1.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
2.
Auckland
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Auckland is a city in the North Island of New Zealand. It is the most populous area in the country. Auckland has a population of 1,495,000, which constitutes 32 percent of New Zealands population, a diverse and multicultural city, Auckland is home to the largest Polynesian population in the world. It has also been called Ākarana, the Māori pronunciation of Auckland, the Auckland urban area ranges to Waiwera in the north, Kumeu in the northwest, and Runciman in the south. It is not contiguous, the section from Waiwera to Whangaparāoa Peninsula is separate from its nearest neighbouring suburb of Long Bay, the surrounding hills are covered in rainforest and the landscape is dotted with dozens of dormant volcanic cones. The central part of the area occupies a narrow isthmus between the Manukau Harbour on the Tasman Sea and the Waitemata Harbour on the Pacific Ocean. It is one of the few cities in the world to have harbours on two major bodies of water. The isthmus on which Auckland resides was first settled around 1350 and was valued for its rich, Māori population in the area is estimated to have peaked at 20,000 before the arrival of Europeans. After a British colony was established in 1840, the new Governor of New Zealand, William Hobson and he named the area Auckland for George Eden, Earl of Auckland, British First Lord of the Admiralty. It was replaced as the capital in 1865, but immigration to the new city stayed strong, today, Aucklands Central Business District is the major financial centre of New Zealand. Auckland is classified as a Beta World City because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, education and tourism. Aucklands landmarks such as the Auckland Art Gallery Toi o Tāmaki, the Harbour Bridge, the Sky Tower, the isthmus was settled by Māori around 1350, and was valued for its rich and fertile land. Many pā were created, mainly on the volcanic peaks, Māori population in the area is estimated to have been about 20,000 people before the arrival of Europeans. As a result, the region had relatively low numbers of Māori when European settlement of New Zealand began, there is, however, nothing to suggest that this was the result of a deliberate European policy. Auckland was officially declared New Zealands capital in 1841 and the transfer of the administration from Russell in the Bay of Islands was completed in 1842. However, even in 1840 Port Nicholson was seen as a choice for an administrative capital because of its proximity to the South Island. After losing its status as capital, Auckland remained the city of the Auckland Province until the provincial system was abolished in 1876. Each of the four settlements had about 800 settlers, the men being fully armed in case of emergency but spent nearly all their time breaking in the land and establishing roads
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Trimaran
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A trimaran is a multihull boat that comprises a main hull and two smaller outrigger hulls which are attached to the main hull with lateral beams. Trimarans are most commonly sail-driven yachts designed for recreation or racing, the name trimaran is a 20th-century word concocted from Tri and maran. It is thought to have been invented by Victor Tchetchet, a pioneering, the first trimarans were built by indigenous Polynesians and other Pacific islanders almost 4,000 years ago, and some of the current US terminology is derived from them. Sailing catamarans and trimarans gained popularity during the 1960s and 1970s and he is credited with coining the term, trimaran. In the 1950s and 60s, Arthur Piver designed and built plywood kit trimarans, which were adopted by other homebuilders, Some of these achieved ocean crossings, nonetheless. Following the homebuilt movement, production became available. Some trimarans in the 19–36-foot lengths are designed as day-sailers which can be transported on a road trailer and these include the original Farrier - Corsair folding trimarans - and original John Westell swing-wing folding trimaran and like trimarans. The trimaran concept has also used for both passenger ferries and warships. For example, in 2005 the 127-metre trimaran Benchijigua Express was delivered by Austal to Spanish ferry operator Fred Olsen, S. A. for service in the Canary Islands. Capable of carrying 1,280 passengers and 340 cars, or equivalents, at speeds up to 40 knots, a modern warship, the RV Triton was commissioned by British defence contractor QinetiQ in 2000. In October 2005, the United States Navy commissioned for evaluation the construction of a General Dynamics LCS trimaran designed, the DARPA is experimenting with the trimaran design, and in 2012 awarded SAIC a contract to perform Phases 2 through 4 of the ACTUV Program. The contract is expected to be completed by August 2015, according to American usage, there are three terms that describe the main components of catamarans and trimarans, namely, “vaka”, “aka” and “ama”. These terms come from the Malay and Polynesian language group terms for parts of the outrigger canoe Vaka is the canoe or main hull, aka is the framework member that connects the vaka to the ama. Ama is the outrigger, connected to the vaka by an aka, in cruising trimarans the wings are solid and cabin accommodation extends over them, while in racing trimarans accommodation is limited to the main hull and the wings are open sheets of netting. In comparison to outrigger canoes, trimarans typically feature a sail and are not primarily designed to be paddled, in addition, trimaran floats are much more buoyant than those of outrigger canoes to support a large sailplan. They contribute to drag when heavily immersed, and their level of immersion indicates when to reef, two types of trimaran exist, the regular trimaran and the open trimaran, which features a trampoline between the hulls instead of plating. Trimarans have a number of advantages over comparable monohulls, given two boats of the same length, the trimaran has a shallower draft, a wider beam, less wetted area, and is able to fly more sail area. In addition, because of the righting moment provided by the wide beam, as a result of the wide beam, the trimaran offers much better straight-line performance than a monohull, is able to sail in shallower water, and maintains its stability in stronger winds
5.
Circumnavigation
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Circumnavigation means to travel all the way around the entire planet, or an island, or continent. This article is concerned with circumnavigation of the Earth, the first known circumnavigation of Earth was the Magellan-Elcano expedition, which sailed from Seville, Spain, in 1519 and returned in 1522 after crossing the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. The word circumnavigation is a formed from the verb circumnavigate, from the past participle of the Latin verb circumnavigare. If a person walks completely around either Pole, they cross all meridians, the trajectory of a true circumnavigation forms a continuous loop on the surface of Earth separating two halves of comparable area. A basic definition of a global circumnavigation would be a route which covers roughly a great circle, in practice, people use different definitions of world circumnavigation to accommodate practical constraints, depending on the method of travel. The first single voyage of global circumnavigation was that of the ship Victoria and it was a Castilian voyage of discovery, led initially by Ferdinand Magellan between 1519 and 1521, and then by the Basque Juan Sebastián Elcano from 1521 to 1522. It then continued across the Pacific discovering a number of islands on its way, Elcano and a small group of 18 men were actually the only members of the expedition to make the full circumnavigation. However, traveling west from Europe, in 1521, Magellan reached a region of Southeast Asia, Magellan thereby achieved a nearly complete personal circumnavigation of the globe for the first time in history. In 1577, Elizabeth I sent Francis Drake to start an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas, Drake set out from Plymouth, England in November 1577, aboard Pelican, which Drake renamed Golden Hind mid-voyage. In June 1579, Drake landed somewhere north of Spains northern-most claim in Alta California, Drake completed the second circumnavigation of the world in September 1580, becoming the first commander to lead an entire circumnavigation. For the wealthy, long voyages around the world, such as was done by Ulysses S. Grant, became possible in the 19th century, however, it was later improvements in technology and rising incomes that made such trips relatively common. The nautical global circumnavigation record is held by a wind-powered vessel. It can be seen that the route roughly approximates a great circle, in yacht racing, a round-the-world route approximating a great circle would be quite impractical, particularly in a non-stop race where use of the Panama and Suez Canals would be impossible. The second map on the shows the route of the Vendée Globe round-the-world race in red. It can be seen that the route does not pass through any pairs of antipodal points and it is allowed to have one single waypoint to lengthen the calculated track. The voyage followed the North Atlantic Ocean, Equator, South Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean, Equator, since the advent of world cruises in 1922, by Cunards Laconia, thousands of people have completed circumnavigations of the globe at a more leisurely pace. Typically, these voyages begin in New York City or Southampton, routes vary, either travelling through the Caribbean and then into the Pacific Ocean via the Panama Canal, or around Cape Horn. From there ships usually make their way to Hawaii, the islands of the South Pacific, Australia, New Zealand, then northward to Hong Kong, South East Asia, and India
6.
Biodiesel
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Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil – or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids with an alcohol producing fatty acid esters, Biodiesel is meant to be used in standard diesel engines and is thus distinct from the vegetable and waste oils used to fuel converted diesel engines. Biodiesel can be used alone, or blended with petrodiesel in any proportions, Biodiesel blends can also be used as heating oil. The National Biodiesel Board also has a definition of biodiesel as a mono-alkyl ester. Blends of biodiesel and conventional hydrocarbon-based diesel are products most commonly distributed for use in the diesel fuel marketplace. The B6 to B20 blends are covered by the ASTM D7467 specification, Biodiesel can also be used in its pure form, but may require certain engine modifications to avoid maintenance and performance problems. Metered pump mixing, petroleum diesel and biodiesel meters are set to X total volume, Biodiesel can be used in pure form or may be blended with petroleum diesel at any concentration in most injection pump diesel engines. New extreme high-pressure common rail engines have strict limits of B5 or B20. Biodiesel has been known to break down deposits of residue in the lines where petrodiesel has been used. As a result, fuel filters may become clogged with particulates if a quick transition to pure biodiesel is made, therefore, it is recommended to change the fuel filters on engines and heaters shortly after first switching to a biodiesel blend. Since the passage of the Energy Policy Act of 2005, biodiesel use has been increasing in the United States, in the UK, the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation obliges suppliers to include 5% renewable fuel in all transport fuel sold in the UK by 2010. For road diesel, this effectively means 5% biodiesel, in 2007, DaimlerChrysler indicated its intention to increase warranty coverage to 20% biodiesel blends if biofuel quality in the United States can be standardized. The Volkswagen Group has released a statement indicating that several of its vehicles are compatible with B5 and B100 made from rape seed oil, the use of the specified biodiesel type in its cars will not void any warranty. Mercedes Benz does not allow diesel fuels containing greater than 5% biodiesel due to concerns about production shortcomings, any damages caused by the use of such non-approved fuels will not be covered by the Mercedes-Benz Limited Warranty. Starting in 2004, the city of Halifax, Nova Scotia decided to update its bus system to allow the fleet of city buses to run entirely on a fish-oil based biodiesel. This caused the city some initial issues, but after several years of refining. In 2007, McDonalds of UK announced it would start producing biodiesel from the waste oil byproduct of its restaurants and this fuel would be used to run its fleet. The British Royal Train on 15 September 2007 completed its first ever run on 100% biodiesel fuel supplied by Green Fuels Ltd
7.
Biofouling
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Biofouling or biological fouling is the accumulation of microorganisms, plants, algae, or animals on wetted surfaces. Such accumulation is referred to as epibiosis when the host surface is another organism, antifouling is the ability of specifically designed materials and coatings to remove or prevent biofouling by any number of organisms on wetted surfaces. Specifically, the buildup of biofouling on marine vessels poses a significant problem, in some instances, the hull structure and propulsion systems can be damaged. The accumulation of biofoulers on hulls can increase both the volume of a vessel and the hydrodynamic friction, leading to increased drag of up to 60%. The drag increase has been seen to decrease speeds by up to 10%, with fuel typically comprising up to half of marine transport costs, antifouling methods are estimated to save the shipping industry around $60 billion per year. Increased fuel use due to biofouling contributes to environmental effects and is predicted to increase emissions of carbon dioxide. A variety of antifouling methods have historically been implemented to combat biofouling, recently, scientists have begun researching antifouling methods inspired by living organisms. This type of imitation is known as biomimicry. The variety among biofouling organisms is highly diverse, and extends far beyond attachment of barnacles, according to some estimates, over 1700 species comprising over 4000 organisms are responsible for biofouling. Biofouling is divided into microfouling — biofilm formation and bacterial adhesion —, due to the distinct chemistry and biology that determine what prevents them from settling, organisms are also classified as hard- or soft-fouling types. Calcareous fouling organisms include barnacles, encrusting bryozoans, mollusks, polychaete and other tube worms, examples of non-calcareous fouling organisms are seaweed, hydroids, algae and biofilm slime. Together, these form a fouling community. Marine fouling is typically described as following four stages of ecosystem development, the chemistry of biofilm formation describes the initial steps prior to colonization. Within the first minute the van der Waals interaction causes the surface to be covered with a conditioning film of organic polymers. In the next 24 hours, this allows the process of bacterial adhesion to occur. By the end of the first week, the nutrients and ease of attachment into the biofilm allow secondary colonizers of spores of macroalgae. Within 2 to 3 weeks, the tertiary colonizers- the macrofoulers- have attached and these include tunicates, mollusks and sessile Cnidarians. Governments and industry more than US$5.7 billion annually to prevent
8.
