response to supposed maltreatment by the government. They staged a rebellion against the Philippine Government when it became clear that the repression would not stop unless all former Huk soldiers and supporters were rounded up. Landowners favored cash crops for export to the USA, such as tobacco and sugar cane, over the rice or cereals. Patterns of farm management were also changing, traditional landowners wanted to modernize their farms and employ tenant-farmers as wage-earners with legal contracts in order to maximize their profit. The landlord thought of himself as a grandfather to all tenants, … But the system had to be changed over time as the hacienda has to be put in a sound economic footing. The landlord tenant relationship is a partnership, it is not a family. The landlord has invested capital in the land, and the tenants give their labor, on loans If the tenants need to borrow rice or money, they could go somewhere else to get it. I decided to lend to only a few tenants, if they pay interest, but to give ration loans and charge no interest, and sometimes not be repaid is certainly an un-businesslike way to handle money. On contracts Contracts help to prevent tenants from cheating from me and my father never had problems because the tenants were better people then. But tenants became lazy, and they would take rice and other things that do not belong to them, so each year I made them sign contracts. Anyone who didnt want to could go someplace else, and those who didnt abide by the contracts can go someplace else. On mechanization of farms I was enthused about putting modern machinery to work like the modern farms Id seen in the US, … The only machine here is the Japanese rice thresher
Hukbalahap Rebellion
–
HUKBALAHAP Veterans Card
Hukbalahap Rebellion
–
The red area on the map is Central Luzon, the main geographical area where the Huks are located. Manila is a few hours' drive to the south.
Hukbalahap Rebellion
–
President Manuel Roxas
Hukbalahap Rebellion
–
President Ramon Magsaysay (Former Defense Secretary under President Elpidio Quirino)
13.
Vietnam War
–
It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam and the government of South Vietnam. The war is considered a Cold War-era proxy war. As the war continued, the actions of the Viet Cong decreased as the role. U. S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, in the course of the war, the U. S. conducted a large-scale strategic bombing campaign against North Vietnam. The North Vietnamese government and the Viet Cong were fighting to reunify Vietnam and they viewed the conflict as a colonial war and a continuation of the First Indochina War against forces from France and later on the United States. The U. S. government viewed its involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam and this was part the domino theory of a wider containment policy, with the stated aim of stopping the spread of communism. Beginning in 1950, American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina, U. S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and again in 1962. Regular U. S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965, despite the Paris Peace Accord, which was signed by all parties in January 1973, the fighting continued. In the U. S. and the Western world, a large anti-Vietnam War movement developed as part of a larger counterculture, the war changed the dynamics between the Eastern and Western Blocs, and altered North–South relations. Direct U. S. military involvement ended on 15 August 1973, the capture of Saigon by the North Vietnamese Army in April 1975 marked the end of the war, and North and South Vietnam were reunified the following year. The war exacted a huge human cost in terms of fatalities, estimates of the number of Vietnamese soldiers and civilians killed vary from 966,000 to 3.8 million. Some 240, 000–300,000 Cambodians,20, 000–62,000 Laotians, and 58,220 U. S. service members died in the conflict. Various names have applied to the conflict. Vietnam War is the most commonly used name in English and it has also been called the Second Indochina War and the Vietnam Conflict. As there have been several conflicts in Indochina, this conflict is known by the names of its primary protagonists to distinguish it from others. In Vietnamese, the war is known as Kháng chiến chống Mỹ. It is also called Chiến tranh Việt Nam, France began its conquest of Indochina in the late 1850s, and completed pacification by 1893. The 1884 Treaty of Huế formed the basis for French colonial rule in Vietnam for the seven decades
Vietnam War
–
Clockwise, from top left: U.S. combat operations in
Ia Drang, ARVN Rangers defending
Saigon during the 1968
Tet Offensive, two
Douglas A-4C Skyhawks en route for airstrikes against North Vietnam after the
Gulf of Tonkin incident, ARVN recapture
Quảng Trị during the 1972
Easter Offensive, civilians fleeing the
1972 Battle of Quảng Trị, burial of 300 victims of the 1968
Huế Massacre.
Vietnam War
–
A Japanese naval officer surrenders his sword to a British Lieutenant in Saigon on 13 September 1945.
Vietnam War
–
The
Geneva Conference, 1954
Vietnam War
–
U.S. President
Dwight D. Eisenhower and Secretary of State
John Foster Dulles greet President
Ngô Đình Diệm of
South Vietnam in Washington, 8 May 1957.
14.
Springfield Armory
–
The Springfield Armory, located in the city of Springfield, Massachusetts, was the primary center for the manufacture of U. S. military firearms from 1777 until its closing in 1968. The site is preserved as the Springfield Armory National Historic Site and it features the worlds largest collection of historic American firearms. Numerous firearm models produced at the Springfield Armory from 1794 to 1968 were referred to as Springfield rifles. In 1777, during the American Revolutionary War, George Washington scouted and approved the site of the Springfield Armory, after it was referred to him by General Henry Knox, his artillery chief. Additionally, Springfield is located just north of the Connecticut Rivers first waterfall, thus, Springfield was the first town on the Connecticut River protected from attack by seafaring naval vessels. The Armory site itself sits atop a high bluff like a citadel, overlooking a stretch of the Connecticut River. General Knox concurred with Washington that the plain just above Springfield is perhaps one of the most proper spots on every account for the location of an arsenal, in 1777, patriot colonists established The Arsenal at Springfield to manufacture cartridges and gun carriages for the war effort. During the Revolution, the arsenal stored muskets, cannon, patriots built barracks, shops, storehouses, and a magazine. Some doubt exists that the colonists manufactured arms during the Revolutionary War, after the war, the Army kept the facility to store arms for future needs. By the 1780s, the Springfield Arsenal functioned as a major ammunition, some time later, when manufacturing became important, the arsenal expanded to a second area south and west in Springfield, where water power was available. Around that time, the Mill River was dammed to form a lake called Watershops Pond. The main shops were behind the dam and a foundry was built below it and this factory was modernized, and the greater part of machining for Springfield and Garand rifles was conducted in it. George Washington appointed David Ames as first superintendent of the armory, John Ames was a blacksmith who had provided guns to the Colonial army. In 1786 and 1787, American Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays led an armed, on January 25,1787, thousands of Shays Regulators marched on the Springfield Armory, hoping to seize its weaponry and force a change of government. That day the Springfield Armory was defended by militia, who fired grape shot at the rebels. This confrontation proved decisive, as Shays Rebellion was crushed soon thereafter, Shays Rebellion directly influenced the United States Constitutional Convention, with future U. S. President George Washington citing it as his reason for coming out of retirement. In 1795, the Springfield Armory produced the new nations first musket, fueled by the Springfield Armory, the City of Springfield quickly became a national center for invention and development. In 1819 Thomas Blanchard developed a special lathe for the consistent mass production of rifle stocks, Thomas Blanchard worked at Springfield Armory for 5 years
Springfield Armory
–
Springfield Armory National Historic Site
15.
M1903 Springfield
–
It was officially adopted as a United States military bolt-action rifle on June 19,1903, and saw service in World War I. It was officially replaced as the infantry rifle by the faster-firing semi-automatic eight-round M1 Garand starting in 1937. However, the M1903 Springfield remained in service as a standard infantry rifle during World War II. It also remained in service as a rifle during World War II, the Korean War. It remains popular as a firearm, historical collectors piece. Troops armed with outclassed Springfield Model 1892–99 Krag–Jørgensen bolt-action rifles and older single-shot Springfield rifles, the Spanish soldiers inflicted 1,400 U. S. casualties in a matter of minutes. A U. S. Army board of investigation was commissioned as a result of this battle. They recommended replacement of the Krag, the M1903 not only replaced the various versions of the U. S. The two main problems cited with the Krag were its slow-to-load magazine and its inability to handle higher chamber pressures for high-velocity rounds. The United States Army attempted to introduce a higher-velocity cartridge in 1899 for the existing Krags, though a stripper-clip or charger loading modification to the Krag was designed, it was clear to Army authorities that a new rifle was required. In 1882, the bolt action.45 Remington Lee rifle design of 1879, several hundred 1882 Lee Navy Models were also subjected to trials by the U. S. Army during the 1880s, though the rifle was not formally adopted. The Navy adopted the Model 1885, and later different style Lee Model 1895, in Army service, both the 1885 and 1895 6mm Lee were used in the Spanish–American War, along with the.30 Krag and the. 45-70 Model 1873 Springfield. The Lee rifles detachable box magazine was invented by James Paris Lee, other advancements had made it clear that the Army needed a replacement. In 1892, the U. S. military held a series of rifle trials, the Krag officially entered U. S. service in 1894, only to be replaced nine years later by the Springfield M1903. A prototype rifle was produced in 1900, interestingly, it was similar to Rifle No.5. This design was rejected, and a new design combining features of the 1898 Krag rifle, Springfield began work on creating a rifle that could handle higher loads around the turn of the 20th century. Taking a cue from the 1898 Mauser Gewehr 98, a safety lug was added to the side of the bolt behind the extractor. The bolt handle was also bent downwards, to make operation of the bolt faster, the Springfield Model 1901 almost entered production
M1903 Springfield
–
Springfield M1903
M1903 Springfield
–
M1903 Springfield with loading clips
M1903 Springfield
–
US Marines with M1903 rifles and bayonets in France (1918)
M1903 Springfield
–
An Elder-type
periscope stock fitted to an M1903 (1918). Designed for
Trench warfare, this enabled the shooter to fire over the parapet of a trench while remaining under cover and protected; the rifle is also fitted with a 25-round magazine.
16.
Gun barrel
–
A gun barrel is a part of firearms and artillery pieces. The hollow interior of the barrel is called the bore, a gun barrel must be able to hold in the expanding gas produced by the propellants to ensure that optimum muzzle velocity is attained by the projectile as it is being pushed out by the expanding gas. Modern small arms barrels are made of known and tested to withstand the pressures involved. Artillery pieces are made by various techniques providing reliably sufficient strength, early firearms were muzzle-loading, with powder, and then shot loaded from the muzzle, capable of only a low rate of fire. During the 19th century effective mechanical locks were invented that sealed a breech-loading weapon against the escape of propellant gases, the early Chinese, the inventors of gunpowder, used bamboo, a naturally tubular stalk, as the first barrels in gunpowder projectile weapons. Early European guns were made of iron, usually with several strengthening bands of the metal wrapped around circular wrought iron rings. The Chinese were the first to master cast-iron cannon barrels, early cannon barrels were very thick for their caliber. Bore evacuator Bore snake Cannon Muzzle Polygonal rifling Rifling Slug barrel Smoothbore
Gun barrel
–
A US
240 mm howitzer in use in 1944
17.
Cartridge (firearms)
–
Military and commercial producers continue to pursue the goal of caseless ammunition. A cartridge without a bullet is called a blank, One that is completely inert is called a dummy. Some artillery ammunition uses the same concept as found in small arms. In other cases, the shell is separate from the propellant charge. In popular use, the bullet is often misused to refer to a complete cartridge. The cartridge case seals a firing chamber in all directions excepting the bore, a firing pin strikes the primer and ignites it. The primer compound deflagrates, it does not detonate, a jet of burning gas from the primer ignites the propellant. Gases from the burning powder pressurize and expand the case to seal it against the chamber wall and these propellant gases push on the bullet base. In response to pressure, the bullet will move in the path of least resistance which is down the bore of the barrel. After the bullet leaves the barrel, the pressure drops to atmospheric pressure. The case, which had been expanded by chamber pressure. This eases removal of the case from the chamber, brass is a commonly used case material because it is resistant to corrosion. A brass case head can be work-hardened to withstand the pressures of cartridges. The neck and body portion of a case is easily annealed to make the case ductile enough to allow reforming so that it can be reloaded many times. Steel is used in some plinking ammunition, as well as in military ammunition. Steel is less expensive than brass, but it is not feasible to reload, Military forces typically consider small arms cartridge cases to be disposable, one-time-use devices. However, case weight affects how much ammunition a soldier can carry, conversely, steel is more susceptible to contamination and damage so all such cases are varnished or otherwise sealed against the elements. One downside caused by the strength of steel in the neck of these cases is that propellant gas can blow back past the neck
Cartridge (firearms)
–
A variety of rifle cartridges: (1).17HM2 (2).17HMR (3)
.22LR (4).22 Win Mag R/F.22 WMR (5).17/23 SMc (6)
5mm/35 SMc (7)
.22 Hornet (8)
.223 Remington (9)
.223 WSSM (10)
.243 Win (11)
P.O. Ackley#Wildcats & Ackley Improved Cartridges.243 Win Improved (Ackley) (12).25-06 Rem (13).270 Win (14)
.308 Win (15)
.30-06 Springfield (16)
.45-70 Government (17)
.50-90 Sharps
Cartridge (firearms)
–
Historic British cartridges
Cartridge (firearms)
–
Chassepot paper cartridge (1866).