Guatemala
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With an estimated population of around 15.8 million, it is the most populated state in Central America. Guatemala is a democracy, its capital and largest city is Nueva Guatemala de la Asunción. The territory of modern Guatemala once formed the core of the Maya civilization, most of the country was conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century, becoming part of the viceroyalty of New Spain. Guatemala attained independence in 1821 as part of the Federal Republic of Central America, from the mid to late 19th century, Guatemala experienced chronic instability and civil strife. Beginning in the early 20th century, it was ruled by a series of dictators backed by the United Fruit Company, in 1944, authoritarian leader Jorge Ubico was overthrown by a pro-democratic military coup, initiating a decade-long revolution that led to sweeping social and economic reforms. A U. S. -backed military coup in 1954 ended the revolution, from 1960 to 1996, Guatemala endured a bloody civil war fought between the US-backed government and leftist rebels, including genocidal massacres of the Maya population perpetrated by the military. As of 2014, Guatemala ranks 31st of 33 Latin American and Caribbean countries in terms of the Human Development Index, Guatemalas abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems includes a large number of endemic species and contributes to Mesoamericas designation as a biodiversity hotspot. The country is known for its rich and distinct culture. The name Guatemala comes from the Nahuatl word Cuauhtēmallān, or place of many trees and this was the name the Tlaxcaltecan soldiers who accompanied Pedro de Alvarado during the Spanish Conquest gave to this territory. The first evidence of habitation in Guatemala dates back to 12,000 BC. Evidence, such as obsidian arrowheads found in parts of the country. There is archaeological proof that early Guatemalan settlers were hunters and gatherers, pollen samples from Petén and the Pacific coast indicate that maize cultivation had been developed by 3500 BC. Sites dating back to 6500 BC have been found in the Quiché region in the Highlands, archaeologists divide the pre-Columbian history of Mesoamerica into the Preclassic period, the Classic period, and the Postclassic period. Until recently, the Preclassic was regarded as a period, with small villages of farmers who lived in huts. This period is characterized by urbanisation, the emergence of independent city-states and this lasted until approximately 900 AD, when the Classic Maya civilization collapsed. The Maya abandoned many of the cities of the lowlands or were killed off by a drought-induced famine. The cause of the collapse is debated, but the Drought Theory is gaining currency, supported by such as lakebeds, ancient pollen. A series of prolonged droughts, among other such as overpopulation, in what is otherwise a seasonal desert is thought to have decimated the Maya
9.
Whaling
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Whaling is the hunting of whales for their usable products like meat, oil and blubber. Its earliest forms date to at least circa 3000 BC, various coastal communities have long histories of subsistence whaling and harvesting beached whales. By the late 1930s, more than 50,000 whales were killed annually In 1986, contemporary whaling is subject to intense debate. Pro-whaling countries, notably Japan, Norway, and Iceland, wish to lift the ban on certain whale stocks for hunting, anti-whaling countries and environmental groups oppose lifting the ban. Whaling began in times and was initially confined to coastal waters. Early whaling affected the development of disparate cultures – such as Norway. The Basques were the first to catch whales commercially, and dominated the trade for five centuries, spreading to the far corners of the North Atlantic and even reaching the South Atlantic. Although prehistoric hunting and gathering is considered to have had little ecological impact. Whale oil is used today and modern commercial whaling is primarily done for food. The primary species hunted are the common minke whale and Antarctic minke whale, recent scientific surveys estimate a population of 103,000 in the northeast Atlantic. International cooperation on whaling began in 1931 and culminated in the signing of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling in 1946. Its aim is to, provide for the conservation of whale stocks. The International Whaling Commission was set up under the ICRW to decide hunting quotas, non-member countries are not bound by its regulations and conduct their own management programs. The IWC voted on July 23,1982, to establish a moratorium on commercial whaling beginning in the 1985–86 season. Since 1992, the IWCs Scientific Committee has requested that it be allowed to give proposals for some whale stocks. At the 2010 meeting of the International Whaling Commission in Morocco, Japan, Norway and Iceland have urged the organisation to lift the ban. A coalition of anti-whaling nations has offered a plan that would allow these countries to continue whaling. Their plan would also completely ban whaling in the Southern Ocean, opponents of the compromise plan want to see an end to all commercial whaling, but are willing to allow subsistence-level catches by indigenous peoples
10.
Sea Shepherd Conservation Society
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The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society is a non-profit, marine conservation organization based in Friday Harbor on San Juan Island, Washington, in the United States. Sea Shepherd uses direct action tactics to protect marine life, the group has a strong focus on public relations to spread its message via the media. Sea Shepherd currently operates nine vessels, Sea Shepherd claims that their aggressive actions are necessary, as the international community has shown itself unwilling or unable to stop species-endangering whaling and fishing practices. Sea Shepherd has received support for its tactics against fishing, whaling, the tactics of Sea Shepherd have been opposed, even by those who denounce whaling, such as Greenpeace and the governments of Australia and New Zealand. The Japanese government have called them eco-terrorists, however, in March 2014 the International Court of Justice ruled the Japanese whaling program in the Southern Ocean was not, as claimed, for scientific purposes, and ordered Japan to cease operations. Paul Watson and American members of Sea Shepherd are currently prohibited by US courts from approaching or harassing Japanese whalers. Initially without funding and with only a group of supporters, in 1978 Watson convinced Cleveland Amory, head of the Fund for Animals to fund Watsons first vessel. The first direct action undertaken by Sea Shepherd was against Canadian seal hunting in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in March 1979, also in 1979, the group made headlines when, for the first time, they rammed a pirate whaling vessel, the notorious Sierra. Such acts continued with Sea Shepherd claiming responsibility for damaging or sinking multiple whaling ships, the group has attempted to intervene against Russian, Spanish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Makah, Faroese, and Japanese whalers in multiple campaigns around the globe. Setting a pattern that the group would keep up in years, the group managed to scuttle a Portuguese whaling vessel, though the first Sea Shepherd was impounded. Watson states he used the money gained from selling the rights to fund his next vessel. Starting in September 2010, Sea Shepherd Conservation Society has positioned a crew in Taiji, Japan to monitor, Sea Shepherd is a non-governmental, non-profit environmental organization. In the United States it has a 501 tax exempt status, most of the organizations revenue—83.2 percent—is spent on its programs, while 16.7 percent of revenue is spent on administrative and fundraising. It is supported by private and corporate donations, lectures by Watson, internet advertising, the group is operated by volunteers and a small number of paid staff. Watson says he is committed to keeping his small. Sea Shepherd is governed by a board of directors, including Watson, the organization has several boards of advisers, each addressing an area of expertise. The Scientific, Technical, and Conservation Advisory Board includes Earth First, founder Dave Foreman and Horst Klienschmidt, a former deputy chair of the International Whaling Commission. The Animal Welfare, Humane and Animal Rights Advisory Board included animal rights philosopher Tom Regan, the Media and Arts Advisory Board includes several major Hollywood stars
11.
Southern Ocean
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As such, it is regarded as the fourth-largest of the five principal oceanic divisions, smaller than the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans but larger than the Arctic Ocean. This ocean zone is cold, northward flowing waters from the Antarctic mix with warmer subantarctic waters. By way of his voyages in the 1770s, Captain James Cook proved that waters encompassed the southern latitudes of the globe. Since then, geographers have disagreed on the Southern Oceans northern boundary or even existence, considering the part of the Pacific, Atlantic. Others regard the seasonally-fluctuating Antarctic Convergence as the natural boundary, Borders and names for oceans and seas were internationally agreed when the International Hydrographic Bureau, the precusor to the IHO, convened the First International Conference on 24 July 1919. The IHO then published these in its Limits of Oceans and Seas, Australian authorities regard the Southern Ocean as lying immediately south of Australia. Map publishers using the term Southern Ocean on their maps include Hema Maps, Southern Ocean is an obsolete name for the Pacific Ocean or South Pacific, coined by Vasco Núñez de Balboa, the first European to discover it, who approached it from the north. The South Seas is an archaic synonym. A1745 British Act of Parliament established a prize for discovering a Northwest Passage to the Western and Southern Ocean of America, authors using Southern Ocean to name the waters encircling the unknown southern polar regions used varying limits. James Cooks account of his second voyage implies New Caledonia borders it, peacocks 1795 Geographical Dictionary said it lay to the southward of America and Africa, John Payne in 1796 used 40 degrees as the northern limit, the 1827 Edinburgh Gazetteer used 50 degrees. The United Kingdoms South Australia Act 1834 described the waters forming the southern limit of the new colony of South Australia as the Southern Ocean. The Colony of Victorias Legislative Council Act of 1881 delimited part of the division of Bairnsdale as along the New South Wales boundary to the Southern ocean. The limit then followed the west coast of Tasmania southwards to the South East Cape and then went eastwards to Broughton Island, New Zealand, the northern limits of the Southern Ocean were moved southwards in the IHOs 1937 second edition of the Limits of Oceans and Seas. From this edition, much of the northern limit ceased to abut land masses. As is discussed in detail below, prior to the 2002 edition the limits of oceans explicitly excluded the seas lying within each of them. The Great Australian Bight was unnamed in the 1928 edition, and it therefore encompassed former Southern Ocean waters but was technically not inside any of the three adjacent oceans by 1937. To perform direct comparisons of current and former limits of oceans it is necessary to consider, or at least be aware of, the limits of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans have therefore been extended South to the Antarctic Continent. The IHO readdressed the question of the Southern Ocean in a survey in 2000, of its 68 member nations,28 responded, and all responding members except Argentina agreed to redefine the ocean, reflecting the importance placed by oceanographers on ocean currents
12.
LOMOcean Design
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LOMOcean Design is a naval architecture and yacht design company based in Auckland, New Zealand. LOMOcean Design, previously known as Craig Loomes Design Group ltd. was incorporated in 1993, the boats use advanced composite materials, such as carbon fibre and kevlar, as well as aluminium and other such materials. The company has become known for designing a range of wave-piercing catamarans and trimarans, most notably, Earthrace, other than the wave-piercing designs, the company has also designed mono hull boats as well as power catamarans. The boats include fire fighting boats, global circumnavigating boats, pleasure yachts, coastguard boats, the Moonset wave-piercing trimaran is a concept boat and has not yet been built. This 148 metre concept design has been based on the design of Earthrace, Moonset uses the hull form of Earthrace, and can still be used as a luxury yacht. The boat does this by using a similar wave-piercing trimaran hull form as Earthrace, a wave-piercing hull is when a boat pushes through a wave instead of over it by slightly submerging the boat. The design has a three level owners suite, a private lounge and enough rooms for 28 guests. The boat can also potentially have art galleries, libraries, conference spaces, private lounges, bar facilities, helicopter facilities and fold-out balconies. The companys website says that the boat is Capable at crossing the Atlantic at 40 knots without a spill from your wine glass Aquavette was launched in 2004 and was built by Calibre Boats. It is an 11 metre long catamaran that has designed as a pleasure boat with a focus on sport fishing. This boat has two sleeping compartments and a long fishing deck. Aquavette has also designed in a way that it can be transported around New Zealand on a trailer. Aquavette has a top speed of 40 knots and a speed of 25 knots. The motor yacht Black Pearl, also known as DP-08, was launched on 29 December 2010 in New Zealand and was built by Diverse Projects. The boat has been designed as a long-range passage-making vessel that will be used for a cruise that will start in the Mediterranean. DP-08 is powered by two Caterpillar C18 ACERT600 horsepower engines and has a range of 2,200 nautical miles and due to the mono hull form. Black Pearl will be fitted with zero speed stabilizers, the DMS Interceptor was built by DMS for the Royal Malaysian Customs. The design is a follow-up on work for both the Malaysian Police and the Royal Malaysian Customs, four of these boats have been built for DMS in Johor in South Malaysia
13.