Cartridge (firearms)
–
(From Left to Right): A
.577 Snider cartridge (1867), a
.577/450 Martini-Henry cartridge (1871), a later drawn brass.577/450
Martini-Henry cartridge, and a
.303 British Mk VII SAA Ball cartridge.
18.
.30-06 Springfield
–
The.30 refers to the caliber of the bullet, and the 06 refers to the year the cartridge was adopted—1906. It replaced the. 30-03, 6mm Lee Navy, and. 30-40 Krag cartridges and it remains a very popular sporting round, with ammunition produced by all major manufacturers. In the early 1890s, the U. S. military adopted the smokeless powder. 30-40 Krag rimmed cartridge, the 1894 version of that cartridge used a 220-grain round-nose bullet. Around 1901, the U. S. started developing an experimental rimless cartridge for a Mauser action with box magazine and that led to the 1903. 30-03 rimless service round that used the same 220-grain round-nose bullet as the Krag. The. 30-03 achieved a velocity of 2,300 ft/s. Consequently, the round-nosed U. S. 30-03 service cartridge was falling behind. For these reasons, the U. S. military developed a new, lighter, cartridge in 1906, the cartridge was loaded with Military Rifle 21 propellant, and its maximum range was claimed to be 4,700 yd. The M1903 Springfield rifle, which had been introduced alongside the. 30-03 cartridge, was modified to accept the new. 30-06 Springfield cartridge. Modifications to the rifle included shortening the barrel at its breech and resizing the chamber, other changes to the rifle included elimination of the troublesome rod bayonet of the earlier Springfield rifles. The M1906 maximum range was originally overstated, when the M1906 cartridge was developed, the range tests had been done to only 1,800 yards, distances beyond that were estimated, but the estimate for extreme range was wrong by almost 40 percent. The range discrepancy became evident during World War I, before the widespread employment of light mortars and artillery, long-range machine gun barrage or indirect fires were considered important in U. S. infantry tactics. When the US entered World War I, it did not have machine guns, so it acquired British. When those weapons were replaced with US machine guns firing the M1906 round. Firing tests performed around 1918 at Borden Brook Reservoir, Miami, patrone was inroduced in 1914 and used a 197. 5-grain s. S. - schweres Spitzgeschoß boat-tail bullet which had a maximum range of approximately 5,140 yd. Its maximum range was approximately 5,500 yd. Additionally, wartime surplus totaled over 2 billion rounds of ammunition. Army regulations called for training use of the oldest ammunition first, as a result, the older. 30-06 ammunition was expended for training, stocks of.30 M1 Ball ammunition were allowed to slowly grow until all of the older M1906 ammunition had been fired. By 1936, it was discovered that the range of the.30 M1 Ball ammunition with its boat-tailed spitzer bullets was beyond the safety limitations of many ranges. An emergency order was made to manufacture quantities of ammunition that matched the ballistics of the earlier M1906 cartridge as soon as possible
.30-06 Springfield
–
.30-06 Springfield cartridge with soft tip
.30-06 Springfield
–
MI Garand 30-06. Note the ammunition clip at 12 0'clock. It ejects from the rifle after all eight rounds are depleted.
.30-06 Springfield
–
A Winchester Model 70 Super Grade in.30-06 with Leupold 6x/42MM scope
.30-06 Springfield
–
From left to right
9.3×62mm,.30-06 Springfield,
7.92×57mm Mauser,
6.5×55mm and
.308 Winchester
19.
Action (firearms)
–
In firearms terminology, an action is the mechanism that handles the ammunition or the method by which that mechanism works. Breech-loading weapons have actions, actions are not present on muzzleloaders. The mechanism that fires a muzzle-loader is called the lock, actions can be categorized in several ways, including single action versus double action, break action versus bolt action, and others. The term action can also short, long, and magnum if it is in reference to the length of the rifle’s receiver. The short action rifle usually can accommodate a cartridge length of 2.8 in or smaller, the long action rifle can accommodate a cartridge of 3.34 in, and the magnum action rifle can accommodate cartridges of 3.6 in, or longer in length. Manual operation is a term describing any type of firearm action that is loaded one shot at a time by the user rather than automatically. For example, break action is a form of operation using a simple hinge mechanism that is manually unlatched by the operator. These are actions wherein the breechblock lowers or drops into the receiver to open the breech, there are two principal types of dropping block, the tilting block and the falling block. In a tilting or pivoting block action, the breechblock is hinged on a pin mounted at the rear, when the lever is operated, the block tilts down and forward, exposing the chamber. The best-known pivoting block designs are the Peabody, the Peabody–Martini, the original Peabody rifles, manufactured by the Providence Tool Company, used a manually cocked side-hammer. The 1871 Martini–Henry which replaced the trapdoor Snider–Enfield was the standard British Army rifle of the later Victorian era, charles H. Ballards self-cocking tilting-block action was produced by the Marlin Firearms Company from 1875, and earned a superlative reputation among long-range Creedmoor target shooters. Surviving Marlin Ballards are today highly prized by collectors, especially those mounted in the elaborate Swiss-style Schützen stocks of the day. A falling-block action is a firearm action in which a solid metal breechblock slides vertically in grooves cut into the breech of the weapon. Examples of firearms using the falling block action are the Sharps rifle, in a rolling block action the breechblock takes the form of a part-cylinder, with a pivot pin through its axis. The operator rotates or rolls the block to open and close the breech, it is a simple, rugged, a break action is a type of firearm where the barrel are hinged and can be broken open to expose the breech. The earliest metallic-cartridge breechloaders designed for military issue began as conversions of muzzle-loading rifle-muskets. The upper rear portion of the barrel was filed or milled away, an internal angled firing pin allowed the re-use of the rifles existing side-hammer. The Allin action made by Springfield Arsenal in the US hinged forward, france countered in 1866 with its superior Chassepot rifle, also a paper-cartridge bolt action
Action (firearms)
–
A view of the
break-action of a typical double-barreled shotgun, with the action open and the extractor visible. The opening lever and the safety catch can also be clearly seen.
Action (firearms)
–
Ruger No. 1 single-shot falling-block rifle with action open
Action (firearms)
–
German
"Drilling" Combination Gun
Action (firearms)
–
Barreled action for bolt-action rifle
20.
Stripper clip
–
A stripper clip is a speedloader that holds several cartridges together in a single unit for easier and faster loading of a firearms magazine. Generally, a weapon that can use a clip for loading can also be loaded one round at a time. After the magazine is loaded, the clip is removed and set aside for reloading. Stripper clips were also employed in newer, semi-automatic rifles with box magazines, such as the Soviet SKS. Many early semi-automatic pistols also used stripper clips to reload, including the Mannlicher M1894, the Roth-Steyr M1907, currently they are used to top-off detachable box magazines for semi-automatic and automatic rifles. A magazine loader is placed on the lip of the box magazine, the clip is placed inside the loader, stripper/charger clips have been used since the 1890s, while en bloc clips have been used since roughly the mid-late 1880s. The M1891 Three Line Rifle utilized stripper clips, however the design was improved upon later, still, it is faster than reloading with single cartridges
Stripper clip
–
Stripper clip
Stripper clip
21.
Magazine (firearms)
–
A magazine is an ammunition storage and feeding device within or attached to a repeating firearm. Magazines can be removable or integral to the firearm, the magazine functions by moving the cartridges stored in the magazine into a position where they may be loaded into the chamber by the action of the firearm. The detachable magazine is often referred to as a clip, although this is technically inaccurate, magazines come in many shapes and sizes, from those of bolt-action express rifles that hold only a few rounds to drum magazines for self-loading rifles that can hold one hundred rounds or more. Various jurisdictions ban what they define as high-capacity magazines, with the increased use of semi-automatic and automatic firearms, the detachable box magazine became increasingly common. Soon after the adoption of the M1911 pistol, the magazine was settled on by the military and firearms experts. The defining difference between clips and magazines is the presence of a mechanism in a magazine, typically a spring-loaded follower. Use of the clip to refer to detachable magazines is a point of strong disagreement. The first mass-produced repeater was the Volcanic Rifle which used a bullet with the base filled with powder and primer fed into the chamber from a spring-loaded tube called a magazine. It was named after a building or room used to store ammunition, the anemic power of the Rocket Ball ammunition used in the Volcanic doomed it to limited popularity. The Henry repeating rifle is a lever-action, breech-loading, tubular magazine fed rifle, designed by Benjamin Tyler Henry in 1860, it was one of the first firearms to use self-contained metallic cartridges. The Henry was introduced in the early 1860s and produced through 1866 in the United States by the New Haven Arms Company and it was adopted in small quantities by the Union in the Civil War and favored for its greater firepower than the standard issue carbine. Many later found their way West and was famed both for its use at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, and being the basis for the iconic Winchester rifle which are made to this day. The Henry and Winchester rifles would go on to see service with a number of militaries including Turkey, switzerland and Italy adopted similar designs. The first magazine-fed firearm to achieve success was the Spencer repeating rifle. The Spencer used a magazine located in the butt of the gun instead of under the barrel. The Spencer was successful, but the rimfire ammunition did occasionally ignite in the magazine tube and it could also injure the user. The new bolt-action rifles began to favor with militaries in the 1880s and were often equipped with tubular magazines. The Mauser Model 1871 was originally a single-shot action that added a magazine in its 1884 update
Magazine (firearms)
–
A staggered-column
9×19mm Browning Hi-Power pistol box magazine; the top image shows the magazine loaded and ready for use while the lower image shows it unloaded and disassembled
Magazine (firearms)
–
Loading sleeve open, three Henry Flat cartridges, compare with.44 WCF round
Magazine (firearms)
–
Gatling gun with Accles drum, an odd loading device resembling a pan magazine in that the rotary follower was operated by the gun's action rather than a spring
Magazine (firearms)
–
1905 Military Rifles magazines. Number 1 & 2: Mosin–Nagant Number 3 & 4: Lebel Number 5 & 6: Gewehr 1888 Number 7 & 8: Mannlicher M1888 Number 9 & 10: Lee–Metford Number 11 & 12: Dutch-Mannlicher M1895 Number 13 & 14: Mauser M1893 Number 15: Krag–Jørgensen Number 16: Schmidt–Rubin M1889
22.
Blade
–
A blade is the portion of a tool, weapon, or machine with an edge that is designed to puncture, chop, slice or scrape surfaces or materials. A blade may be made from a stone, such as flint, metal, ceramic. Blades are one of humanitys oldest tools, and continue to be used for combat, food preparation, during food preparation, knives are mainly used for slicing, chopping, and piercing. In combat, a blade may be used to slash or puncture, the function is to sever a nerve, muscle or tendon fibers, or blood vessel to disable or kill the adversary. Severing a major blood vessel typically leads to death due to exsanguination, shrapnel causes wounds via the fragments blade-like nature. Blades may be used to scrape, moving the blade sideways across a surface, a simple blade intended for cutting has two faces that meet at an edge. Ideally this edge would have no roundness but in practice all edges can be seen to be rounded to some degree under magnification either optically or with an electron microscope, force is applied to the blade, either from the handle or pressing on the back of the blade. The handle or back of the blade has a large area compared to the fine edge and this concentration of applied force onto the small edge area increases the pressure exerted by the edge. It is this pressure that allows a blade to cut through a material by breaking the bonds between the molecules/crystals/fibres/etc. in the material. This necessitates the blade being strong enough to resist breaking before the material gives way. The angle at which the meet is important as a larger angle will make for a duller blade while making the edge stronger. A stronger edge is likely to dull from fracture or from having the edge roll out of shape. The shape of the blade is also important, a thicker blade will be heavier and stronger and stiffer than a thinner one of similar design while also making it experience more drag while slicing or piercing. A splitting maul has a section to avoid getting stuck in wood where chopping axes can be flat or even concave. Similarly, pushing on a rope tends to squash the rope while drawing serrations across it sheers the rope fibres, drawing a smooth blade is less effective as the blade is parallel to the direction draw but the serrations of a serrated blade are at an angle to the fibres. Saw blade serrations, for wood and metal, are typically asymmetrical so that they cut while moving in only one direction. Fullers are longitudinal channels either forged into the blade or later machined/milled out of the blade though the process is less desirable. This loss of material necessarily weakens the blade but serves to make the lighter without sacrificing stiffness
Blade
–
Knife blades
Blade
–
Blade of a whale knife
Blade
–
Drop-point blade
Blade
–
Clip-point blade
23.