Horsepower
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Horsepower is a unit of measurement of power. There are many different standards and types of horsepower, two common definitions being used today are the mechanical horsepower, which is approximately 746 watts, and the metric horsepower, which is approximately 735.5 watts. The term was adopted in the late 18th century by Scottish engineer James Watt to compare the output of engines with the power of draft horses. It was later expanded to include the power of other types of piston engines, as well as turbines, electric motors. The definition of the unit varied among geographical regions, most countries now use the SI unit watt for measurement of power. With the implementation of the EU Directive 80/181/EEC on January 1,2010, units called horsepower have differing definitions, The mechanical horsepower, also known as imperial horsepower equals approximately 745.7 watts. It was defined originally as exactly 550 foot-pounds per second [745.7 N. m/s), the metric horsepower equals approximately 735.5 watts. It was defined originally as 75 kgf-m per second is approximately equivalent to 735.5 watts, the Pferdestärke PS is a name for a group of similar power measurements used in Germany around the end of the 19th century, all of about one metric horsepower in size. The boiler horsepower equals 9809.5 watts and it was used for rating steam boilers and is equivalent to 34.5 pounds of water evaporated per hour at 212 degrees Fahrenheit. One horsepower for rating electric motors is equal to 746 watts, one horsepower for rating Continental European electric motors is equal to 735 watts. Continental European electric motors used to have dual ratings, one British Royal Automobile Club horsepower can equal a range of values based on estimates of several engine dimensions. It is one of the tax horsepower systems adopted around Europe, the development of the steam engine provided a reason to compare the output of horses with that of the engines that could replace them. He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older Newcomen steam engines and this royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead. Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour, the wheel was 12 feet in radius, therefore, the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π ×12 feet in one minute. Watt judged that the horse could pull with a force of 180 pounds-force. So, P = W t = F d t =180 l b f ×2.4 ×2 π ×12 f t 1 m i n =32,572 f t ⋅ l b f m i n. Watt defined and calculated the horsepower as 32,572 ft·lbf/min, Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100 ft per minute over a four-hour working shift. Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony, engineering in History recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute
14.
Cummins
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Dongfeng Motor Corporation is a Chinese state-owned automobile manufacturer headquartered in Wuhan, China. Traditionally one of the Big Three Chinese automakers, Dongfeng is currently in the top four in terms of output along with Changan Motors, FAW Group, in addition to commercial and consumer vehicles, it also manufactures parts and cooperates with foreign companies. Counting six global automakers as partners, it has more Sino-foreign joint ventures than any other Chinese carmaker and these partnerships allow it to produce and sell a variety of foreign-brand products in China including those of Citroën, Honda, Kia, Nissan, Peugeot, and Renault. Other brand names associated with Dongfeng include Fengshen, Infiniti, Luxgen, heavy-duty commercial vehicles and buses are sold under the eponymous Dongfeng brand although c.2015 the Dual Sparrows logo started appearing on consumer products as well. The company was the second-largest Chinese vehicle maker in 2014 by production volume manufacturing over 3.5 million whole vehicles that year, commercial vehicle production that year was higher than all other domestic manufacturers at nearly 450,000. Dongfeng has two listed subsidiaries—Dongfeng Motor Group Co and Dongfeng Automobile Co Ltd. Some sources may refer to the company as Dong Feng, use an acronym like DFM, or use the name in conjunction with others when referring to a subsidiary, joint venture, or other associated enterprise. Known as Second Automobile Works until 1992, Dongfeng, or East Wind in Chinese, was founded in 1969. Its origins lie in a dictate of Chairman Mao Zedong, as part of his Third Front strategy, traditionally manufacturing commercial vehicles, by 2001 these made up about 73% of Dongfengs production. By 2012, that figure had reversed, and 73% of manufactures were passenger cars, however, the percentage of consumer offerings was likely lower as passenger car counts may include microvans, tiny commercial vehicles that are popular in China. Post-1985, further reforms took place that allowed Dongfeng greater autonomy, by the mid-1980s, its assets had tripled from those initially given to it by the state in 1981, and management was desirous of even greater production capacity. But in 1995, the company was experiencing financial difficulties as was the case with many Chinese automobile manufacturers at this time, the situation was still dire in 1998 precipitating a 1999 restructuring of the company. This state owned enterprise has come into conflict with authority at both the national and provincial levels, the Chinese partner in many Sino-foreign joint venture companies, Dongfeng initiated most of these cooperative efforts with foreign firms in the early 2000s. But its first was established in 1992 with French PSA Group, known as Dongfeng Citroën Automobile Company, it was the forerunner to the current Dongfeng Peugeot-Citroën Automobile Limited. By 2003, Dongfeng had established joint ventures with Kia Motors, Honda, as of 2011, it had more Sino-foreign joint ventures than any other Chinese automaker, and the 2013 creation of a partnership with French Renault means it retains this title today. In 2009, it sold 1.9 million vehicles ranking second among domestic automakers, at the 2010 Beijing Auto Show, Dongfeng displayed an electric vehicle concept car, a physical representation of its vow to bring an electric car to market by 2015. In 2010, the company sold 2.72 million units and it reported 1.72 million sales of passenger vehicles that same year. 2011 production figures put the company in place, in terms of production volume, in its home market
15.
Mercury Marine
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Mercury Marine, founded in 1939 as Kiekhaefer Mercury, is a division of the Brunswick Corporation. It is based in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin, the company manufactures marine engines and snowmobiles. Mercury Marines primary business is outboard motors, Mercury Outboards,30 Hp and less, are made by Tohatsu in Japan. Mercury Marine builds 40,50 and 60 horsepower outboard motors in Suzhou, Mercury also manufactures engines over 75 horsepower at its facility in Fond du Lac in Wisconsin. Mercury also makes the MerCruiser line of sterndrives and inboard motors, Mercury Racing is the companys division for racing engines tailored for power and speed. The Kiekhaefer Mercury company began in 1939, when engineer Carl Kiekhaefer purchased an outboard motor company in Cedarburg. Kiekhaefers original intention for the Kiekhaefer Corporation was to make magnetic separators for the dairy industry, the purchase included 300 defective outboard motors. Kiekhaefer and a staff of employees rebuilt the motors and sold them to Montgomery Ward. The motors were much improved, so the buyer purchased more, Kiekhaefer designed motors that withstood the elements better than his competition and called the motor Mercury wilst the adopting the logo of Roman god Mercury. Kiekhaefer took more than 16,000 orders at the 1940 New York Boat Show, world War II changed the corporate climate, and Kiekhaefer sought a government contract to design two-man air-cooled chainsaws. Army engineers had been unable to design a lightweight motor, Kiekhaefer designed a new lightweight chainsaw in 2 months. The Kiekhaefer powered chainsaw was able to cut through a 24-inch green log in 17 seconds, Mercury was awarded the contract, and was the worlds largest chainsaw manufacturer by the end of the war. Kiekhaefer Mercury foresaw that the average Americans interest in boating would increase after the war, Kiekhaefer introduced a 19.8 cubic inch,10 horsepower, two-cylinder alternate firing design engine at the 1947 New York Boat Show called the Lightning or KE-7. This engine, also called the Super 10, actually developed around 14 horsepower and its designation was updated to KF-7 for 1949. For 1951 the engine block, though still displacing 19.8 cubic inches, was updated a great deal, the 1951 kg-7 Super 10 featured this engine, which developed around 16 horsepower. For 1952, this model was updated with a forward, neutral, reverse gearset, and it was renamed Cruiser at this point, and no longer called Super 10. This engine later became the heart of the Mark 25, of the mid to late fifties, initially rated at 16 horsepower, this engine was soon beefed up to 20. There was also an H version, which produced more power, H version Mercurys were mostly used for racing
16.
Intake
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An intake or inlet is an opening on a car or aircraft body capturing air for operation of an internal combustion engine. An ideal intake system should increase the velocity of the air until it travels into the chamber, while minimizing turbulence. However, in aircraft, particularly supersonic aircraft, the purpose of the intake is to slow, early automobile intake systems were simple air inlets connected directly to carburetors. The first air filter was implemented on the 1915 Packard Twin Six, the modern automobile air intake system has three main parts, an air filter, mass flow sensor, and throttle body. Some modern intake systems can be complex, and often include specially-designed intake manifolds to optimally distribute air. Many cars today now include a silencer to minimize the noise entering the cabin, silencers impede air flow and create turbulence which reduce total power, so performance enthusiasts often remove them. All the above is accomplished by flow testing on a flow bench in the port design stage. Cars with turbochargers or superchargers which provide pressurized air to the engine usually have highly refined intake systems to improve performance dramatically, production cars have specific-length air intakes to cause the air to vibrate and buffet at a specific frequency to assist air flow into the combustion chamber. These designs became more complex as aircraft speeds increased to Mach 3.0 and Mach 3.2, design points for the XB-70, the inlet is part of the fuselage or part of the nacelle. Cold air intake Warm air intake Short ram air intake Ram-air intake Intake ramp Inlet manifold
17.
Fin
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A fin is a thin component or appendage attached to a larger body or structure. Fins typically function as foils that produce lift or thrust, or provide the ability to steer or stabilize motion while traveling in water, air, fins are also used to increase surface areas for heat transfer purposes, or simply as ornamentation. Fins first evolved on fish as a means of locomotion, Fish fins are used to generate thrust and control the subsequent motion. Fish, and other animals such as cetaceans, actively propel and steer themselves with pectoral. As they swim, they use other fins, such as dorsal and anal fins to achieve stability, foil shaped fins generate thrust when moved, the lift of the fin sets water or air in motion and pushes the fin in the opposite direction. Aquatic animals get significant thrust by moving back and forth in water. Often the tail fin is used, but some aquatic animals generate thrust from pectoral fins, fins can also generate thrust if they are rotated in air or water. Turbines and propellers use a number of rotating fins, also called foils, wings, propellers use the fins to translate torquing force to lateral thrust, thus propelling an aircraft or ship. Turbines work in reverse, using the lift of the blades to generate torque, cavitation can be a problem with high power applications, resulting in damage to propellers or turbines, as well as noise and loss of power. Cavitation occurs when negative pressure causes bubbles to form in a liquid and it can cause significant damage and wear. Cavitation damage can occur to the tail fins of powerful swimming marine animals, such as dolphins. Cavitation is more likely to occur near the surface of the ocean, even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful. Cavitation also slows tuna, but for a different reason, unlike dolphins, these fish do not feel the bubbles, because they have bony fins without nerve endings. Nevertheless, they cannot swim faster because the cavitation bubbles create a film around their fins that limits their speed. Lesions have been found on tuna that are consistent with cavitation damage, scombrid fishes are particularly high-performance swimmers. Along the margin at the rear of their bodies is a line of small rayless, non-retractable fins, there has been much speculation about the function of these finlets. Fish use multiple fins, so it is possible that a given fin can have an interaction with another fin. In particular, the fins immediately upstream of the fin may be proximate fins that can directly affect the flow dynamics at the caudal fin
18.
David J. C. MacKay
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Sir David John Cameron MacKay, FRS, FInstP, FICE was a British physicist, mathematician, and academic. MacKay was well known as author of the book Sustainable Energy – Without the Hot Air, MacKay was educated at Newcastle High School and represented Britain in the International Physics Olympiad in Yugoslavia in 1985, receiving the first prize for experimental work. He continued his education at Trinity College, Cambridge, and received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Natural Sciences in 1988 and he went to the California Institute of Technology as a Fulbright Scholar, where his supervisor was John Hopfield. He was awarded a PhD in 1992, in 1995 he was made a University Lecturer in the Cavendish Laboratory. He was promoted in 1999 to a Readership, in 2003 to a Professorship in Natural Philosophy and he cofounded the knowledge management company Transversal. In 2003, his book Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms was published, in 2008 he completed a book on energy consumption and energy production without fossil fuels called Sustainable Energy – Without the Hot Air. MacKay used £10,000 of his own money to publish the book, the book received praise from The Economist, The Guardian, and Bill Gates, who called it one of the best books on energy that has been written. Like his textbook on Information theory, MacKay made the book available for free online, in March 2012 he gave a TED talk on renewable energy. MacKay was appointed to be Chief Scientific Advisor of the Department of Energy and Climate Change, United Kingdom, in October 2014, at the end of his five-year term, he was succeeded by John Loughhead. MacKay was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 2009, MacKay was born the fifth child of Donald MacCrimmon MacKay and Valerie MacKay. His elder brother Robert S. MacKay FRS is Professor of Mathematics at the University of Warwick and he married Ramesh Ghiassi in 2011. They had a son, Torrin, and a daughter, Eriska, MacKay was diagnosed with inoperable stomach cancer in July 2015, for which he underwent palliative chemotherapy, a process he documented in detail on his public personal blog. He died in the afternoon of 14 April 2016 and he is survived by his wife and two children
19.
Queen Elizabeth 2
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Queen Elizabeth 2, often referred to simply as QE2, is an ocean liner built for the Cunard Line which was operated by Cunard as both a transatlantic liner and a cruise ship from 1969 to 2008. She was designed for the service from her home port of Southampton, UK, to New York. She served as the flagship of the line from 1969 until succeeded by RMS Queen Mary 2 in 2004, before she was refitted with a diesel power plant in 1986/87, QE2 was also the last oil-fired passenger steamship to cross the Atlantic in scheduled liner service. During almost forty years of service, Queen Elizabeth 2 undertook regular world cruises and later operated predominantly as a ship, sailing out of Southampton. QE2 had no running mate and never ran a year-round weekly transatlantic service to New York. QE2 did, however, continue the Cunard tradition of regular scheduled transatlantic crossings every year of her service life, QE2 was never given a Royal Mail Ship designation, instead carrying the SS and later MV or MS prefixes in official documents. QE2 retired from active Cunard service on 27 November 2008 and she was acquired by Istithmar, the private equity arm of Dubai World, which planned to begin conversion of the vessel to a 500-room floating hotel moored at the Palm Jumeirah, Dubai. The 2008 financial crisis however intervened and the ship laid up at Port Rashid. Subsequent conversion plans were announced by Istithmar in 2012 and by the Oceanic Group in 2013, as of January 2016 the ship remains laid up in Dubai while the port operator claimed that there were future plans for the ship and no intent to scrap her. At the time of retirement, the ship had a tonnage of 70,327 and is 963 ft long. She had a top speed of 32.5 knots with her steam turbines. By the mid 1960s transatlantic travel was dominated by air due to its speed and low cost relative to the sea route. Conversely, Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth were becoming increasingly expensive to operate, Cunard did not want to give up the business of passenger service, and so gambled $80 million on a new ocean liner to replace the original ageing Queens. Realising the decline of trade, and the rising costs of fuel and labour. The new ship was designed to run at the service speed of 28.5 knots as the previous Queens. Staff was also reduced from the levels on the older vessels, the interior and superstructure for the QE2 was designed by James Gardner. His design for the liner was described by The Council of Industrial Design as that of a very big yacht and with a look sleek, modern. Originally designated Q4, she was to be a three-class liner, Queen Elizabeth 2 was built by the John Brown Shipyard in Clydebank, Scotland
20.
Sea captain
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A sea captain is a high-grade licensed mariner in ultimate command of the merchant vessel. A ships captain commands and manages all ships personnel, and is typically in charge of the accounting, payrolls. The captain is responsible for responding to and reporting in case of accidents and incidents, the captain ensures that the ship complies with local and international laws and complies also with company policies. One of a particularly important duties is to ensure compliance with the vessels security plan. The security plan also covers such as refugees and asylum seekers, smuggling. On ships without a purser, the captain is in charge of the ships accounting and this includes ensuring an adequate amount of cash on board, coordinating the ships payroll, and managing the ships slop chest. On international voyages, the captain is responsible for satisfying requirements of the local immigration, customs requirements can include the master providing a cargo declaration, a ships stores declaration, a declaration of crewmembers personal effects, crew lists and passenger lists. The master acts as a liaison to local investigators and is responsible for providing complete and accurate logbooks, reports, statements, specific examples of the ship causing external damage include collisions with other ships or with fixed objects, grounding the vessel, and dragging anchor. Some common causes of damage include heavy weather, water damage, pilferage. There is a belief that ship captains have historically been. In most countries of ships registry, ship captains are not, the United States Navy defined a captain’s powers in its 1913 Code of Regulations, specifically stating, The commanding officer shall not perform a marriage ceremony on board his ship or aircraft. New Jerseys 1919 Bolmer v. Edsall said a shipboard marriage ceremony is governed by the laws of the nation where ownership of the vessel lies. In the United Kingdom, the captain of a merchant ship has never permitted to perform marriages. In other countries of ships registry, the situation varies. Most do not permit performance of a marriage by the master of a ship at sea, japan allows ship captains to perform a marriage ceremony at sea, but only for Japanese citizens. Malta and Bermuda permit captains of ships registered in their jurisdictions to perform marriages at sea, princess Cruises, whose ships are registered in Bermuda, has used this as a selling point for their cruises since 1998. In 2011, Cunard announced its intention to move the registration of “Queen Mary 2″, “Queen Victoria” and “Queen Elizabeth” from Southampton, in the United Kingdom, to Bermuda. Some captains obtain other credentials, which allow them to perform marriages in jurisdictions where they would otherwise not be permitted to do so
21.
Pete Bethune
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Peter James Pete Bethune is a New Zealander, founder of Earthrace Conservation and executive producer of The Operatives, a television show about wildlife crime which airs in over 85 countries. His current focus is assisting countries in Asia, Central America and Africa with fisheries enforcement and he is the holder of the world record for circumnavigating the globe in his powerboat Earthrace, a trihull wave piercer vessel powered with biofuels. Earthrace was renamed the Ady Gil in 2009 and Bethune sailed it in the Antarctic for Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, until a collision with a Japanese whaling vessel. He boarded the vessel the Shonan Maru 2 and presented the Captain with an invoice for the Ady Gil. Bethune was taken back to Japan and charged with a number of related to his anti-whaling activities. Pete is currently developing Earthrace-2, a 200 ft trimaran for conservation work, Bethune grew up in Hamilton West, New Zealand as one of five children. He has two daughters with his wife, Sharyn, his school sweetheart, from whom he is separated. He began his career as an oil engineer and worked in the North Sea. In 1997, he co-founded CamSensor Technologies, the company manufactured automated camera systems for controlling robots used in complex tasks such as cutting up and grading meat carcasses. He later moved to Sydney to establish the business there and he is motivated by the potential for alternative fuels. In 2003, Bethune wrote a 20, 000-word paper while pursuing his Master of Business Administration degree from Macquarie University about the use of energy for road transport. Based on his research at Macquarie, Bethune set out to prove that hydrocarbon fuels could be replaced by sustainable bio-fuels and he mortgaged his New Zealand home and financed the building in the hopes of recouping the expenses from sponsorships. He declined a $4 million sponsorship from a company that would have required them to use regular diesel and his first attempt began in Barbados on 10 March 2007. He encountered significant delays due to issues with the propellers and other mechanical problems, on the night of 19 March, while around 22 kilometres offshore from Guatemala, Earthrace collided with a local fishing boat. No Earthrace crew were hurt, but one of the three members from the fishing boat was killed. The crew was absolved of any responsibility after a 10-day investigation during which they were held in custody and they departed San Diego on 7 April 2007 and needed to return by 21 June to break the record. The attempt was abandoned on 31 May after a crack was discovered in the shortly after leaving Málaga. He departed from Sagunto, Spain, in attempt on 1 March 2008
22.
Motorboat
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A motorboat, speedboat, or powerboat is a boat which is powered by an engine. Some motorboats are fitted with engines, others have an outboard motor installed on the rear, containing the internal combustion engine, the gearbox. An inboard-outboard contains a hybrid of a powerplant and an outboard, where the combustion engine is installed inside the boat. There are two configurations of an inboard, V-drive and direct drive, the V-drive has become increasingly popular due to wakeboarding and wakesurfing. Motorboats vary greatly in size and configuration, from the four-meter, the earliest boat to be powered by a petrol engine was tested on the Neckar River by Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in 1886, when they tested their new longcase clock engine. It had been constructed in the greenhouse in Daimlers back yard. The first public display took place on the Waldsee in Cannstatt, today a suburb of Stuttgart, the engine of this boat had a single cylinder of 1 horse power. Daimlers second launch in 1887 had a second cylinder positioned at an angle of 15 degrees to the first one, the first successful motor boat was designed by the Priestman Brothers in Hull, England, under the direction of William Dent Priestman. The company began trials of their first motorboat in 1888, the engine was powered with kerosene and used an innovative high-tension ignition system. The company was the first to large scale production of the motor boat. Working in the garden of their home in Olton, Warwickshire, they designed, in 1897, he produced a second engine similar in design to his previous one but running on benzene at 800 r. p. m. The engine drove a reversible propeller, an important part of his new engine was the revolutionary carburettor, for mixing the fuel and air correctly. His invention was known as a carburetor, because fuel was drawn into a series of wicks. He patented this invention in 1905, the Daimler Company began production of motor boats in 1897 from its manufacturing base in Coventry. The engines had two cylinders and the charge of petroleum and air was ignited by compression into a heated platinum tube. The engine gave about six horse-power, the petrol was fed by air pressure to a large surface carburettor and also an auxiliary tank which supplied the burners for heating the ignition tubes. It was not until 1901 that a safer apparatus for igniting the fuel with a spark was used in motor boats. Interest in fast motorboats grew rapidly in the years of the 20th century
23.