Bayonet
–
In this regard, it is an ancillary close-quarter combat or last-resort weapon. Some modern bayonets, such as the one used on the British SA80 assault rifle, knife-shaped bayonets—when not fixed to a gun barrel—have long been utilized by soldiers in the field as general purpose cutting implements. The term bayonette dates back to the end of the 16th century, for example, Cotgraves 1611 Dictionarie describes the Bayonet as a kind of small flat pocket dagger, furnished with knives, or a great knife to hang at the girdle. Likewise, Pierre Borel wrote in 1655 that a kind of long-knife called a bayonette was made in Bayonne, the bayonet may have emerged to allow a hunter to fend off wild animals in the event of a missed shot. This idea was particularly persistent in Spain where hunting arms were equipped with bayonets from the 17th century until the advent of the cartridge era. The weapon was introduced into the French army by General Jean Martinet and was common in most European armies by the 1660s, the usefulness of such a dual-purpose arm soon became apparent. Early muskets fired at a rate, and could be both inaccurate and unreliable, depending on the quality of manufacture. A bayonet on a 5-foot tall musket achieved a similar to the infantry spear. The bayonet/musket combination was, however, considerably heavier than a polearm of the same length, early bayonets were of the plug type. This allowed light infantry to be converted to infantry and hold off cavalry charges. The bayonet had a handle that slid directly into the musket barrel. This naturally prevented the gun from being fired, in 1671, plug bayonets were issued to the French regiment of fusiliers then raised. They were issued to part of an English dragoon regiment raised in 1672 and disbanded in 1674, however, it was not widely adopted at the time. Soon socket bayonets would incorporate both ring mounts and a blade, keeping the bayonet well away from the muzzle blast of the musket barrel. In 1703, the French infantry adopted spring-loaded locking system that prevented the bayonet from accidentally separating from the musket, henceforward, the socket bayonet became, with the musket or other firearm, the typical weapon of the French infantry. The socket bayonet had by then adopted by most European armies. The British socket bayonet had a blade with a flat side towards the muzzle. However it had no lock to keep it fast to the muzzle and was well-documented for falling off in the heat of battle
Bayonet
–
The bayonet for the
Lee–Enfield Rifle No. 5 Mk I "
Jungle Carbine " rifle showing the
fuller
Bayonet
–
Early 19th-century spike bayonet
Bayonet
–
Socket of a bayonet
Bayonet
–
Bayonet assembly system of the
Chassepot
24.
Bolt-action
–
Bolt-action firearms are most often rifles, but there are some bolt-action shotguns and a few handguns as well. Examples of this date as far back as the early 19th century. From the late 19th century, all the way through both World Wars, the rifle was the standard infantry firearm for most of the worlds militaries. Bolt-action firearms are still popular for hunting and target shooting. The first bolt-action rifle was produced in 1824 by Johann Nikolaus von Dreyse, von Dreyse would perfect his Nadelgewehr by 1836, and it was adopted by the Prussian Army in 1841. It however was not the first bolt-action weapon to see combat as it was not fielded until 1864, during the American Civil War, the bolt-action Palmer carbine was patented in 1863, and by 1865,1000 were purchased for use as cavalry weapons. The French Army adopted its first bolt-action rifle, the Chassepot rifle, in 1866, ultimately the military turned to bolt-action rifles using a box magazine, the first of its kind was the M1885 Remington–Lee, but the first to be generally adopted was the British 1888 Lee–Metford. World War I marked the height of the bolt-action rifles use, there are, however, many semi-automatic sniper rifle designs, especially in the designated marksman role. Today, bolt-action rifles are used as hunting rifles. These rifles can be used to hunt anything from vermin, to deer, to game, especially big game caught on a safari. Bolt-action shotguns are considered a rarity among modern firearms, but were formerly a commonly used action for.410 entry-level shotguns, as well as for low-cost 12 gauge shotguns. The M26 Modular Accessory Shotgun System is the most advanced and recent example of a bolt-action shotgun, some pistols utilize a bolt action, although this is uncommon, and such examples are typically specialized target handguns. Most of the bolt-action designs involve the shooters doing a turn + pull handle movement to open the bolt, cock the firing pin, there are three major turning bolt-action system designs, the Mauser system, the Lee–Enfield system, and the Mosin–Nagant system. The vast majority of bolt-action rifles utilize one of three systems, with other designs seeing only limited use. The Mauser system is stronger than that of the Lee–Enfield due to two locking lugs just behind the head which make it better able to handle higher pressure cartridges. The 8×68mm S and 9. 3×64mm Brenneke magnum rifle cartridge families were designed for the Mauser M98 bolt action. A novel safety feature was the introduction of a locking lug present at the rear of the bolt that normally did not lock the bolt. The Mauser system features cock on opening, meaning the upward rotation of the bolt when the rifle is opened cocks the action, a drawback of the Mauser M98 system is that it cannot be cheaply mass-produced very easily
Bolt-action
–
Opened bolt on a
Winchester Model 70. The bolt has a
engine turned finish.
Bolt-action
–
A disassembled
Karabiner 98k action
Bolt-action
–
Close-up of the action on an SMLE Mk III rifle, showing the bolt-head, magazine cut-off, and
charger clip guide.
Bolt-action
–
The
Mannlicher M95 /30
25.
Service rifle
–
The service rifle of a given army or armed force is that which it issues as standard to its soldiers. In modern forces, this is typically a highly versatile and rugged assault rifle, battle rifle or carbine suitable for use in all theatres. These may include urban warfare and jungle warfare environments, most armies also have service pistols/side arms. Originally, rifles used in combat were not standard-issue weapons like the service rifles of today. Rifles were for specialist marksmen only, whilst the ordinary infantry were issued less accurate smoothbore muskets which had a rate of fire, with bore diameters as high as 19 mm. By the middle of the 19th century, however, rifles were becoming more and more common on the battlefield, originally, these combat rifles were single-shot muzzle-loading weapons, but as technology advanced through the 18th and 19th centuries, so too did the technique of loading rounds. By this time almost all prominent armies in the world had some sort of service rifle. During the Second World War, there was yet another leap forward in design which was to influence service rifles even today. That is, the use of a fired cartridges gas emissions to automatically rechamber rounds into the once a bullet had been fired. These weapons were known as gas-operated firearms and these rifles usually fired a full-sized cartridge, such as the. 30-06 Springfield or.303 British, as opposed to an intermediate rifle cartridge. The first of these was the Sturmgewehr 44, used by Nazi Germany in the stages of the Second World War. The StG44 was not issued in numbers, and was never adopted as Germanys service rifle. The Haitian Army was disbanded by the United States, and replaced in 1915 by the Gendarmerie dHaïti, the Haitian Army was again disbanded in 1995. Tibet was de facto independent from 1912 until the 1950s, and fielded the Tibetan Army List of assault rifles
Service rifle
–
The bolt-action
M1903 Springfield was used as the USA's service rifle from 1905 to just before
World War II, when it was replaced by the gas-operated
M1 Garand. It was in limited use up to the
Vietnam War.
Service rifle
–
StG 58
Service rifle
–
FARA 83
Service rifle
–
StG 77
26.
Repeating rifle
–
A repeating rifle is a single barreled rifle containing multiple rounds of ammunition. These rounds are loaded from a magazine by means of a manual or automatic mechanism, Repeating rifles were a significant advance over the preceding breech loaded single-shot rifles when used for military combat, as they allowed a much greater rate of fire. Repeating rifles saw use in the American Civil War during the early 1860s, while some early long guns were made using the revolver mechanism popular in hand guns, these did not have longevity in the marketplace. The bolt closes the end of the barrel and contains the firing pin. The bolt is held in place with a lever that fits into a notch, moving this lever out of the notch will release the restraint on the bolt, allowing it to be drawn back. An extractor removes the spent cartridge, which is ejected through the lever slot. A spring at the bottom of the magazine pushes up the reserve rounds, pushing the bolt lever forward chambers this round and pushing the lever into the notch locks the bolt and enables the trigger mechanism. The complete cycle action also resets the firing pin, the Russian Mosin–Nagant rifle, the British Lee–Enfield, and the Norwegian Krag–Jørgensen are examples of alternate bolt-action designs. In a classic lever-action firearm of the Henry-Winchester type, rounds are loaded into a tubular magazine parallel to. A short bolt is held in place with an over center toggle action, once closed, the over center action prevents opening solely by the force on the bolt when the weapon is fired. This toggle action is operated by a grip that forms part of the trigger guard. When operated, a spring in the magazine pushes a fresh round into position. Returning the operating lever to the home position chambers the round, an interlock prevents firing unless the toggle is fully closed. The famous Model 1873 Winchester is exemplary of this type, later lever-action designs, such as Marlin leverguns and those designed for Winchester by John Browning, use one or two vertical locking blocks instead of a toggle-link. There also exist lever-action rifles that feed from a box magazine, a one-off example of Lever action reloading on automatic firearms is the M1895 Colt–Browning machine gun. This weapon had a lever beneath its barrel that was actuated by a gas bleed in the barrel. This unique operation gave the nickname potato digger as the lever swung each time the weapon fired, with a pump-action firearm, the action is operated by a movable fore-end that goes backwards and forwards to eject, extract, and chamber a round of ammunition. Pump-actions are usually associated with shotguns, but one example of a rifle is the Remington Model 7600 series
Repeating rifle
–
Marlin Model 1894 C lever-action carbine in
.357 Magnum caliber
Repeating rifle
–
FN FAL battle rifle
Repeating rifle
–
M1941 Johnson rifle
27.
Semi-automatic firearm
–
A semi-automatic, or self-loading firearm, is one that performs all steps necessary to prepare it to discharge again after firing—assuming cartridges remain in the firearms feed device. Typically, this includes extracting and ejecting the spent cartridge case from the chamber, re-cocking the firing mechanism. For the other forms, the mechanism would require cycling manually prior to firing the next round. An automatic or a selective-fire firearm set to fire automatically would be able to discharge continuously as long as the trigger is held until the magazine or feed device runs out of ammunition. Obviously, this additional feature complicates the design of the sear and disconnector, the first successful design for a semi-automatic rifle is attributed to German-born gunsmith Ferdinand Ritter von Mannlicher, who unveiled the design in 1885. The Model 85 was followed by the equally innovative Mannlicher Models 91,93 and 95 semi-automatic rifles.5 mm ammunition that were fed into the M1894 by a stripper clip. The Auto-5 relied on long recoil operation, this remained the dominant form in semi-automatic shotguns for approximately 50 years. Production of the Auto-5 was ended in 1999, in 1903 and 1905, the Winchester Repeating Arms Company introduced the first semi-automatic rimfire and centerfire rifles designed especially for the civilian market. The Winchester Model 1903 and Winchester Model 1905 operated on the principle of blowback in order to function semi-automatically, johnson, the Model 1903 achieved commercial success and continued to be manufactured until 1932 when the Winchester Model 63 replaced it. Winchester introduced a medium caliber semi-automatic sporting rifle, the Model 1907 as an upgrade to the Model 1905, utilizing a system of operation. Both the Models of 1905 and 1907 saw limited military and police use, in 1906, Remington Arms introduced the Remington Auto-loading Repeating Rifle. Remington advertised this rifle, renamed the Model 8 in 1911 and this is a locked-breech, long recoil action designed by John Browning. The Model 81 superseded the Model 8 in 1936 and was offered in.300 Savage as well as the original Remington calibers, the first semi-automatic rifle adopted and widely issued by a major military power was the Fusil Automatique Modele 1917. This is a breech, gas-operated action which is very similar in its mechanical principles to the future M1 Garand in the United States. The M1917 was fielded during the stages of WWI but it did not receive a favorable reception. However its shortened and improved version, the Model 1918, gave complete satisfaction during the Moroccan Rif War from 1920 to 1926, the Lebel bolt-action rifle remained the standard French infantry rifle until replaced in 1936 by the MAS-36 despite the various semi-automatic rifles designed between 1918 and 1935. In 1937, the American M1 Garand was the first semi-automatic rifle to replace its nations bolt-action rifle as the infantry weapon. The gas-operated M1 Garand was developed by Canadian-born John Garand for the U. S. government at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, after years of research and testing, the first production model of the M1 Garand was unveiled in 1937
Semi-automatic firearm
–
The
M1 Garand was the first semi-automatic rifle to be generally issued to the infantry in any nation's army.
Semi-automatic firearm
–
The
Fusil Automatique Modele 1917 was the first semi-automatic rifle to be widely issued in the infantry in any nation's army.
Semi-automatic firearm
–
Remington 1100 Tactical Shotgun in 12 gauge – an example of a semi-automatic
shotgun
Semi-automatic firearm
–
The SKS is a semi-automatic Russian rifle
28.
M1 Garand
–
The M1 Garand is a.30 caliber semi-automatic rifle that was the standard U. S. service rifle during World War II and the Korean War and also saw limited service during the Vietnam War. Most M1 rifles were issued to U. S. forces, the Garand is still used by drill teams and military honor guards. It is also used by civilians for hunting, target shooting. The M1 rifle was named after its Canadian-American designer, John Garand and it was the first standard-issue semi-automatic military rifle. By all accounts the M1 rifle served with distinction, General George S. Patton called it the greatest battle implement ever devised. The M1 replaced the bolt action M1903 Springfield as the standard U. S. service rifle in the mid 1930s, although the name Garand is frequently pronounced /ɡəˈrænd/, the preferred pronunciation is /ˈɡærənd/, according to experts and people who knew John Garand, the weapons designer. French Canadian-born Garand went to work at the United States Armys Springfield Armory, in 1924, twenty-four rifles, identified as M1922s, were built at Springfield. At Fort Benning during 1925, they were tested against models by Berthier, Hatcher-Bang, Thompson, and Pedersen and this led to a further trial of an improved M1924 Garand against the Thompson, ultimately producing an inconclusive report. As a result, the Ordnance Board ordered a. 30-06 Garand variant, in March 1927, the cavalry board reported trials among the Thompson, Garand, and 03 Springfield had not led to a clear winner. This led to a gas-operated.276 model, in early 1928, both the infantry and cavalry boards ran trials with the.276 Pedersen T1 rifle, calling it highly promising. The.30 Garand, however, was dropped in favor of the.276.30 gas-operated Garand be resumed, twenty gas-operated.276 T3E2 Garands were made and competed with T1 Pedersen rifles in early 1931. The.276 Garand was the winner of these trials. The.30 caliber Garand was also tested, in the form of a single T1E1, a 4 January 1932 meeting recommended adoption of the.276 caliber and production of approximately 125 T3E2s. Meanwhile, Garand redesigned his bolt and his improved T1E2 rifle was retested, on 25 February 1932, Adjutant General John B. On 3 August 1933, the T1E2 became the semi-automatic rifle, caliber 30, in May 1934,75 M1s went to field trials,50 were to infantry,25 to cavalry units. The first production model was successfully proof-fired, function-fired, and fired for accuracy on July 21,1937, production difficulties delayed deliveries to the army until September 1937. Machine production began at Springfield Armory that month at a rate of ten rifles per day, despite going into production status, design issues were not at an end. The barrel, gas cylinder, and front sight assembly were redesigned and entered production in early 1940, production of the Garand increased in 1940 despite these difficulties, reaching 600 a day by 10 January 1941, and the army was fully equipped by the end of 1941
M1 Garand
–
M1 Garand rifle. From the collections of the
Swedish Army Museum, Stockholm, Sweden.
M1 Garand
–
John Garand points out features of the M1 to Army Generals.
M1 Garand
–
M1 Garand with en bloc clips.
M1 Garand
–
U.S. Army Infantryman in 1942 with M1,
Fort Knox, Kentucky.
29.
Sniper rifle
–
A sniper rifle is a man-portable, high precision, shoulder-fired rifle, for military or law enforcement use, designed to ensure more accurate shooting at longer ranges than other small arms. A typical sniper rifle is built for high levels of accuracy, fitted with a telescopic sight, the military role of a sniper dates back to the turn of the 18th century, but the true sniper rifle is a much more recent development. Some sniper rifles are based on the designs of standard rifles, the Whitworth rifle was arguably the first long-range sniper rifle in the world. His rifle was far more accurate than the Pattern 1853 Enfield, at trials in 1857, which tested the accuracy and range of both weapons, Whitworths design outperformed the Enfield at a rate of about three to one. Also, the Whitworth rifle was able to hit the target at a range of 2,000 yards, during the Crimean War, the first optical sights were designed for fitting onto the rifles. Much of this work was the brainchild of Colonel D. Davidson. This allowed a marksman to more accurately observe and target objects at a distance than ever before. The telescopic sight, or scope, was fixed and could not be adjusted. By the 1870s, the perfection of breech loading magazine rifles led to sniper rifles having effective ranges of up to a mile away from its target. During the Boer War, the latest breech-loading rifled guns with magazine, the British were equipped with the Lee–Metford rifle, while the Boers had received the latest Mauser rifles from Germany. In the open terrain of South Africa, the marksman was a component in battle. The Lovat Scouts was a British Army unit formed in 1899 that was renowned for the expert marksmanship, the men wore ghillie suits for camouflage and were expertly skilled in observation. Hesketh Hesketh-Prichard said of them that men never lived. After the Boer War, the Scouts became the first official unit in the British Army. It was not until World War I that sniper rifles began to be used regularly in battle. In Germany, these trained snipers were given rifles with telescopic sights, german gunsmiths fitted the scope above the barrel for optimal accuracy. During the War, the accuracy of the rifle was greatly improved. By the end of World War II snipers were reported to provide reasonable accuracy over 600 m with anything over this range being unpredictable
Sniper rifle
–
The 7.62×51mm
M40,
United States Marine Corps standard-issue sniper rifle.
Sniper rifle
–
The
Accuracy International Arctic Warfare series of sniper rifles is standard issue in the armies of many countries, including those of Britain and Germany (picture shows a rifle of the
German Army).
Sniper rifle
–
The British
Whitworth rifle, used greatly during the
American Civil War. Some of these rifles were fitted with a
scope on top of the barrel, thus creating the first actual sniper rifle.
Sniper rifle
–
During
World War II, the (7.62×54mmR)
Mosin–Nagant rifle mounted with a telescopic sight was commonly used as a sniper rifle by
Russian snipers.
30.
Mauser
–
Mauser, begun as Königliche Waffen Schmieden, is a German arms manufacturer. Their line of rifles and semi-automatic pistols have been produced since the 1870s for the German armed forces. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Mauser designs were also exported and licensed to a number of countries which adopted them as military. The Mauser Model 98 in particular was adopted and copied. Founded as Königliche Waffen Schmieden on July 31,1811 by Frederick I, originally located partly at Ludwigsburg and partly in Christophsthal, the factory was transferred to Oberndorf in the former Augustine Cloister. Andreas Mauser was the master gunsmith there, of his seven sons who worked with him there Peter Paul Mauser showed an outstanding ability to develop methods of operation that were faster and more efficient. His older brother Wilhelm assumed many of his fathers duties as he became ill, Peter Paul Mauser, often referred to as Paul Mauser, was born on 27 June 1838, in Oberndorf am Neckar, Württemberg. His brother Wilhelm was four years older, a brother, Franz Mauser, traveled to America in 1853 with his sister and worked at E. Remington & Sons. Peter Paul was conscripted in 1859 as an artilleryman at the Ludwigsburg arsenal, by December of 1859 he has so impressed his superiors that he was placed on inactive military service and assigned to the royal factory at Oberndorf. Paul engaged his older brother Wilhelm in working on a new gun system in their time after work. Paul was the engineer and designer but Wilhelm took on the task of manager for their interests with the Oberndorf factory, Pauls first invention was a cannon and its ammunition. His ability to both the gun and the ammunition for it was followed during his entire career and made him unique in this ability. Following the success of the Dreyse needle gun Paul turned his energies to improving on that design, Paul and Wilhelm had separated due to differences during this time. After Paul developed a new turning bolt design Wilhelm was impressed enough to rejoin the business and succeeded in obtaining the financing to purchase machinery, locally the Dreyse Needle gun had just been adopted so the brother turned to the Austrian Ambassador to try and sell their gun. He forwarded their new gun to Vienna for testing and it was here that American Norris of the Remington company saw the new Mauser rifle design. In 1867 Norris hired the Mauser brother to go to Luttich to work on a new design and he also stipulated that patents were to be taken out in his name and that a royalty would be paid to the Mauser brothers for rifles sold. Norris was convinced that he could sell the design to the French to convert their Chassepot rifles, the Norris-Mauser patent was taken out in the United States. Remington was outraged at the behavior of Norris and never made an effort to sell the new rifle, based on the Dreyse needle gun, he developed a rifle with a turn-bolt mechanism that cocked the gun as it was manipulated by the user
Mauser
–
Mauser K98K
stripper clip with 8×57mm rounds.
Mauser
–
Mauser
Mauser
–
Mauser Experimental Model 92 in caliber 8x58R. This rifle took part in the rifle trials that led to the Swedish Mauser.
Mauser
–
1893-95 Mauser rear sights
31.
Gewehr 98
–
The Gewehr 98 replaced the earlier Gewehr 1888 rifle as the German service rifle, first saw combat in the Boxer Rebellion, and was the main German infantry rifle of World War I. The Gewehr 98 saw further use by the Ottoman Empire. Many have been converted to sporting use, the Gewehr 98, named for 1898, the first year of its manufacture, superseded the earlier Gewehr 1888 in German service. The bolt-action design used for the Gewehr 98 was patented by Paul Mauser on 9 September 1895, the Gewehr 98 itself was the latest in a line of Mauser rifles that were introduced in the 1890s. The German Gewehr-Prüfungskommission adopted the Gewehr 98 on 5 April 1898, the action was derived from the experimental Gewehr 96 Rifle. In 1901, the first troop issues of the Gewehr 98 Rifles were made to the East Asian Expeditionary Force, the first combat use of the Gewehr 98 was during the Boxer Rebellion. In 1904, contracts were placed with Waffenfabrik Mauser for 290,000 rifles, at the outbreak of the war in 1914, the German Army had 2.273.080 Mauser 98-rifles of all types, additional 7.000.000 were produced during the war. The ammunition conversion was indicated by a small S stamped above the chamber and this was done since the 1888 pattern M/88 cartridge and 1903 S-bore pattern cartridge are two different non interchangeable chamberings. Since the new IS cartridge had a flatter trajectory the Lange Visier rear sight had to be changed with an S-adapted Lange Visier. The Gewehr 98 or model 98 rifle is a manually operated and it has a 740 mm long rifled barrel and carries 5 rounds of ammunition in an internal magazine. The Gewehr 98 has two sling swivels, open front sights, and a curved tangent-type rear sight, known as the Lange Visier, the controlled-feed bolt-action of the Gewehr 98 is a distinct feature and is regarded as one of the major bolt-action system designs. A drawback of the M98 system is that it cannot be cheaply mass-produced very easily, some other bolt-action designs offer trained operators a faster rate of fire. This third lug is a feature and was not present on previous Mauser bolt action designs. The bolt handle is attached to the bolt and, on the Gewehr 98, is straight. Combined with a slight bolt retraction at the last stage of the bolt opening cycle, caused by the surface on the rear receiver bridge. The M98 bolt-action will cycle correctly, irrespective of the way the rifle is moved or positioned during the bolt cycling action or if the cartridge has been fired or not. Only if the bolt is not brought back far enough, sharply enough, in a controlled round feed bolt-action the cartridge case may not be cleanly ejected and a jam may result. The bolt houses the firing pin mechanism that cocks when the bolt is opened, a cocking shroud lock that was not present on previous Mauser bolt-action designs was added. 92×57mm Mauser cartridge
Gewehr 98
–
Gewehr 98 with
bayonet and a 5 round
stripper clip on the side
Gewehr 98
–
German Empire, 1871–1918.
Gewehr 98
–
Mauser M98, cutaway model.