MV Brigitte Bardot
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MV Brigitte Bardot is a unique high-tech 35 m stabilized monohull twin diesel engine powered vessel designed by Nigel Irens. Construction of Ocean 7 Adventurer began in June 1997 and she was launched on 16 March 1998, the official naming ceremony took place on 3 April 1998 in Londons West India Dock. Originally named Cable and Wireless Adventurer she was built for the purpose of circumnavigating the world in less than 80 days and this was successfully accomplished in July 1998 in 74 days,20 hours,58 minutes, traveling more than 22,600 nautical miles. This achievement set a new Guinness World Record for a powered vessel, both records are longer than the 60 days,21 hours claimed by the US Navys USS Triton nuclear-powered submarine during Operation Sandblast in 1960. The design of the vessel was evaluated and proven by hydrodynamic tank testing, Ocean 7 Adventurer is equipped with state-of-the-art navigation and communications equipment. In 2007 the vessel was acquired by Ocean 7, a Cape Town based marine brokerage, the vessel was recommissioned and transferred to a mooring at the V&A Waterfront, Cape Town. The vessel was available for charter, film work and the marine rescue operation. In December 2007 Ocean 7 Adventurer was chartered to retrieve a demasted yacht, Delta Dore was partaking in the Barcelona World Race. The yacht skippered by Jérémie Beyou and Sidney Gavignet was at position 47°00 S 033°25 E, nearly a thousand miles south east from South Africa, drifting slowly at between 1 and 2 kn east. An hour after the mast had collapsed backwards, it had to be cut free and dumped into the ocean, the yacht had 188 l of diesel fuel on board, but this was insufficient to motor back to the mainland. The Ocean 7 team were approached with regard to salvaging the yacht, skippered by co-owner David de Villiers, Ocean 7 Adventurer set sail for the Southern Ocean and after locating the yacht, she was taken in tow with a 200 m line. This rescue set a record for the longest tow in South African maritime history, in 2008 she was repainted in Rat Race Media graphics and was the star of a TV series on kykNET, Aqua X. The series started in October 2008 and aired until January 2009, in November 2009 Ocean 7 Adventurer was chartered by the Cipla Miles for Smiles Foundation to be the support vessel during leg one of the Miles for Smiles Madagascar Challenge. Before setting out to sea Ocean 7 Adventurer received a new look with the iconic Miles for Smiles regalia and this challenge was the brainchild of David Grier to raise awareness and funding for Operation Smile children suffering from facial deformity. Ocean 7 Adventurer played a role in supporting David Grier. The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society acquired the $4 million vessel for its 2010–11 campaign against Japanese whaling in the Antarctic Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary, in May 2011 the SSCS was served with a notice from the copyright holders of the Gojira/Godzilla franchise, regarding the unauthorized use of the trademark. In addition to a new name, the vessel received a new paint scheme. The ship, now under the command of Captain Jonathan Renecle, was damaged by a wave of 11 m while pursuing the Japanese whaling fleet off the western coast of Australia on 28 December 2011
24.
USS Triton (SSRN-586)
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USS Triton, a United States Navy radar picket nuclear submarine, was the first vessel to execute a submerged circumnavigation of the Earth, doing so in early 1960. Triton accomplished this objective during her shakedown cruise while under the command of Captain Edward L. Ned Beach, the only member of her class, she also had the distinction of being the only Western submarine powered by two nuclear reactors. Triton was the submarine and the fifth ship of the United States Navy to be named for the Greek god Triton. At the time of her commissioning in 1959, Triton was the largest, most powerful, converted to an attack submarine in 1962, she became the flagship for the Commander, Submarine Forces, U. S. She was decommissioned in 1969, the first U. S. nuclear submarine to be out of service. In 1993, she was towed to Puget Sound Naval Shipyard to await the Nuclear Powered Ship, the former Triton landed on the keel resting blocks in the drydock basin on 1 October 2007 to begin this recycling process which was completed effective 30 November 2009. The USS Tritons Sail Superstructure was saved from the process and is now part of the USS Triton Submarine Memorial Park located on Port of Benton Blvd in Richland Washington. Triton is considered a first-generation U. S. nuclear-powered submarine, along with Nautilus, Seawolf, Halibut, while serving as fully operational units of the U. S. Navy, the vessels also played key developmental roles. Nautilus introduced the use of power for ship propulsion. Seawolf utilized a nuclear reactor using liquid sodium as an alternative heat exchange medium to pressurized water. Halibut was the first nuclear-powered submarine to perform a nuclear deterrence patrol armed with Regulus cruise missiles. The Skates were the first nuclear-powered submarine class with more than one ship built, Tritons unique contribution to the development of nuclear power for naval propulsion was her dual reactor plant, which provided the speed required for radar picket missions. Unlike destroyers used as radar picket ships during World War Two, the U. S. Navys MIGRAINE program involved converting existing fleet submarines into radar picket vessels, and the Navy also ordered two purpose-built diesel-electric SSRs, Sailfish and Salmon. However, these were incapable of sustaining the high submerged or surfaced speeds necessary to operate with fast carrier task forces, Nuclear power offered the only possible solution. Triton was designed in the mid-1950s as a radar picket submarine capable of operating at speed, on the surface. Tritons high speed came from her twin-reactor nuclear propulsion plant, with a speed, surfaced and submerged. On 27 September 1959, Triton achieved well in excess of 30 kn during her sea trials. The first set was installed on board the destroyer leader Norfolk prior to its installation on board Triton in 1959, since it was scanned electronically in elevation, the AN/SPS-26 set did not need a separate height-finding radar
25.
Operation Sandblast
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The circumnavigation took place between 24 February and 25 April 1960, covering 26,723 nautical miles over 60 days and 21 hours. The route began and ended at the St. Peter and Paul Rocks in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean near the Equator, during the voyage, Triton crossed the Equator four times while maintaining an average speed of 18 knots. Tritons overall navigational track during Operation Sandblast generally followed that of the first circumnavigation of the world, finally, Operation Sandblast gathered extensive oceanographic, hydrographic, gravimetric, geophysical, and psychological data during Tritons circumnavigation. Aurand forwarded his Project Magellan proposal and Burkes assessment to Press Secretary James C, hagerty in a memorandum dated 26 January 1960. Project Magellan was subsequently approved by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, a unique submarine, she also had the distinction of being the only non-Soviet submarine to be powered by two nuclear reactors. Tritons high speed was derived from her twin-reactor nuclear propulsion plant, with a speed, surfaced and submerged. On 27 September 1959, Triton achieved well in excess of 30 kn during her sea trials. Weve got to do something special with it and we talked about it a little bit, and nobody had any ideas. Well go around the world from North Pole to South Pole, if you take a look at a map of the world, youll see thats not a very easy way to go. But I do remember thinking of it, and I made a speech to the crew, advising them of my thinking—that we were going to put this ship on the map. A phone call came, asking me if I could be in Washington tomorrow, following her commissioning on 10 November 1959, Triton was assigned to Submarine Squadron 10, the U. S. Navys first all-nuclear force, based at the U. S. Submarine Base in New London, Connecticut, under the command of Commodore Thomas H. Henry, work on the Triton at Electric Boat was delayed as priority was given to completing the Navys first two fleet ballistic missile submarines, George Washington and Patrick Henry. On 20 January 1960, Triton got underway to conduct a series of at-sea testing. S. Second Fleet, in northern European waters, Triton would depart as scheduled on 16 February, and the submarine would arrive back home no later than 10 May 1960. Maximum stability of the platform and unbroken continuity around the world were important. Additionally, for reasons of the national interest it had decided that the voyage should be made entirely submerged undetected by our own or other forces. TRITON, because of her size, speed and extra dependability of her plant, had been chosen for the mission. Also, Sand served as Beachs personal code name during the mission, as the captain noted, Most beaches are full of sand, I was informed
26.
IDEC SPORT
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IDEC3 is a racing sailing trimaran designed for transoceanic record-setting. She is one of the worlds fastest ocean-going sailing vessels and a holder of the Jules Verne Trophy. She was originally skippered by French yachtsman Franck Cammas, with a crew of ten, Groupama 3 was designed by VPLP and built by Multiplast in Vannes, France. Groupama 3 was launched on June 7,2006 and she was the transatlantic record holder between 2007 and 2009. During a first attempt for the Jules Verne Trophy in 2008 and she was repaired in France and went for another attempt in 2009. Damage to the port led to the attempt being called off after 11 days. She then returned to France, and set off again on January 31,2010 and she lost the record on January 7,2012, to Banque Populaire V, a larger trimaran. In 2010, she was retrofitted for single handed racing to take part of the transatlantic race Route du Rhum. In November 2010, Groupama 3 won the French single handed transatlantic race Route du Rhum, with Frank Cammas at the helm in 9 days and 14 hours, averaging 16.14 knots. She was bought by French Bank Banque Populaire to take part of 2014 Route du Rhum, in November 2014, Banque Populaire VII won Route du Rhum again, with Loick Peyron in 7 days and 15 hours, beating the record by 2 hours and 10 minutes. In 2015, French yachtsman Francis Joyons sponsor IDEC announced that they had acquired the boat, under this new ownership the boat was first leased for six months by Renaud Laplanche, the CEO of Lending Club. The boat was restored from her shortened mast single handed configuration to a full crew configuration and named Lending Club 2. Lending Club 2 set a new cross Channel record and a new Transpac record. In September 2015 the boat was handed over to the IDEC sport team who attempted to set a new circumnavigation record, Jules Verne Trophy,48 days,7 hours 44 minutes and 52 seconds. Trans-Mediterranean,458 miles, in 17 hours 8 minutes 23 seconds,16 May 2009 with an speed of 26,04 knots. Route of the discovery,3884 miles, in 7 days 10 hours 58 minutes 53 seconds,4 June 2007, miami-New York,947 miles, in 1 day 11 hours 5 minutes and 20 seconds,4 June 2007, with an average speed of 27 knots. Transatlantic record, in 4 days 3 hours 57 minutes 54 seconds, with an speed of 29,81 knots. The record passed to Pascal Bidegorry on Banque Populaire V in August 2009,24 hour distance record on 20 July 2007 during their transatlantic attempt, and held the record until it was bettered by Pascal Bidegorry on Banque Populaire V in August 2009. Circumnavigation List of circumnavigations The Groupama 3 official site
27.
Banque Populaire V
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Banque Populaire V is an offshore-racing trimaran and Team Banque Populaires fifth boat designed to set oceanic records. She was launched on 4 October 2008 in Nantes, France, with her 40 m length, she is currently the largest racing trimaran in the world. Her current skipper is Yann Guichard and her previous skippers are Loick Peyron and Pascal Bidégorry. Her original sponsor was the French bank Banque Populaire, currently she is owned by Dona Bertarelli & Spindrift Racing and sponsored by Mirabaud Group, Zenith and Genes-X. The architectural project for Banque Populaire V started in 2006, the architects VPLP designed this G-Class maxi multihull. The trimaran was built by the shipyard CDK Technologies in Lorient and she was launched at the end of August 2008 in Lorient. In 2009 she made her first attempt across the northern Atlantic from west to east. On Sunday 2 August 2009, she established the new record in 3 days,15 hours,25 minutes and 48 seconds, beating the record, held by Franck Cammas on Groupama 3. During the attempt she also broke the 24-hour distance twice, first with 880, then, several hours later, with 907 nautical miles. In 2010 the boat was stationed in Brest, awaiting an opening to beat the Jules Verne Trophy record, held since 2010 by Franck Cammas. The first such attempt started on January 22,2011, loïck Peyron took over as skipper from Pascal Bidégorry in June 2011. A second, successful attempt began on 22 November 2011 and set a new record in 45 days,13 hours, and 43 minutes, in January 2013, the boat was acquired by Dona Bertarellis racing team Spindrift Racing, and renamed Spindrift 2. The original 47m mast was shortened by 6m for Yann Guichard to manage the boat single-handedly in the 2014 Route du Rhum, in 2015 a new 42m mast was procured in view of a new attempt to break the Jules Verne record with a full crew. Northern Atlantic,2,921 nautical miles in 3 days 15 hours 25 minutes 48 seconds,2 August 2009 and this is just two knots slower than the fastest Blue Riband Ocean Liner SS United States and still two knots faster than second ranking RMS Queen Mary of 1938. 24 hours distance,908.2 nautical miles, a speed of 37.84 knots with a maximum speed of 47.16 knots during the record breaking Northern Atlantic passage of August 2009. Skippered by Pascal Bidegorry Trans-Mediterranean record, between Marseille and Carthage,16 May 2010, in 14 hours 20 minutes and 34 seconds at an average speed of 33.24 knots. Skippered by Pascal Bidegorry Around the British Isles record, in 3 days,3 hours and 49 minutes,8 July 2010, skippered by Loick Peyron Fastnet Race, in 1 day,8 hours and 48 minutes,15 August 2011, averaging 18.5 knots. Skippered by Loick Peyron Jules Verne Trophy in 45 days,13 hours,42 minutes and 53 seconds, arrival 6 January 2012, skippered by Loick Peyron Groupama 3 Orange II USA17 Banque Populaire V Official site Banque Populaire V smashes transatlantic record on Youtube Spindrift Racing
28.