Gewehr 98
–
Mauser M98, marksman bolt group. Identifiable from the bent bolt handle.
32.
M1895 Lee Navy
–
The Lee Model 1895 was a straight-pull, cam-action magazine rifle adopted in limited numbers by the U. S. Navy and Marine Corps in 1895 as a first-line infantry rifle. It fired a 6mm cartridge, which used a smokeless powder, was semi-rimless. The 6mm U. S. N. or Lee Navy Cartridge was also used in the version of the Colt–Browning Model 1895 machinegun. By 1894, the U. S. Navy desired to adopt a modern small-bore, Naval authorities decided that the new cartridge should be adaptable to both rifles and machine guns. On August 1,1894 a naval test board was convened at the Naval Torpedo Station in Newport, per the terms of the Notice to Inventors, the new government-designed 6mm U. S. N a. k. a. Ball Cartridge, 6mm was the only permitted for rifles tested before the Naval Small Arms Board. The rifle action was required to withstand the firing of five overpressure cartridges with a pressure of 60,000 psi. In a second set of trials the Model 1893/94 Luger 6-mm Rifle, the Durst prototype fractured the receiver in firing and was withdrawn from the test, while the Luger Rifle performed excellently. Lugers submission had only one major disadvantage, it failed to meet government specifications, the Lee turning bolt design was considered to be a good one, but marred by its magazine system, which the Small Arms Board found to be problematic. The Board thought so highly of the Luger Rifle that it recommended purchase of either a prototype or an option to purchase the rights to manufacture. Apparently this never came to pass, as Luger not only declined to submit its design in the Navys government 6mm chambering, the first naval contract for the M1895 was let to Winchester for 10,000 rifles in January 1896. However, deliveries of the shipment of 10,000 rifles were not completed until 1897, owing to delays caused by manufacturing issues. The latter included a significant change in specification, which required extensive test firings followed by recalibration of the sights. Of the 10,000 rifles produced under the first contract,1,800 were issued to the U. S. Marine Corps, rifles with a serial number below 13390 were made prior to December 31,1898. The additional small quantity purchases by the Navy as well as all sporting models fall into the 10000–15000 serial range, military rifles have 28-inch barrels and navy anchor stamp, while rifles made for civilian sale have 24-inch barrels and no anchor. A second contract was let on February 7,1898 for an additional 5,000 rifles at $18.75 each and this second contract began delivery in August 1898 and was completed in December 1898. Overall, the Lee had a reputation for reliability in the field, beginning in 1898, during the Marine expeditionary campaign in Cuba, reports emerged from the field criticizing the floating extractor design. Designed by inventor James Paris Lee, the rifle weighed 8.3 pounds and was about 48 in long
M1895 Lee Navy
–
Winchester Model 1895 Lee Navy
M1895 Lee Navy
–
Rifles
33.
Springfield Model 1873
–
The model 1873 Trapdoor Springfield was the first standard-issue breech-loading rifle adopted by the United States Army. The gun, in both full-length and carbine versions, was used in subsequent battles against the American Indians. The model 1873 was the variation of the Allin trapdoor design, and was named for its hinged breechblock. The infantry rifle model featured a 32 5⁄8-inch barrel, while the cavalry used a 22-inch barrel. It was superseded by a model, the Springfield model 1884. In 1872–1873 a military board, headed by Brigadier-General Alfred H. S, the trials included tests for, accuracy, dependability, rate-of-fire, and ability to withstand adverse conditions. Both single shot and magazine equipped systems were considered but, at the time, the board recommended No.99 Springfield which became the model 1873. The rifle cartridge was designated as. 45-70-405, indicating a.45 caliber and it had a muzzle velocity of 1,350 feet per second, making it a powerful and effective load for the skirmish tactics of the era. A reduced-power load of 55 grains of powder was manufactured for use in the carbine to lighten recoil for mounted cavalry soldiers and this cartridge had a correspondingly reduced muzzle velocity of 1,100 feet per second and a somewhat reduced effective range. Another issue was the held in leather carriers created a green film that would basically weld the casing into the breech of the carbine when fired. This sometimes jammed the rifle by preventing extraction of the cartridge case. This did not account for cases removed by a ramrod or other stick nor for jammed rifles cleared away from the battle area. Every Custer battalion weapon became Indian property, the cartridge was subsequently redesigned with a brass case, since that material did not expand as much as copper. This was shown to be an improvement, and brass became the primary material used in United States military cartridges from then to the present. After the Little Big Horn disaster, troops were required to target practice twice a week. The black powder model 1873 continued to be the service rifle of the U. S. Military until it was replaced by the Springfield model 1892 bolt-action rifle. Replacement began in 1892, this would be the first US military rifle in 30 caliber, article on Trapdoor History and an animated gif showing the action movement
Springfield Model 1873
–
Springfield "Trapdoor" rifle
Springfield Model 1873
–
Modern Reproduction of a Springfield Model 1873 Rifle
Springfield Model 1873
–
Model 1888, breech open
Springfield Model 1873
–
Reenactor firing a Springfield Model 1873 breech-loading rifle at
Fort Mackinac in 2008
34.
Springfield Model 1892-99
–
All versions and variants were manufactured under license by the Springfield Armory between 1892 and 1903 and famously served as the longarm during the Spanish–American War. Although Krags were popular, unique and efficient, the loading gate mechanism was slow. American Krags are the most plentiful and affordable of all three Krag variants, although many are sporterized, and they remain popular with collectors today. Like many other armed forces, the U. S. Army searched for a new rifle in the early 1890s to replace their old Springfield Model 1873 trapdoor single-shot rifles. A competition was held in 1892, comparing rifle designs from Lee, Krag–Jørgensen, Mannlicher, Mauser, Schmidt–Rubin, the trials were held at Governors Island, New York. Approximately 500,000 Krags were produced at the Springfield Armory in Massachusetts from 1894 to 1904 and it was the U. S. Armys primary rifle from 1894 to 1903, and found use in the Spanish–American War and the Philippine–American War. In this later war the rifle was referred to in a popular with U. S. troops. During the American assault on the strategic Cuban city of Santiago, though the assault was successful, the Americans soon realized that they had suffered more than 1,400 casualties in the assault. With the Krags replacement with the Mauser-derived M1903, the rifle is tied for the shortest service life of any firearm in US military history. S. Troops in France and as training arms at various Stateside bases, later, many were issued to veterans organizations such as the American Legion, Sons or Union Veterans of the Civil War, and the Veterans of Foreign Wars for use in military ceremonies. Still, others were sold to civilians through the Civilian Marksmanship Program and American Krag rifles are a popular and common military surplus collectible. There were at least nine different models of the U. S. Krag–Jørgensen, M1892 Rifle – a rifle with a 30 in barrel and it can be identified by the cleaning rod under the barrel. M1892 Carbine – presumably a prototype, as just one is known today, looks like the M1892 Rifle, but with a 22 barrel. M1896 Rifle – rifle model where the magazine cut-off operates in down position, an improved rear sight and tighter production tolerances gave better accuracy. M1896 Cadet Rifle – model which was fitted with cleaning rod like M1892 rifle, only about 400 were made before it was discontinued. M1896 Carbine – model with the modifications as the M1896 Rifle. M1898 Rifle – a model that generally much like M1896, M1898 Carbine – rifle with same minor modifications as the M1898 Rifle. M1899 Carbine – rifle with generally the same as the M1898 Carbine, but with a slightly longer forearm and hand guard, m1899 Constabulary carbine – model built for use in the Philippines
Springfield Model 1892-99
–
Close-up of the receiver, bolt assembly, and magazine door on a US M1898 Krag–Jørgensen Rifle
35.
Long rifle
–
The long rifle, also known as longrifle, Kentucky rifle, or Pennsylvania rifle, was one of the first commonly used rifles for hunting and warfare. It is characterized by a long barrel, which is widely believed to be a largely unique development of American rifles that was uncommon in European rifles of the same period. The longrifle is an example of a firearm using rifling. This gave the projectile a spiraling motion, increasing the stability of the trajectory, a more stable trajectory meant dramatically improved accuracy over the more commonly available smooth bore muskets also used in the period. Rifled firearms saw their first major use in the American colonies during the French and Indian War. The adoption of the Minié ball essentially nullified these disadvantages and allowed the rifle to replace the musket. The longrifle was made popular by German gunsmiths who immigrated to America, the accuracy achieved by the longrifle made it an ideal tool for hunting wildlife for food in colonial America. The American Longrifle, more commonly, but less correctly, known as the Kentucky rifle, was described by Captain John G. W, the longrifle was developed on the American frontier in south eastern Pennsylvania, in the early 1700s. It continued to be developed technically and artistically until it passed out of fashion in the 19th century, the longrifle was the product of German gunsmiths who immigrated to new settlements in south eastern Pennsylvania in the early 1700s, and later in Virginia and other territories. Tax records from these locales indicate the dates these gunsmiths were in business, longrifles could be made entirely by hand and hand-operated tooling, in a frontier setting. Initially the weapon of choice on the frontier was the smooth bore musket, or trade gun, built in factories in England and France, gradually, longrifles became more popular due to their longer effective range. While the smooth bore musket had a range of less than 100 yards. The price for this accuracy was longer reloading time, while the musket could be reloaded in approximately 20 seconds, the longrifle required more time for the average hunter. In Pennsylvania, the earliest gunsmiths that can be documented are Robert Baker, Robert Baker formed a partnership with his son, Caleb and on August 15,1719 erected a gun boring mill on Pequea Creek. In the tax records of Berks County, Pennsylvania, there were several gunsmiths plying their trade along the banks of the Wyomissing Creek. Martin Meylins Gunshop was built in 1719, and it is here that the Mennonite gunsmith of Swiss-German heritage crafted some of the earliest, no single rifle has been found to date to be signed by Martin Meylin. The Martin Meylin Gunshop still stands today in Willow Street, Pennsylvania and this particular rifle was analyzed and the barrel removed during the Lancaster Long Rifle Exhibit at Landis Valley Farm Museum, Lancaster, Pennsylvania in 2005. The six experts on hand found the barrel was European and the stock itself dated from a period than 1710-1750
Long rifle
–
Longrifle
36.
Carbine
–
A carbine, from French carabine, is a long arm firearm but with a shorter barrel than a rifle or musket. Many carbines are shortened versions of full-length rifles, shooting the same ammunition, while others fire lower-powered ammunition, the smaller size and lighter weight of carbines make them easier to handle. An example of this is the US Armys M4 carbine, which is standard-issue, the carbine was originally a lighter, shortened weapon developed for the cavalry. After the Napoleonic Wars, cavalry began fighting dismounted, using the only for greater mobility. By the American Civil War, dismounted cavalry were mostly the rule, the principal advantage of the carbine was that its length made it very portable. A carbine was typically no longer than a sheathed sabre, and like a sabre was carried arranged to hang clear of the riders elbows. Carbines were usually less accurate and less powerful than the muskets of the infantry, due to a shorter sight plane. With the advent of fast-burning smokeless powder, the velocity disadvantages of a shorter barrel became less of an issue, eventually, the use of horse-mounted cavalry would decline. During the early 19th century, carbines were often developed separately from the rifles and, in many cases, did not even use the same ammunition. A notable weapon developed towards the end of the American Civil War by the Union was the Spencer carbine, one of the very first breechloading, repeating weapons. It had a spring-powered, removable tube magazine in the buttstock which held seven rounds and it was intended to give the cavalry a replacement weapon which could be fired from horseback without the need for awkward reloading after each shot. In the late 19th century, it common for a number of nations to make bolt-action rifles in both full-length and carbine versions. One of the most popular and recognizable carbines were the lever-action Winchester carbines and this made it an ideal choice for cowboys and explorers, as well as other inhabitants of the American West, who could carry a revolver and a carbine, both using the same ammunition. Other nations followed suit after World War I, when they learned that their traditional long-barreled rifles provided little benefit in the trenches, the US M1 carbine was more of a traditional carbine in that it was significantly shorter and lighter, with a 457. A shorter weapon was more convenient when riding in a truck, armored personnel carrier, helicopter, or aircraft, based on the combat experience of World War II, the criteria used for selecting infantry weapons began to change. In addition, improvements in artillery made moving infantry in areas even less practical than it had been. The majority of enemy contacts were at ranges of less than 300 metres, most rounds fired were not aimed at an enemy combatant, but instead fired in the enemys direction to keep them from moving and firing back. These situations did not require a heavy rifle, firing full-power rifle bullets with long-range accuracy, the lower-powered round would also weigh less, allowing a soldier to carry more ammunition
Carbine
–
Carbine model 1793, used by the French Army during the
French Revolutionary Wars.