Barbados
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Barbados is a sovereign island country in the Lesser Antilles, in the Americas. It is 34 kilometres in length and up to 23 km in width, Barbados is outside of the principal Atlantic hurricane belt. Inhabited by Kalinago people since the 13th century, and prior to that by other Amerindians, Barbados was visited by Spanish navigators in the late 15th century and it first appeared in a Spanish map in 1511. The Portuguese visited the island in 1536, but they left it unclaimed, an English ship, the Olive Blossom, arrived in Barbados in 1625, its men took possession of it in the name of King James I. In 1627, the first permanent settlers arrived from England, and it became an English, in 1966, Barbados became an independent state and Commonwealth realm with the British Monarch as hereditary head of state. It has a population of 280,121 people, predominantly of African descent, despite being classified as an Atlantic island, Barbados is considered to be a part of the Caribbean, where it is ranked as a leading tourist destination. Forty percent of the come from the UK, with the US. In 2014, Transparency Internationals Corruption Perceptions Index ranked Barbados joint second in the Americas, the name Barbados is either the Portuguese word Barbados or the Spanish equivalent los Barbados, both meaning the bearded ones. In 1519, a map produced by the Genoese mapmaker Visconte Maggiolo showed and named Barbados in its correct position, furthermore, the island of Barbuda in the Leewards is very similar in name and was once named Las Barbudas by the Spanish. It is uncertain which European nation arrived first in Barbados, one lesser known source points to earlier-revealed works predating contemporary sources indicating it could have been the Spanish. Others believe the Portuguese, en route to Brazil, were the first Europeans to come upon the island, colloquially Barbadians refer to their home island as Bim or other nicknames associated with Barbados includes Bimshire. The origin is uncertain but several theories exist, the name could have arisen due to the relatively large percentage of enslaved Igbo people from modern-day southeastern Nigeria arriving in Barbados in the 18th century. The words Bim and Bimshire are recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary, another possible source for Bim is reported to be in the Agricultural Reporter of 25 April 1868, where the Rev. N. Greenidge suggested the listing of Bimshire as a county of England. Expressly named were Wiltshire, Hampshire, Berkshire and Bimshire, lastly, in the Daily Argosy of 1652 there is a reference to Bim as a possible corruption of Byam, the name of a Royalist leader against the Parliamentarians. That source suggested the followers of Byam became known as Bims, amerindian settlement of Barbados dates to about the 4th to 7th centuries AD, by a group known as the Saladoid-Barrancoid. In the 13th century, the Kalinago arrived from South America, the Spanish and Portuguese briefly claimed Barbados from the late 16th to the 17th centuries. The Arawaks are believed to have fled to neighbouring islands, apart from possibly displacing the Caribs, the Spanish and Portuguese made little impact and left the island uninhabited. Some Arawaks migrated from British Guiana in the 19th century and continue to live in Barbados, during the Cromwellian era this included a large number of prisoners-of-war, vagrants and people who were illicitly kidnapped, who were forcibly transported to the island and sold as servants
29.
Palau
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Palau, officially the Republic of Palau, is an island country located in the western Pacific Ocean. The country contains approximately 250 islands, forming the western chain of the Caroline Islands in Micronesia, the most populous island is Koror. The capital Ngerulmud is located on the island of Babeldaob. Palau shares maritime boundaries with Indonesia, the Philippines, and the Federated States of Micronesia, the country was originally settled approximately 3,000 years ago by migrants from the Philippines and sustained a Negrito population until around 900 years ago. The islands were first explored by Europeans in the 16th century, the Imperial Japanese Navy conquered Palau during World War I, and the islands were later made a part of the Japanese-ruled South Pacific Mandate by the League of Nations. During World War II, skirmishes, including the major Battle of Peleliu, were fought between American and Japanese troops as part of the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign. Along with other Pacific Islands, Palau was made a part of the United States-governed Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands in 1947. Having voted against joining the Federated States of Micronesia in 1979, politically, Palau is a presidential republic in free association with the United States, which provides defense, funding, and access to social services. Legislative power is concentrated in the bicameral Palau National Congress, Palaus economy is based mainly on tourism, subsistence agriculture and fishing, with a significant portion of gross national product derived from foreign aid. The country uses the United States dollar as its currency, the islands culture mixes Micronesian, Melanesian, Asian, and Western elements. Ethnic Palauans, the majority of the population, are of mixed Micronesian, Melanesian, a smaller proportion of the population is descended from Japanese and Filipino settlers. The countrys two official languages are Palauan and English, with Japanese, Sonsorolese, and Tobian recognised as regional languages. The name for the islands in the Palauan language, Belau, likely derives from either the Palauan word for village, beluu, or from aibebelau, the name Palau entered the English language from the Spanish Los Palaos, via the German Palau. An archaic name for the islands in English was the Pelew Islands and it should not be confused with Pulau, which is a Malay word meaning island. Palau was originally settled between the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC, most likely from the Austronesia or Indonesia, the islands sustained a population of short-statured Negrito or Pygmy people until the 12th century, when they were replaced. The modern population, judging by its language, may have come from the Sunda Islands, however, the Spanish presence only began to express with evangelization, began at the end of 17th century, and its dominance began to take shape in the 18th century. The conscious discovery of Palau came a century later in 1697 and they were interviewed by the Czech missionary Paul Klein on 28 December 1696. Klein was able to draw the first map of Palau based on the Palauans representation of their home islands that made with an arrangement of 87 pebbles on the beach
30.
San Diego
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San Diego is a major city in California, United States. It is in San Diego County, on the coast of the Pacific Ocean in Southern California, approximately 120 miles south of Los Angeles and immediately adjacent to the border with Mexico. With an estimated population of 1,394,928 as of July 1,2015, San Diego is the eighth-largest city in the United States and second-largest in California. It is part of the San Diego–Tijuana conurbation, the second-largest transborder agglomeration between the US and a country after Detroit–Windsor, with a population of 4,922,723 people. San Diego has been called the birthplace of California, historically home to the Kumeyaay people, San Diego was the first site visited by Europeans on what is now the West Coast of the United States. Upon landing in San Diego Bay in 1542, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo claimed the area for Spain, the Presidio and Mission San Diego de Alcalá, founded in 1769, formed the first European settlement in what is now California. In 1821, San Diego became part of the newly independent Mexico, in 1850, California became part of the United States following the Mexican–American War and the admission of California to the union. The city is the seat of San Diego County and is the center of the region as well as the San Diego–Tijuana metropolitan area. San Diegos main economic engines are military and defense-related activities, tourism, international trade, the presence of the University of California, San Diego, with the affiliated UCSD Medical Center, has helped make the area a center of research in biotechnology. The original inhabitants of the region are now known as the San Dieguito, the area of San Diego has been inhabited by the Kumeyaay people. The first European to visit the region was Portuguese-born explorer Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo sailing under the flag of Castile, sailing his flagship San Salvador from Navidad, New Spain, Cabrillo claimed the bay for the Spanish Empire in 1542, and named the site San Miguel. In November 1602, Sebastián Vizcaíno was sent to map the California coast, in May 1769, Gaspar de Portolà established the Fort Presidio of San Diego on a hill near the San Diego River. It was the first settlement by Europeans in what is now the state of California, in July of the same year, Mission San Diego de Alcalá was founded by Franciscan friars under Junípero Serra. By 1797, the mission boasted the largest native population in Alta California, with over 1,400 neophytes living in, Mission San Diego was the southern anchor in California of the historic mission trail El Camino Real. Both the Presidio and the Mission are National Historic Landmarks, in 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain, and San Diego became part of the Mexican territory of Alta California. In 1822, Mexico began attempting to extend its authority over the territory of Alta California. The fort on Presidio Hill was gradually abandoned, while the town of San Diego grew up on the land below Presidio Hill. The Mission was secularized by the Mexican government in 1833, the 432 residents of the town petitioned the governor to form a pueblo, and Juan María Osuna was elected the first alcalde, defeating Pío Pico in the vote
31.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
32.
Bunk bed
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A bunk bed is a type of bed in which one bed frame is stacked on top of another. Bunk beds are normally supported by four poles or pillars, one at each corner of the bed, a ladder is used to get to the upper bed, which is normally surrounded by a railing to prevent the sleeper from falling out. Some models also have a curtain for the lower bunk. Because of the need for a ladder and the height of the bed, a loft bed is an elevated bed similar to a bunk bed, but without the lower beds - freeing floor space for other furniture which might be built into the loft bed. The most common type is the bunk bed which has two same size mattresses stacked one directly over the other. A twin over full bunk bed is arranged as a standard except that the mattress is a full size. A futon bunk is also arranged like a standard bunk except the lower bunk is a Western-style futon couch which converts into a bed rather than a standard mattress. Futon bunks can be used to space in small apartments or rooms. In an L-shape bunk the bottom bed is oriented at an angle to the top bed such that when viewed from above the beds form an L. This also creates a small alcove where a desk or bookshelf can be placed, a loft bed denotes a bunk bed that has only the top bunk, creating an open space underneath that can be occupied by a chest, drawers, or even a work area. This makes loft beds an efficient use of small spaces by utilizing the entire area that would otherwise be left unused. Some loft beds even have stowable/trundle beds while retaining the capability to contain workstations, loft beds can be more expensive than bunk beds due to built-in storage capacity and other features. Other names are mezzanine bed, high sleeper, loft bunk, a triple loft bed is an arrangement involving a total of three bunks. These bunks are a combination of bed types, where a bed is perpendicularly attached to a bunk bed to form an L-shape. Some people make DIY bunk beds from wooden planks and fasteners, the top bunk of a bunk bed may be lined with safety rails to keep the user from rolling out and falling to the floor while sleeping. Beds that do not include rails may be retrofitted to include them, consumer Product Safety Commission warning for bunk beds ASTM Safety Standards for bunk beds UK - The Bunk Beds Regulations 1987
33.
Sagunto
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Sagunto is a town in Eastern Spain, in the modern fertile comarca of Camp de Morvedre in the province of Valencia. It is located c.30 km north of Valencia, close to the Costa del Azahar on the Mediterranean Sea. It is best known for the remains of the ancient Iberian and Roman city of Saguntum, the city traded with Greek and Phoenician coastal colonies, and under their influence, minted its own coins. During this period the city was known as Arse, after stiff resistance over the course of eight months, related by the Roman historian Livy and in more detail by Silius Italicus, Saguntum was captured in 219 BC by the armies of Hannibal. Seven years later the town was retaken by the Romans, in 214 BC, it became a municipium, was rebuilt and flourished. Hispania was not easily pacified and Romanised, as the Iberian career of Quintus Sertorius makes clear, Saguntum minted coins under his protection, but continued to house a mint in later Roman times. The Romans built a circus in the lower part of the city. Texts found indicate that the city had an amphitheatre and had about 50,000 inhabitants and this prosperity lasted for most of the empire, and is attested by inscriptions and ruins. Under the Arian Visigothic kings, Saguntum received its Catholic patron saint, a bishop named Sacerdos, the priest, then, the town was known as Morvedre, a name derived from Latin muri veteres ancient walls. However, as Valencia grew, Saguntum declined, in 1098, the city was conquered by El Cid but the Muslims recovered it shortly thereafter. The city had been under the Muslim Arab rule for five hundred years when James I of Aragon conquered it in 1238. During the Peninsular War a Spanish attempt to raise the French siege of the castle failed in the Battle of Saguntum on 25 October 1811, Saguntum was badly damaged in warfare, but has retained many Valencian Gothic structures. In the late 19th century a steel-making industry grew up that supported the modern city, the last steel oven closed in April 1984. It has been restored and is now a tourist attraction, the remains of Sagunto Castle may be seen on top of the hill. It preserves much of its ramparts, of Roman and Moorish origin. A Roman theater, partly restored in late 20th century and it is found on the northern slope of the citadel hill. It was the first official National Monument declared in Spain, the Gothic Esglèsia de Santa Maria, in the Plaça Major. The Palau Municipal, or town hall, a beautiful 18th century building with a neoclassical façade, the early Gothic Esglèsia del Salvador
34.