Carbine
–
Various muzzle-loading arms, to scale; numbers 1, 10, and 11 are identified as carbines. (Encyclopædia Britannica, 1910)
Carbine
–
Left image:
Jean Lepage flintlock carbine named "du
Premier Consul " in honour of
Napoleon, circa 1800. Right image: Rifling of Lepage carbine.
Carbine
–
M1 Garand and M1 Carbine
37.
Boxer Rebellion
–
The Boxer Rebellion, Boxer Uprising or Yihequan Movement a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising that took place in China between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the Qing dynasty. The uprising took place against a background of severe drought and the disruption caused by the growth of foreign spheres of influence, Foreigners and Chinese Christians sought refuge in the Legation Quarter. Diplomats, foreign civilians and soldiers as well as Chinese Christians in the Legation Quarter were placed under siege by the Imperial Army of China, Chinese officialdom was split between those supporting the Boxers and those favoring conciliation, led by Prince Qing. The supreme commander of the Chinese forces, the Manchu General Ronglu, the Eight-Nation Alliance, after being initially turned back, brought 20,000 armed troops to China, defeated the Imperial Army, and captured Beijing on August 14, lifting the siege of the Legations. Uncontrolled plunder of the capital and the surrounding countryside ensued, along with the execution of those suspected of being Boxers. The Empress Dowager then sponsored a set of institutional and fiscal changes in an attempt to save the dynasty by reforming it. The Righteous and Harmonious Fists arose in the sections of the northern coastal province of Shandong long known for social unrest, religious sects. American Christian missionaries were probably the first to refer to the well-trained, athletic men as Boxers, because of the martial arts. Their primary practice was a type of possession which involved the whirling of swords, violent prostrations. The opportunities to fight back Western encroachment and colonization were especially attractive to unemployed village men, the tradition of possession and invulnerability went back several hundred years but took on special meaning against the powerful new weapons of the West. The Boxers, armed with rifles and swords, claimed supernatural invulnerability towards blows of cannon, rifle shots, furthermore, the Boxer groups popularly claimed that millions of soldiers of Heaven would descend to assist them in purifying China of foreign oppression. The Big Swords, emboldened by this support, also attacked their local Catholic village rivals. The Big Swords responded by attacking Catholic churches and burning them, the line between Christians and bandits, remarks one recent historian, became increasingly indistinct. As a result of pressure in the capital, Yuxian executed several Big Sword leaders. More martial secret societies started emerging after this, the early years saw a variety of village activities, not a broad movement or a united purpose. Martial folk religious societies such as the Baguadao prepared the way for the Boxers, like the Red Boxing school or the Plum Flower Boxers, the Boxers of Shandong were more concerned with traditional social and moral values, such as filial piety, than with foreign influences. One leader, for instance, Zhu Hongdeng, started as a healer, specializing in skin ulcers. Zhu claimed descent from Ming dynasty emperors, since his surname was the surname of the Ming imperial family and he announced that his goal was to Revive the Qing and destroy the foreigners
Boxer Rebellion
Boxer Rebellion
–
Top: Russian cannons
breaking the gates of Peking Bottom: American troops
scale the walls of Peking.
Boxer Rebellion
–
A Boxer during the revolt
Boxer Rebellion
–
A French political cartoon depicting
China as a pie about to be carved up by
Queen Victoria (
Britain),
Kaiser Wilhelm II (
Germany),
Tsar Nicholas II (
Russia),
Marianne (
France) and a
samurai (
Japan), while a
Chinese mandarin helplessly looks on.
38.
James Paris Lee
–
James Paris Lee was a British, Canadian and later American inventor and arms designer, best known for inventing the Lee–Metford and Lee–Enfield series of rifles. Born in Hawick, Scotland Lee emigrated with his family to Galt and he built his first gun at the age of 12, using an old horse-pistol barrel, a newly carved walnut stock, and a priming pan made from a halfpenny. The gun failed to function effectively when first fired, but started Lees interest in gunsmithing, in 1858, James Lee and his wife Caroline Lee moved to Wisconsin in the USA, where they had two sons- William and George. The Lee Civil War carbine was manufactured in Milwaukee, Wisconsin,200 were delivered but due to a bore diameter error, these were rejected by the army and the weapon did not see use in the Civil War. These guns are rare and highly collectible, perhaps Lees greatest individual impact on modern small arms development came with his invention for a spring-loaded column-feed magazine system for centerfire cartridge rifles. The main advance of the Lee magazine was that it carried its cartridges in two columns, rather than the column which was typical of the time. This allowed twice the ammunition to be carried without making the magazine any deeper, when fitted with a charger bridge, the Lee magazine could be quickly reloaded with either single cartridges, like a tubular-feed magazine, or with a charger holding five rounds. The charger system avoided all this, allowing ammunition to be carried in units of five and rapidly loaded like an en bloc clip, but also allowing it to be easily used without the clips. Although the charger clip was invented in by Paul Mauser in 1889, for the Mauser M1889, it was adapted to the new Lee-Metford. The Lee magazine was perfectly compatible with the device, unlike tube-magazine guns. The Lee magazine differed in holding the ammunition in two columns, rather than a single stack, allowing for ten rounds to be carried in a magazine that was no deeper than that of the M1889. The rest of the time you can use it as a rifle with a five-round reserve. This is one reason why the UK never adopted 10 round chargers to go with the 10 round magazines. It also allowed the rifle to be used as a single shot weapon during long range fire, with the full magazine set aside for when the enemy closed. Although no Lee rifle ever carried more than ten rounds, the served as the basis for what later became the universal standard for military rifles. In combat, the detachable magazine theoretically allowed a soldier to carry loaded magazines, thus speeding reloading time, at the time Lees magazine was introduced, rifle magazines were expensive to fabricate and could not be regarded as expendable items. With the exception of handguns, it wasnt until rifles with magazine capacities of 20 rounds or greater were invented that detachable magazines were used to carry ammunition in. Lees detachable column-feed magazine system eventually became the pre-eminent design after WW2, in 1891, Lee sued von Mannlicher, claiming that the latters design infringed upon his en bloc magazine patent but lost the case
James Paris Lee
–
James Paris Lee
James Paris Lee
–
James Lee square at
Enfield Island Village formerly the
Royal Small Arms Factory
39.
Theodore Roosevelt
–
Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. As a leader of the Republican Party during this time, he became a force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century. Born a sickly child with debilitating asthma, Roosevelt successfully overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle and he integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a cowboy persona defined by robust masculinity. Home-schooled, he began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College and his first of many books, The Naval War of 1812, established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the faction of Republicans in New Yorks state legislature. Returning a war hero, he was elected governor of New York in 1898, the state party leadership distrusted him, so they took the lead in moving him to the prestigious but powerless role of vice presidential candidate as McKinleys running mate in the election of 1900. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously across the country, helping McKinleys re-election in a victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity. Following the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901, Roosevelt succeeded to the office at age 42, making conservation a top priority, he established a myriad of new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nations natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal and he greatly expanded the United States Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize, elected in 1904 to a full term, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies, but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress. Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, to succeed him in the presidency, after leaving office, Roosevelt went on safari in Africa and toured Europe. Returning to the United States, he became frustrated with Tafts approach, failing to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1912, Roosevelt founded his own party, the Progressive, so-called Bull Moose Party, and called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. The split among Republicans enabled the Democrats to win both the White House and a majority in the Congress in 1912, Republicans aligned with Taft nationally would control the Republican Party for decades. Frustrated at home, Roosevelt led an expedition to the Amazon basin. During World War I, he opposed President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the country out of the war, and offered his military services, although planning to run again for president in 1920, Roosevelt suffered deteriorating health and died in early 1919. Roosevelt has consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest American presidents. Historians admire Roosevelt for rooting out corruption in his administration, but are critical of his 1909 libel lawsuits against the World and his face was carved into Mount Rushmore, alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27,1858, at East 20th Street in New York City and he was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch and glass businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr
Theodore Roosevelt
–
Theodore Roosevelt
Theodore Roosevelt
–
Theodore Roosevelt at age 11
Theodore Roosevelt
–
Roosevelt's taxidermy kit
Theodore Roosevelt
–
Roosevelt as NY State Assemblyman, 1883
40.
M1905 bayonet
–
The M series of bayonets was initiated in 1905, and continues in use to the present. There have been modifications to the original design, the greatest being with the introduction of the M1 subseries near the end of World War II. The Model of 1905 bayonet was made for the.30 caliber U. S, the designation Model of 1905 was changed to Model 1905 in 1917, and then to M1905 in 1925, when the Army adopted the M designation nomenclature. The M1905 bayonet blade is 16 inches long, and the handle is 4 inches long, the bayonet also fits the.30 caliber U. S. M1 Garand rifle. In 1942, the same bayonet design was again produced and designated the M1942 bayonet. The M1942 is the designation of the M1905 Bayonet with a plastic, instead of wooden. It was manufactured in sufficient numbers to keep up with production of the.30 caliber M1 rifle. Again, the blade is 16 inches long with a 4 inch long handle, interchangeability allowed the M1942 bayonet to be used on any M1903 rifle, while allowing the mounting of the earlier M1905 bayonet on the M1 Garand rifles. The designation M1942 was never adopted by the Army, all sixteen inch blade bayonets were referred to as M1905. M1942 production The M1 Bayonet was designed to be used with the.30 caliber M1 Garand, the blade is 10 inches long, and the handle is 4 inches long. Before 1943, the M1 Garand and all variants of the M1903 Springfield rifle were using the M1905, in 1943, the U. S. Army decided to shorten the bayonet design. Many of the M1905/M1942s as possible were recalled, had their blades cut down to 10 inches, the shortened M1905 bayonets were re-designated as M1905E1. New-production 10-inch bayonets were designated as M1 bayonets, however, in the Pacific theater, the much longer Japanese Type 30 sword bayonet on the already very long Arisaka rifle caused many American troops to retain the longer, unmodified M1905 bayonet. The original M1905 scabbard had a body with a rawhide cover and employed a wire belt-hanger which went over. The M1910 scabbard was covered in canvas with a leather tip, wire cartridge-belt hooks replaced the belt-hanger. The M1910 scabbard was the primary scabbard used during the First World War, earlier M1905 scabbards were modified by replacing the belt-hanger with a belt hook. A green-leather bodied M1917 scabbard was approved as a substitute for the M1905 bayonet scabbard, a new scabbard, the M3, was developed early in the Second World War to replace these earlier scabbards. The M3 scabbard had a body, with a metal throat
M1905 bayonet
–
An M1 Bayonet made by the American Fork & Hoe Co.
M1905 bayonet
–
Corporal George Miner with his M1905 bayonet on guard duty in 1919 Germany.
41.
Periscope rifle
–
A periscope rifle is a rifle that has been adapted to enable it to be sighted by the use of a periscope. This enables the shooter to remain concealed below cover, similar devices were also built for use with machine guns. The first periscope sighting rifle attachment was the Youlten hyposcope invented by W. Youlten, an early version of the attachment was tested in 1903, receiving its first patent in 1914. Its maximum range was 600 yards, a form of periscope rifle was invented in May 1915 during the Gallipoli campaign by a British-born Australian soldier, Lance Corporal William Beech, a builders foreman in civilian life. Beech was at time serving in the 2nd Battalion, Australian Imperial Force, the device allowed a soldier to aim and fire a rifle from a trench, without being exposed to enemy fire. Beech modified a standard Lee–Enfield.303 rifle by cutting the stock in half, according to the testimony of John Adams, a private who served with Beech, the idea came to Beech after the dramatic experience of seeing the bodies of fellow soldiers shot through the head. Beechs device was quickly copied by other members of the Australian and it saw extensive use in the intense trench warfare of Gallipoli, where some lines of trenches – such as at Quinns Post – were within 50 metres of one another. According to a Gallipoli campaign participant, Sir D. G, ferguson, the use of conventional rifles during daytime was abandoned in favour of periscope rifles. It was generally regarded as significantly less accurate than a conventional Lee–Enfield, a test conducted on the TV documentary series The Boffin, The Builder, The Bombardier suggested that the effective range was approximately 100 yards. However, during the Gallipoli campaign, an effective range was not a significant problem as in many sectors. Some were only five yards apart, periscope rifles were later manufactured in crude production lines on the beach at Anzac Cove. Field Marshal Sir William Birdwood described the invention as one of importance during the Gallipoli campaign. In 1921, the British War Office awarded Beech ₤100 for the invention, two Lee–Enfield periscope adaptations were patented in September 1915. The first by J. E. Chandler was able to fire a full magazine before being dismounted, the second by G. Gerard was of a similar design. This was followed by E. C. Robert Markss design in 1916, on the Western Front periscope rifles were used by the Belgian, British and French armies. A periscope version of the Mosin–Nagant rifle was used by the Imperial Russian Army on the Eastern Front, a number of periscope rifles including the Elder and the Cameron-Yaggi were devised in the United States. The Cameron-Yaggi was invented in 1914, but development of the came to an end after the Armistice in November 1918. The Cameron-Yaggi included a mechanism to operate the bolt and the rifles periscope also functioned as a 4-power telescopic sight
Periscope rifle
–
Australian
light horseman using a periscope rifle, Gallipoli 1915. Photo by
Ernest Brooks.
Periscope rifle
–
William Beech with his creation, May 1915.
Periscope rifle
–
An Elder-type periscope stock fitted to an American
M1903 Springfield rifle (1918); the rifle is also fitted with a 25-round magazine
42.
Trench warfare
–
The most famous use of trench warfare is the Western Front in World War I. It has become a byword for stalemate, attrition, sieges, Trench warfare occurred when a revolution in firepower was not matched by similar advances in mobility, resulting in a grueling form of warfare in which the defender held the advantage. On the Western Front in 1914–18, both sides constructed elaborate trench and dugout systems opposing each other along a front, protected from assault by barbed wire, mines, the area between opposing trench lines was fully exposed to artillery fire from both sides. Attacks, even if successful, often sustained severe casualties, with the development of armoured warfare, emphasis on trench warfare has declined, but still occurs where battle-lines become static. Field works are as old as armies, Roman legions, when in the presence of an enemy, entrenched camps nightly when on the move. In the early modern era they were used to block possible lines of advance and they played a pivotal role in manoeuvring that took place before the Battle of Blenheim. The lines were captured by the French in 1707 and demolished, the French built the 19-kilometre-long Lines of Weissenburg during the War of the Spanish Succession under the orders of the Duke of Villars in 1706. These were to remain in existence for just over 100 years and were last manned during Napoleons Hundred Days, the French built the Lines of Ne Plus Ultra during the winter of 1710–1711, which have been compared to the trenches of World War I. They ran from Arras to Cambrai and Valenciennes where they linked up with existing defensive lines fronted by the river Sambre and they were breached in the 1711 campaign season by the Duke of Marlborough through a magnificent piece of manoeuvring. During the Peninsular War, the British and Portuguese constructed the Lines of Torres Vedras in 1809 and 1810, nor were fortifications restricted to European powers. British casualty rates of up to 45 percent, such as at the Battle of Ohaeawai in 1845, proved contemporary firepower was insufficient to dislodge defenders from a trench system. Fundamentally, as the range and rate of fire of rifled small arms increased and this was only made more lethal by the introduction of rapid-firing artillery, exemplified by the French 75, and high explosive fragmentation rounds. The increases in firepower had outstripped the ability of infantry to cover the ground between firing lines, and the ability of armour to withstand fire and it would take a revolution in mobility to change that. Trench warfare is associated with the First World War of 1914–18. Both sides concentrated on breaking up attacks and on protecting their own troops by digging deep into the ground. Trench warfare was conducted on other fronts, including Italy. Trench warfare has become a symbol of the futility of war. To the French, the equivalent is the attrition of the Battle of Verdun in which the French Army suffered 380,000 casualties, Trench warfare is associated with mass slaughter in appalling conditions
Trench warfare
–
Lines of Torres Vedras
Trench warfare
–
Trenches at the
Siege of Vicksburg 1863
Trench warfare
–
The
Boer trench at the
Battle of Magersfontein contributed to the surprise defeat of the Highland Brigade on 11 December 1899 during the
Second Boer War.
Trench warfare
–
German forward detachments guarding the entrance to a trench line in front of
Arras in 1915
43.
Rock Island Arsenal
–
The Rock Island Arsenal comprises 946 acres, located on Arsenal Island, originally known as Rock Island, on the Mississippi River between the cities of Davenport, Iowa, and Rock Island, Illinois. It lies within the state of Illinois and it is home of First Army headquarters. The island was established as a government site in 1816. It is now the largest government-owned weapons manufacturing arsenal in the United States and it has manufactured military equipment and ordnance since the 1880s. In 1919–1920 one hundred of the Anglo-American or Liberty Mark VIII tanks were manufactured and it is designated as a National Historic Landmark. Established as both an arsenal and a center for the manufacture of leather accoutrements and field gear, today it provides manufacturing, logistics, the Arsenal is the only active U. S. Some of the Arsenals most successful products include the M198 and M119 towed howitzers, about 250 military personnel and 6,000 civilians work there. The 2000 census population was 145, from the autobiography of Black Hawk, When we arrived we found that the troops had come to build a fort on Rock Island. It was our garden, like the people have near their big villages. The island facilities were converted and built in 1863, they were not yet completed in December of that year, the first prisoners were 468 Confederates captured in battles at Chattanooga, Tennessee. That month more than 5,000 Confederates would swell the population of Rock Island military prison and they were kept in 84 barracks, each holding around 100 prisoners. A total of 41 Confederate prisoners successfully escaped during the prison’s operation, most died from disease, since sanitation was primitive as in all army encampments, and exposure to heat and humidity during the summers and freezing temperatures during winters. In 1864, deadly smallpox epidemics raged through the prison, the prison camp operated from December 1863 until July 1865, when the last prisoners were freed. After the war, the facility was completely destroyed. During its two years in operation, the camp housed a total of more than 12,400 Confederates. Following the war, the government retained ownership of Arsenal Island and developed it for use as an arsenal and ordnance manufacturing center. The Rock Island Arsenal Museum was established on July 4,1905 and it is the second-oldest US Army Museum in the US after the West Point Museum. The museum has been closed twice, during World War I and World War II, exhibits interpret the history of Rock Island Arsenal and the Union prison camp during the American Civil War, and the sites role as a military industrial facility
Rock Island Arsenal
–
Rock Island Arsenal
44.
Pyrometer
–
A pyrometer is a type of remote-sensing thermometer used to measure the temperature of a surface. Various forms of pyrometers have historically existed, the word pyrometer comes from the Greek word for fire, πυρ, and meter, meaning to measure. The word pyrometer was originally coined to denote a device capable of measuring the temperature of an object by its incandescence, modern pyrometers or infrared thermometers also measure the temperature of cooler objects, down to room temperature, by detecting their infrared radiation flux. A modern pyrometer has a system and a detector. The optical system focuses the radiation onto the detector. These are most commonly overcome by using thin filament pyrometry or soot pyrometry, both techniques involve small solids in contact with hot gases. Later examples used the expansion of a metal bar, the first disappearing filament pyrometer was built by L. Holborn and F. Kurlbaum in 1901. This device had an electrical filament between an observers eye and an incandescent object. The current through the filament was adjusted until it was of the colour as the object. The temperature returned by the vanishing filament pyrometer and others of its kind, with greater use of brightness pyrometers, it became obvious that problems existed with relying on knowledge of the value of emissivity. Emissivity was found to change, often drastically, with surface roughness, bulk and surface composition, to get around these difficulties, the ratio or two-color pyrometer was developed. This solution assumes that the emissivity is the same at both wavelengths and cancels out in the division and this is known as the gray body assumption. Ratio pyrometers are essentially two brightness pyrometers in a single instrument, the operational principles of the ratio pyrometers were developed in the 1920s and 1930s, and they were commercially available in 1939. As the ratio pyrometer came into use, it was determined that many materials, of which metals are an example. For these materials, the emissivity does not cancel out and the measurement is in error. The amount of error depends on the emissivities and the wavelengths where the measurements are taken, two-color ratio pyrometers cannot measure whether a material’s emissivity is wavelength dependent. Pyrometers are suited especially to the measurement of moving objects or any surfaces that can not be reached or can not be touched, temperature is a fundamental parameter in metallurgical furnace operations. Reliable and continuous measurement of the temperature is essential for effective control of the operation
Pyrometer
–
An optical pyrometer
Pyrometer
–
A sailor checking the temperature of a ventilation system
Pyrometer
–
Technician measuring the temperature of molten
silicon at 2650°F with a pyrometer in
Czochralski crystal growing equipment at Raytheon transistor plant in 1956.
Pyrometer
–
Measuring the Combustion Temperature of Coke in the Blast Furnace using an Optical Pyrometer, Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory, 1930
45.
Pedersen device
–
This attachment was developed to allow an infantryman to convert his rifle to a form of submachine gun or automatic rifle in approximately 15 seconds. Production of the Pedersen device and modified M1903 rifles started during 1918, however, the war ended before they were sent to Europe. The contract was cancelled on March 1,1919, after production of 65,000 devices,1.6 million magazines,65 million cartridges and 101,775 modified Springfield rifles. The devices, magazines, ammunition and rifles were placed in storage. To prevent them falling into the hands of the lawless. Fewer than 100 Pedersen devices escaped ordered destruction to become rare collectors items. Prior to the United States entry into World War I, John Pedersen and his idea was to dramatically increase the firepower available to the average infantryman. His final design, replaced the bolt of a modified Springfield M1903 rifle with a device consisting of a firing mechanism. In effect, the device was essentially a complete blow-back pistol minus a receiver/grip using the barrel of the device to fit into the longer chamber of the M1903 rifle. The mechanism was fed by a long 40-round magazine sticking perpendicularly out of the rifle at a 45-degree angle to the top right, each magazine had cut-out viewing slots facing aft so the rifleman could observe the number of unfired rounds remaining. The system required an ejection port to be cut into the side of the M1903 rifles receiver. Sear, trigger, and magazine cut-off also required modifications which did not limit the ability of Mark I receivers to function in the bolt action mode. Pedersen traveled to Washington, DC on 8 October 1917 to conduct a demonstration for Chief of Ordnance General William Crozier. After firing several rounds from what appeared to be an unmodified Springfield, he removed the bolt, inserted the device. The evaluation team was favorably impressed, to deceive the enemy, the Ordnance Department decided to call it the US Automatic Pistol, Caliber.30, Model of 1918. Plans were put into place to start production of modified Springfields, the Army placed orders for 133,450 devices and 800,000,000 cartridges for the 1919 Spring Offensive. General John J. Pershing requested 40 magazines and 5000 rounds of ammunition be shipped with each device, the use of the Pedersen Device in the 1919 Spring offensive was to be in conjunction with the full combat introduction of the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle. The US Patent Office issued U. S, Patent 1,355,420 to Pedersen for his invention
Pedersen device
–
M1903 Springfield with ejection port
Pedersen device
–
Diagram illustrating the device
46.
M2 Browning
–
The M2 Machine Gun or Browning.50 Caliber Machine Gun is a heavy machine gun designed toward the end of World War I by John Browning. Its design is similar to Brownings earlier M1919 Browning machine gun, the M2 uses the much larger and much more powerful.50 BMG cartridge, which was developed alongside and takes its name from the gun itself. It has been referred to as Ma Deuce, in reference to its M2 nomenclature, the design has had many specific designations, the official designation for the current infantry type is Browning Machine Gun, Cal.50, M2, HB, Flexible. It is effective against infantry, unarmored or lightly armored vehicles and boats, light fortifications, the M2 has been produced longer than any other machine gun. The Browning.50 caliber machine gun has been used extensively as a vehicle weapon and it was heavily used during World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Falklands War, the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan in the 2000s and 2010s. It is the heavy machine gun of NATO countries, and has been used by many other countries as well. The M2 has been in use longer than any firearm in U. S. inventory except the.45 ACP M1911 pistol. The current M2HB is manufactured in the U. S. by General Dynamics, Ordnance for use by the U. S. government, and for allies via Foreign Military Sales, as well as foreign manufacturers such as FN Herstal. Machine guns were used in World War I, and weapons of larger than rifle caliber were appearing. Both the British and French had large caliber machine guns, the larger rounds were needed to defeat the armor that was being introduced to the battlefield. Armor was also appearing in the skies, during World War I, the Germans introduced a heavily armored airplane, the Junkers J. I. The armor made aircraft machine guns using conventional rifle ammunition ineffective, consequently, the American Expeditionary Forces commander General John J. Pershing asked for a larger caliber machine gun. Pershing asked the Army Ordnance Department to develop a gun with a caliber of at least 0.50 inches. U. S. Col. John Henry Parker, commanding a machine gun school in France, the Army Ordnance Department ordered eight experimental Colt machine guns rechambered for the French 11 mm cartridge. The French had developed a machine gun for an even larger caliber. The French 11 mm round was found to be unsuitable because its velocity was too low, Pershing wanted a bullet of at least 670 gr and a muzzle velocity of 2,700 ft/s. Development with the French round was dropped, around July 1917, John M. Browning started redesigning his.30 caliber machine gun for a larger caliber. Winchester worked on the cartridge, which was a version of the. 30-06
M2 Browning
–
M2HB heavy machine gun
M2 Browning
–
A U.S. Marine mans a.50 caliber machine gun as part of a security force during a training exercise with the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit in November 2002.