Azores
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Its main industries are agriculture, dairy farming, livestock, fishing, and tourism, which is becoming the major service activity in the region. In addition, the government of the Azores employs a large percentage of the population directly or indirectly in the service, the main settlement of the Azores is Ponta Delgada. There are nine major Azorean islands and a cluster, in three main groups. These are Flores and Corvo, to the west, Graciosa, Terceira, São Jorge, Pico, and Faial in the centre, and São Miguel, Santa Maria, and they extend for more than 600 km and lie in a northwest-southeast direction. All the islands have volcanic origins, although some, such as Santa Maria, have had no recorded activity since the islands were settled, mount Pico, on the island of Pico, is the highest point in Portugal, at 2,351 m. The Azores are actually some of the tallest mountains on the planet, measured from their base at the bottom of the ocean to their peaks, which thrust high above the surface of the Atlantic. The climate of the Azores is very mild for such a location, being influenced by its distance to continents. Due to the influence, temperatures remain mild year-round. Daytime temperatures normally fluctuate between 16 °C and 25 °C depending on season, temperatures above 30 °C or below 3 °C are unknown in the major population centres. It is also generally wet and cloudy, the culture, dialect, cuisine, and traditions of the Azorean islands vary considerably, because these once-uninhabited and remote islands were settled sporadically over a span of two centuries. However, these kinds of structures have always used in the Azores to store cereals. Detailed examination and dating to authenticate the validity of these speculations is lacking and it is unclear whether these structures are natural or man-made and whether they predate the 15th-century Portuguese colonization of the Azores. Solid confirmation of a human presence in the archipelago has not yet been published. The islands were known in the century and parts of them appear in the Atlas Catalan. In 1427, a captain sailing for Henry the Navigator, possibly Gonçalo Velho, rediscovered the Azores, but this is not certain. In Thomas Ashes 1813 work, A History of the Azores, the author identified a Fleming, Joshua Vander Berg of Bruges and he stated that the Portuguese explored the area and claimed it for Portugal. Other stories note the discovery of the first islands by sailors in the service of Henry the Navigator, although there are few documents to support the claims. Although it is said that the archipelago received its name from the goshawk
35.
Puerto Rico
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Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
36.
Panama Canal
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The Panama Canal is an artificial 48-mile waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a key conduit for maritime trade. The original locks are 33.5 metres wide, a third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007 and May 2016. The expanded canal began operation on June 26,2016. The new locks allow transit of larger, Post-Panamax ships, capable of handling more cargo, France began work on the canal in 1881 but stopped due to engineering problems and a high worker mortality rate. The United States took over the project in 1904 and opened the canal on August 15,1914, Colombia, France, and later the United States controlled the territory surrounding the canal during construction. The U. S. continued to control the canal and surrounding Panama Canal Zone until the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties provided for handover to Panama. After a period of joint American–Panamanian control, in 1999 the canal was taken over by the Panamanian government and is now managed and operated by the government-owned Panama Canal Authority. Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, by 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal. It takes six to eight hours to pass through the Panama Canal, the American Society of Civil Engineers has called the Panama Canal one of the seven wonders of the modern world. Such a route would have given the Spanish a military advantage over the Portuguese, during an expedition from 1788 to 1793, Alessandro Malaspina outlined plans for its construction. Given the strategic location of Panama and the potential offered by its narrow isthmus separating two great oceans, other links in the area were attempted over the years. The ill-fated Darien scheme was launched by the Kingdom of Scotland in 1698 to set up a trade route. Generally inhospitable conditions thwarted the effort, and it was abandoned in April 1700, another effort was made in 1843. They referred to it as the Atlantic and Pacific Canal and it was a wholly British endeavor and it was expected to be completed in five years, but the plan was never carried out. At nearly the same time, other ideas were floated, including a canal across Mexicos Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Nothing came of that plan either. )In 1846 the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty, negotiated between the U. S. and New Granada, granted the United States transit rights and the right to intervene militarily in the isthmus. In 1849, the discovery of gold in California created great interest in a crossing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Panama Railway was built by the United States to cross the isthmus and opened in 1855
37.
Manzanillo, Colima
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Manzanillo is a city, seat of Manzanillo Municipality, in the Mexican state of Colima. The city, located on the Pacific Ocean, contains Mexicos busiest port that is responsible for handling Pacific cargo for the Mexico City area and it is the largest producing municipality for the business sector and tourism in the state of Colima. The city is known as the Sailfish Capital of the World, since 1957, it has hosted important national and international fishing competitions, such as the Dorsey Tournament, making it a very attractive fishing destination. Manzanillo has become one of the countrys most important tourist resorts, 16th century In 1522, Gonzalo de Sandoval, under orders from conquistador Hernan Cortes, dropped anchor in the Bay of Salagua, looking for safe harbors and good shipbuilding sites. In the year before he left, Sandoval granted an audience to local Indian chieftains in a small cove, a great part of his fleet, which left to conquer the Philippines, was constructed in Salagua. Manzanillo Bay was discovered in 1527 by navigator Alvaro de Saavedra, naming it Santiago de la Buena Esperanza, Manzanillo was the third port created by the Spanish in the Viceroyalty of New Spain. It became a point for important expeditions. Cortes visited the bay twice to protect his galleons from Portuguese pirates, over the next 300 years, the Pacific Coast’s history is filled with accounts of pirates from Portugal, England, France and even Spain assaulting, looting and burning ships for their rich cargos. Manzanillo was raised to the status of a city on June 15,1873, the railroad to Colima was completed in 1889. 20th century In 1908, President Porfirio Diaz designated Manzanillo as an port of entry to Mexico. It was the capital of Colima from February 20 to March 1,1915. In the 2005 census, the city of Manzanillo had a population of 110,728 and it is the second-largest community in the state, after Colima, the capital. The municipality covers an area of 1,578.4 km2, Manzanillo is also a beach resort and, as the self-proclaimed sailfish capital of the world, hosts a yearly sailfish fishing tournament. The Revillagigedo Islands, off the west coast of Mexico in the Pacific Ocean, are part of the municipality, Manzanillo is a sister city of the U. S. cities of Flagstaff, Arizona, San Pablo, California, and Saint Paul, Minnesota. The city is known internationally for deep-sea fishing and the green flash phenomenon during sunsets. The city is a resort and has many hotels and self-contained resorts. Also at the end of Manzanillo bay is the resort Las Hadas. Beach scenes were filmed on La Audencia Bay, just over the hill from Las Hadas, Manzanillo is a popular cruise ship port of call
38.
Hawaii (island)
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Hawaiʻi is the largest island located in the U. S. state of Hawaii. It is the largest and the southeastern-most of the Hawaiian Islands, with an area of 4,028 square miles, it is larger than all of the other islands in the archipelago combined and is the largest island in the United States. However, it only has 13% of Hawaiis people, the island of Hawaii is the third largest island in Polynesia, behind the two main islands of New Zealand. The island is referred to as the Island of Hawaiʻi. Administratively, the island is encompassed by Hawaiʻi County. As of the 2010 Census the population was 185,079, the county seat and largest city is Hilo. There are no incorporated cities in Hawaiʻi County, Hawaiʻi is said to have been named after Hawaiʻiloa, the legendary Polynesian navigator who first discovered it. The name is cognate with Savaii, the name of the largest island of Samoa, cook was killed on the Big Island at Kealakekua Bay on 14 February 1779, in a mêlée which followed the theft of a ships boat. Hawaiʻi was the island of Paiʻea Kamehameha, later known as Kamehameha the Great. Kamehameha united most of the Hawaiian islands under his rule in 1795, after years of war, and gave the kingdom. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 5,086 square miles. The countys land area comprises 62.7 percent of the land area. It is the highest percentage by any county in the United States, in greatest dimension, the island is 93 miles across and has a land area of 4,028 square miles comprising 62% of the Hawaiian Islands land area. Measured from its sea floor base to its highest peak, Mauna Kea is the worlds tallest mountain, taller than Mount Everest is, the Island of Hawaiʻi is built from five separate shield volcanoes that erupted somewhat sequentially, one overlapping the other. Geologists now consider these outcrops to be part of the building of Mauna Loa. Another volcano which has disappeared below the surface of the ocean is Māhukona. Because Mauna Loa and Kīlauea are active volcanoes, the island of Hawaii is still growing, between January 1983 and September 2002, lava flows added 543 acres to the island. Lava flowing from Kīlauea has destroyed several towns, including Kapoho in 1960, in 1987 lava filled in Queens Bath, a large, L-shaped, freshwater pool in the Kalapana area
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Majuro
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Majuro, /ˈmædʒəroʊ/, is the capital and largest city of the Republic of the Marshall Islands. It is also a large atoll of 64 islands in the Pacific Ocean. It forms a district of the Ratak Chain of the Marshall Islands. The atoll has an area of 9.7 square kilometres and encloses a lagoon of 295 square kilometres. As with other atolls in the Marshall Islands, Majuro consists of land masses. The main population center, named Delap-Uliga-Djarrit, DUD - three contiguous motus, had 20,301 people as of 2012, Majuro has a port, shopping district, hotels, and an international airport. At the western end of the atoll, about 50 kilometres from D–U–D by road, is the community of Laura. Laura has the highest elevation point on the atoll, estimated at less than 3 metres above sea level, being slightly north of the Equator, Majuro has a tropical climate with temperatures always above 21 °C. Humans have inhabited the atoll for at least 2,000 years, Majuro Atoll was claimed by the German Empire with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884, and the Germans established a trading outpost. As with the rest of the Marshalls, Majuro was captured by the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1914 during World War I, on January 30,1944, United States troops invaded, but found that Japanese forces had evacuated their fortifications to Kwajalein and Enewetak about a year earlier. A single Japanese warrant officer had left as a caretaker. With his capture, the islands were secured and this gave the U. S. Navy use of one of the largest anchorages in the Central Pacific. The lagoon became a forward naval base of operations and was the largest and most active port in the world until the war moved westward when it was supplanted by Ulithi. Following World War II, Majuro came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. It supplanted Jaluit Atoll as the center of the Marshall Islands. The major population centers are the D–U–D communities, the islets of Delap–Uliga–Djarrit, as of 2011, Majuro had a population of 27,797. Most of the population is Christian, the majority follows the United Church of Christ. The Cathedral of the Assumption of the Roman Catholic Apostolic Prefecture of the Marshall Islands is located in Majuro, there is a sizable number of Ahmadi Muslims
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Koror
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Koror is the state comprising the main commercial centre of the Republic of Palau. It consists of islands, the most prominent being Koror Island. The state of Koror contains about 70% of the population of the country, the nations former capital and largest town, also called Koror, is located here. The town has a population of 11,200 and is located at 7°20′32″N 134°28′38″E, on 7 October 2006, Ngerulmud replaced Koror as Palaus capital city. The first sighting of Koror, Babeldaob, and Peleliu recorded by Westerners was by the Spanish expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos at the end of January,1543 and they were then charted as Los Arrecifes. Two years later they were explored in detail by the expedition of Spanish naval officer Bernardo de Egoy, malakal Island, the site of Korors port. Koror Island is also connected by the Koror–Babeldaob Bridge to the state of Airai in the island of Babeldaob, much of Palaus economy comes from tourism. The Rock Islands of Palau are all located in the state, scuba diving shops and facilities are located all over Koror. Accommodation like hotels, bars, restaurants, cafes, and resorts are all available, dolphins Pacific, the worlds largest dolphin research facility, is open for tourists who are interested in swimming and interacting with trained dolphins. Most tourists to Palau stay in Koror, which is the centre for Palaus resort services, Koror has businesses that cater to speakers of many languages. In 2002, of the 17,000 people living in Palau, belau Air has its headquarters in cody, as did the short-lived Pacific Flier in 2010
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Singapore