M2 Browning
–
Twin M2HB.50 caliber machine gun during a Pre-aimed Calibration Fire (PACFIRE) exercise in May 2005
M2 Browning
–
An M2 fired from a
rigid-hulled inflatable boat.
47.
M2 Ball
–
The.30 refers to the caliber of the bullet, and the 06 refers to the year the cartridge was adopted—1906. It replaced the. 30-03, 6mm Lee Navy, and. 30-40 Krag cartridges and it remains a very popular sporting round, with ammunition produced by all major manufacturers. In the early 1890s, the U. S. military adopted the smokeless powder. 30-40 Krag rimmed cartridge, the 1894 version of that cartridge used a 220-grain round-nose bullet. Around 1901, the U. S. started developing an experimental rimless cartridge for a Mauser action with box magazine and that led to the 1903. 30-03 rimless service round that used the same 220-grain round-nose bullet as the Krag. The. 30-03 achieved a velocity of 2,300 ft/s. Consequently, the round-nosed U. S. 30-03 service cartridge was falling behind. For these reasons, the U. S. military developed a new, lighter, cartridge in 1906, the cartridge was loaded with Military Rifle 21 propellant, and its maximum range was claimed to be 4,700 yd. The M1903 Springfield rifle, which had been introduced alongside the. 30-03 cartridge, was modified to accept the new. 30-06 Springfield cartridge. Modifications to the rifle included shortening the barrel at its breech and resizing the chamber, other changes to the rifle included elimination of the troublesome rod bayonet of the earlier Springfield rifles. The M1906 maximum range was originally overstated, when the M1906 cartridge was developed, the range tests had been done to only 1,800 yards, distances beyond that were estimated, but the estimate for extreme range was wrong by almost 40 percent. The range discrepancy became evident during World War I, before the widespread employment of light mortars and artillery, long-range machine gun barrage or indirect fires were considered important in U. S. infantry tactics. When the US entered World War I, it did not have machine guns, so it acquired British. When those weapons were replaced with US machine guns firing the M1906 round. Firing tests performed around 1918 at Borden Brook Reservoir, Miami, patrone was inroduced in 1914 and used a 197. 5-grain s. S. - schweres Spitzgeschoß boat-tail bullet which had a maximum range of approximately 5,140 yd. Its maximum range was approximately 5,500 yd. Additionally, wartime surplus totaled over 2 billion rounds of ammunition. Army regulations called for training use of the oldest ammunition first, as a result, the older. 30-06 ammunition was expended for training, stocks of.30 M1 Ball ammunition were allowed to slowly grow until all of the older M1906 ammunition had been fired. By 1936, it was discovered that the range of the.30 M1 Ball ammunition with its boat-tailed spitzer bullets was beyond the safety limitations of many ranges. An emergency order was made to manufacture quantities of ammunition that matched the ballistics of the earlier M1906 cartridge as soon as possible
M2 Ball
–
.30-06 Springfield cartridge with soft tip
M2 Ball
–
A Winchester Model 70 Super Grade in.30-06 with Leupold 6x/42MM scope
M2 Ball
–
MI Garand 30-06. Note the ammunition clip at 12 0'clock. It ejects from the rifle after all eight rounds are depleted.
M2 Ball
–
From left to right
9.3×62mm,.30-06 Springfield,
7.92×57mm Mauser,
6.5×55mm and
.308 Winchester
48.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
–
The Federal Bureau of Investigation is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States, which simultaneously serves as the nations prime federal law enforcement agency. Operating under the jurisdiction of the U. S. Department of Justice, Intelligence Community and reports to both the Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence. A leading U. S. counterterrorism, counterintelligence, and criminal investigative organization, although many of the FBIs functions are unique, its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and the Russian FSB. At an FBI field office, a senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the Director of National Intelligence. Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint and these overseas offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in the host countries. The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas, just as the CIA has a domestic function. The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation and its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation in 1935. The FBI headquarters is the J. Edgar Hoover Building, located in Washington, in the fiscal year 2012, the Bureaus total budget was approximately $8.12 billion. In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created an urgent perception that America was under threat from anarchists. The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, the Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so. It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until the breakage of the Oregon land fraud scandal at approximately the turn of the 20th Century, President Roosevelt instructed Attorney General Charles Bonaparte to organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to the Attorney General. Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the Secret Service, for personnel, on May 27,1908, the Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by the Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department. Again at Roosevelts urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation, the Bureau of Investigation was created on July 26,1908, after the Congress had adjourned for the summer. Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty-four people, including veterans of the Secret Service. Its first Chief was Stanley Finch, Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908. The bureaus first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the White Slave Traffic Act, or Mann Act, in 1932, the bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. The following year it was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition, in the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the present-day Federal Bureau of Investigation, or FBI. J. Edgar Hoover served as Director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure
Federal Bureau of Investigation
–
J. Edgar Hoover, Director from 1924 to 1972.
Federal Bureau of Investigation
–
Seal of the Federal Bureau of Investigation
Federal Bureau of Investigation
–
FBI
SWAT agents in a training exercise
Federal Bureau of Investigation
–
An FBI Agent tags the
cockpit voice recorder from
EgyptAir Flight 990 on the deck of the
USS Grapple (ARS 53) at the crash site on November 13, 1999.
49.
National Rifle Association
–
The National Rifle Association of America is an American nonprofit organization which advocates for gun rights. Founded in 1871, the group has informed its members about firearm-related bills since 1934 and it is also the oldest continuously operating civil rights organization in the United States. Founded to advance rifle marksmanship, the modern NRA continues to teach firearm competency and it instructs civilians and law enforcement, youths and adults, in various programs. The organization also publishes several magazines and sponsors competitive marksmanship events, membership surpassed 5 million in May 2013. Observers and lawmakers see the NRA as one of the top three most influential lobbying groups in Washington, over its history the organization has influenced legislation, participated in or initiated lawsuits, and endorsed or opposed various candidates. The NRA has several subsidiaries, the NRA Civil Rights Defense Fund, the NRA Foundation Inc. the NRA Special Contribution Fund. The NRA Institute for Legislative Action is its lobbying arm, which manages its political action committee, the National Rifle Association was first chartered in the state of New York on November 16,1871 by Army and Navy Journal editor William Conant Church and Captain George Wood Wingate. On November 25,1871, the group voted to elect its first corporate officers, union Army Civil War General Ambrose Burnside, who had worked as a Rhode Island gunsmith, was elected president. Church was elected president, Captain Wingate was elected secretary, Fred M. Peck was elected recording secretary. When Burnside resigned on August 1,1872, Church succeeded him as president, the generals attributed this to the use of volley tactics, devised for earlier, less accurate smoothbore muskets. Recognizing a need for training, Wingate sent emissaries to Canada, Britain and Germany to observe militia. With plans provided by Wingate, the New York Legislature funded the construction of a range at Creedmoor, Long Island. The range officially opened on June 21,1873, Wingate then wrote a marksmanship manual. The NRA organized a team through a subsidiary amateur rifle club, remington Arms and Sharps Rifle Manufacturing Company produced breech-loading weapons for the team. Although muzzle-loading rifles had long been considered more accurate, eight American riflemen won the match firing breech-loading rifles, publicity of the event generated by the New York Herald helped to establish breech-loading firearms as suitable for military marksmanship training, and promoted the NRA to national prominence. The NRA organized rifle clubs in other states, and many state National Guard organizations sought NRA advice to improve members marksmanship, wingates markmanship manual evolved into the United States Army marksmanship instruction program. Former President Ulysses S. Grant served as the NRAs eighth President, the U. S. Congress created the National Board for the Promotion of Rifle Practice in 1901 to include representatives from the NRA, National Guard, and United States military services. A program of annual rifle and pistol competitions was authorized, and included a national match open to military, NRA headquarters moved to Washington, D. C. to facilitate the organizations advocacy efforts
National Rifle Association
–
NRA headquarters in
Fairfax, Virginia
National Rifle Association
–
National Rifle Association logo
50.
Kansas City Massacre
–
It occurred as part of the attempt by a gang led by Vernon Miller to free Frank Jelly Nash, a federal prisoner. At the time, Nash was in the custody of several law enforcement officers who were returning him to the U. S. Penitentiary at Leavenworth, Kansas, Charles Pretty Boy Floyd was identified by the FBI as one of the gunmen. However, there is evidence to suggest that Floyd was not actually involved. Frank Nash was first convicted in 1913 and he and a friend, Nollie “Humpy” Wortman, stole nearly $1,000 from a store in Sapulpa, Oklahoma. While escaping, Nash suggested they hide the evidence, as Wortman went to bury the money, Nash shot him in the back. Nash was arrested later and sentenced to life in the Oklahoma State Penitentiary. On March 28,1918, Nashs sentence was reduced to ten years after he convinced the warden he wanted to join the army, in 1920, Nash was convicted of burglary using explosives, also known as safe-cracking, and sentenced to 25 years in the Oklahoma State Penitentiary. He became a trusty, and his sentence was reduced to five years, on December 29,1922, Nash was released. On March 3,1924, Nash began a 25-year sentence at the United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth, in Kansas and he escaped on October 19,1930. The FBI launched a search for Nash throughout the entire United States. After an intensive investigation, the FBI concluded that Nash had assisted in the escape of seven prisoners from the United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth, keating and Holden were apprehended by FBI agents on July 7,1932, in Kansas City, Missouri. The pair had crucial information about the whereabouts of Nash and eventually divulged that he was hiding out in Hot Springs, Arkansas. With information in hand, two FBI agents, Frank Smith and F. Joseph Lackey, and McAlester, Oklahoma Police Chief Otto Reed ventured to Arkansas to find the escaped outlaw. After an exhaustive search, Nash was apprehended in a store in Hot Springs on June 16,1933. The three officials then drove Nash to Fort Smith, Arkansas, to board a train bound for Kansas City, Missouri, the Missouri Pacific trains estimated time of arrival in Kansas City was 7,15 the next morning. Before traveling, the lawmen contacted R. E. Vetterli, Special Agent in Charge of the FBI’s Kansas City office, a number of outlaw friends of Nash had heard of his capture in Hot Springs. They learned the time of the arrival of Nash and his captors in Kansas City. The scheme was conceived and engineered by Richard Tallman Galatas, Herbert Farmer, “Doc” Louis Stacci, Vernon Miller was designated to free Nash, and while at Mulloy’s tavern in Kansas City, he made a number of phone calls for assistance in the scheme
Kansas City Massacre
–
Charles Arthur “Pretty Boy” Floyd, suspected of involvement in the massacre. Photo from the FBI files.
Kansas City Massacre
–
Vernon Miller. Photo from the FBI files.
Kansas City Massacre
–
Adam Richetti. Photo from the FBI files.
Australia[31]
Belgium[32]
China[32]
Cuba[32]
Ethiopia[31]
France[31]
Haiti[33]
Hong Kong[31]
India[31]
Israel[31]
Japan: Captured from United States Army during World War II.[31]
North Korea: Captured from South Korean Army during Korean War.[31]
South Korea[31]
Laos[31]
Mexico[31]
Myanmar[31]
Nepal[31]
Qatar[31]
Rwanda[31]
South Africa[31]
Thailand[31]
United Kingdom[31]
United States[31]
North Vietnam[31]