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Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, sometimes referred to as the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is a sovereign city-state in Southeast Asia. It lies one degree north of the equator, at the tip of peninsular Malaysia. Singapores territory consists of one island along with 62 other islets. Since independence, extensive land reclamation has increased its size by 23%. During the Second World War, Singapore was occupied by Japan, after early years of turbulence, and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation developed rapidly as an Asian Tiger economy, based on external trade and its workforce. Singapore is a global commerce, finance and transport hub, the country has also been identified as a tax haven. Singapore ranks 5th internationally and first in Asia on the UN Human Development Index and it is ranked highly in education, healthcare, life expectancy, quality of life, personal safety, and housing, but does not fare well on the Democracy index. Although income inequality is high, 90% of homes are owner-occupied, 38% of Singapores 5.6 million residents are permanent residents and other foreign nationals. There are four languages on the island, Malay, Mandarin, Tamil. English is its language, most Singaporeans are bilingual. Singapore is a multiparty parliamentary republic, with a Westminster system of unicameral parliamentary government. The Peoples Action Party has won every election since self-government in 1959, however, it is unlikely that lions ever lived on the island, Sang Nila Utama, the Srivijayan prince said to have founded and named the island Singapura, perhaps saw a Malayan tiger. There are however other suggestions for the origin of the name, the central island has also been called Pulau Ujong as far back as the third century CE, literally island at the end in Malay. In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama and these Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George Cœdès were characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, which by then was part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period, in 1824 the entire island, as well as the Temenggong, became a British possession after a further treaty with the Sultan. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, under the jurisdiction of British India, prior to Raffles arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations
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Kochi
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Kochi, also known as Cochin, is a major port city on the south-west coast of India by the Arabian Sea and the Laccadive Sea and is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of Kerala. It is often called Ernakulam, which refers to the specific district, occupied by the Portuguese in 1503, Kochi was the first of the European colonies in colonial India. It remained the seat of Portuguese India until 1530, when Goa was chosen instead. The city was occupied by the Dutch and the British. Kochi ranks first in the number of international and domestic tourist arrivals in Kerala. Kochi has been ranked the sixth best tourist destination in India according to a survey conducted by the Nielsen Company on behalf of the Outlook Traveller magazine. Kochi is the home to Southern Naval Command of the Indian Navy, Kochi is also home for Keralas National Law School, The National University of Advanced Legal Studies. Ancient travellers and tradesmen referred to Kochi in their writings, variously alluding to it as Cocym, Cochym, Cochin, the Cochin Jewish community called Cochin as Kogin, which is seen in the seal of the synagogue which is still owned by the community. The origin of the name Kochi is thought to be from the Malayalam word kochu azhi, yet another theory is that Kochi is derived from the word Kaci, meaning harbour. The name Cochin implies co-chin, meaning like-China and it looked like China when the Chinese came to the region during the 14th century and installed Chinese nets. Accounts by Italian explorers Nicolo Conti, and Fra Paoline in the 17th century say that it was called Kochchi, after the arrival of the Portuguese, and later the British, the name Cochin stuck as the official appellation. The city reverted to a closer Anglicization of its original Malayalam name, Kochi and this change in name was challenged by the city municipal corporation but court has later dismissed the plea. Kochi was the centre of Indian spice trade for centuries, and was known to the Yavanas as well as Jews, Syrians, Arabs. Kochi rose to significance as a trading centre after the port Muziris around Kodungallur was destroyed by flooding of Periyar in 1341. The earliest documented references to Kochi occur in books written by Chinese voyager Ma Huan during his visit to Kochi in the 15th century as part of Admiral Zheng Hes treasure fleet. There are also references to Kochi in accounts written by Italian traveller Niccolò Da Conti, according to many historians, the precursor state to Kingdom of Kochi came into existence in early 12th century, after the fall of the Chera Kingdom. The reign of the Kingdom was hereditary, and the family ruled over the region was known as the Perumpadappu Swaroopam in the local vernacular. Portuguese navigator, Pedro Álvares Cabral founded the first European settlement in India at Kochi in 1500, from 1503 to 1663, Fort Kochi was ruled by Portugal
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Salalah
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Salalah, is the capital and seat of the wali of the southern Omani province of Dhofar. Its population in 2009 was 197,169, Salalah is the second largest city in the Sultanate of Oman, and the largest city in the Dhofar Province. Salalah is the birthplace of the Sultan, Qaboos bin Said, Salalah attracts lots of people from other parts of Oman and GCC during the Khareef season, which starts from July to September. The climate of the region and the monsoon allows the city to grow some vegetables, Salalah was the traditional capital of Dhofar, which reached the peak of prosperity in the 13th century thanks to the incense trade. Later it decayed, and in the 19th century it was absorbed by the Sultanate of Muscat, between 1932 and 1970, Salalah was the capital of the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman under Said bin Taimur. After the latters death, his son Qaboos decided to move the capital of Oman to Muscat. The Sultan traditionally lives in Salalah rather than in Muscat, the capital and largest city in Oman, Qaboos has bucked this trend, and has lived in Muscat since he ascended to the throne in 1970. He does, however, visit Salalah fairly regularly to meet with tribal and local leaders, his last visit was in 2010. In 2010, during the 40th anniversary of Sultan Qaboos taking the throne, the 40th anniversary celebrations consisted of a massive parade. It lasted several hours and had an estimated 100,000 attendees, in 2011 the city hosted peaceful protests after the domino effect from the Arab Spring which lasted several months. Salalah is very cloudy during the months of July and August. The city, like many other in Arab states of the Arabian peninsula, has a large expatriate community, mainly from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh. The majority of the Omani population in Salalah is Muslim, like the majority of the Middle East, most people in Salalah follow the Sunni Wahabi sect of Islam, unlike the majority of Omanis in Muscat which mostly follow the Ibadhi sect. There is also a population of Hindus, Christians, Buddhists. Arabic is the language and the most spoken one. The unofficial, unwritten language known as Jeballi is the second most spoken language, as of 1993 there were an estimated 25,000 speakers and the numbers have more than doubled ever since. English is the foreign language and the most spoken language of the expats. Malayalam is another language and together with Hindi/Urdu it is the most widely spoken language among expatriates
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Suez Canal
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The Suez Canal is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea through the Isthmus of Suez. It was constructed by the Suez Canal Company between 1859 and 1869, after 10 years of construction, it was officially opened on November 17,1869. It extends from the terminus of Port Said to the southern terminus of Port Tewfik at the city of Suez. Its length is 193.30 km, including its northern and southern access channels, in 2012,17,225 vessels traversed the canal. The original canal was a waterway with passing locations in the Ballah Bypass. It contains no locks system, with seawater flowing freely through it, in general, the canal north of the Bitter Lakes flows north in winter and south in summer. South of the lakes, the current changes with the tide at Suez, the canal is owned and maintained by the Suez Canal Authority of Egypt. Under the Convention of Constantinople, it may be used in time of war as in time of peace, by every vessel of commerce or of war, without distinction of flag. In August 2014, construction was launched to expand and widen the Ballah Bypass for 35 km to speed the canals transit time, the expansion was planned to double the capacity of the Suez Canal from 49 to 97 ships a day. At a cost of $8.4 billion, this project was funded with interest-bearing investment certificates issued exclusively to Egyptian entities, the New Suez Canal, as the expansion was dubbed, was opened with great fanfare in a ceremony on 6 August 2015. On 24 February 2016, the Suez Canal Authority officially opened the new side channel and this side channel, located at the northern side of the east extension of the Suez Canal, serves the East Terminal for berthing and unberthing vessels from the terminal anytime of day and night. Ancient west–east canals were built to travel from the Nile River to the Red Sea. One smaller canal is believed to have been constructed under the auspices of Senusret II or Ramesses II. Another canal, probably incorporating a portion of the first, was constructed under the reign of Necho II, the legendary Sesostris may have started work on an ancient canal joining the Nile with the Red Sea. In his Meteorology, Aristotle wrote, One of their kings tried to make a canal to it, so he first, and Darius afterwards, stopped making the canal, lest the sea should mix with the river water and spoil it. Strabo wrote that Sesostris started to build a canal, and Pliny the Elder wrote,165. Later the Persian king Darius had the idea, and yet again Ptolemy II. This proved to be the canal made by the Persian king Darius I
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Autopilot
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An autopilot is a system used to control the trajectory of an aircraft without constant hands-on control by a human operator being required. The autopilot system on airplanes is sometimes referred to as George. In the early days of aviation, aircraft required the attention of a pilot in order to fly safely. As aircraft range increased allowing flights of many hours, the constant attention led to serious fatigue, an autopilot is designed to perform some of the tasks of the pilot. The first aircraft autopilot was developed by Sperry Corporation in 1912, the autopilot connected a gyroscopic heading indicator and attitude indicator to hydraulically operated elevators and rudder. It permitted the aircraft to fly straight and level on a course without a pilots attention. Lawrence Sperry demonstrated it in 1914 at an aviation safety contest held in Paris, at the contest, Sperry demonstrated the credibility of the invention by flying the aircraft with his hands away from the controls and visible to onlookers of the contest. In 1930, the Royal Aircraft Establishment in the United Kingdom developed an autopilot called a pilots assister that used a gyroscope to move the flight controls. Further development of the autopilot was performed, such as improved control algorithms, also, inclusion of additional instrumentation such as the radio-navigation aids made it possible to fly during night and in bad weather. In 1947 a US Air Force C-54 made a flight, including takeoff and landing. Bill Lear developed his F-5 automatic pilot and automatic control system. In the early 1920s, the Standard Oil tanker J. A, moffet became the first ship to use an autopilot. Not all of the aircraft flying today have an autopilot system. The installation of autopilots in aircraft with more than twenty seats is generally made mandatory by international aviation regulations, there are three levels of control in autopilots for smaller aircraft. A single-axis autopilot controls an aircraft in the roll axis only, such autopilots are also known colloquially as wing levellers, a three-axis autopilot adds control in the yaw axis and is not required in many small aircraft. Autopilots in modern aircraft are three-axis and generally divide a flight into taxi, takeoff, climb, cruise, descent, approach. Autopilots exist that automate all of these phases except taxi. Landing, rollout, and taxi control to the parking position is known as CAT IIIc
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Humidity
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Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the air. Water vapor is the state of water and is invisible. Humidity indicates the likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog, higher humidity reduces the effectiveness of sweating in cooling the body by reducing the rate of evaporation of moisture from the skin. This effect is calculated in an index table or humidex. The amount of vapor that is needed to achieve saturation increases as the temperature increases. As the temperature of a parcel of water becomes lower it will not reach the point of saturation without adding or losing water mass. The differences in the amount of vapor in a parcel of air can be quite large. For example, a parcel of air that is near saturation may contain 28 grams of water per cubic meter of air at 30 °C, there are three main measurements of humidity, absolute, relative and specific. Absolute humidity is the content of air expressed in gram per cubic meter. Relative humidity, expressed as a percent, measures the current absolute humidity relative to the maximum for that temperature, specific humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the moist air parcel. Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapor present in a given volume of air. It does not take temperature into consideration, absolute humidity in the atmosphere ranges from near zero to roughly 30 grams per cubic meter when the air is saturated at 30 °C. Absolute humidity is the mass of the vapor, divided by the volume of the air and water vapor mixture. The absolute humidity changes as air temperature or pressure changes and this makes it unsuitable for chemical engineering calculations, e. g. for clothes dryers, where temperature can vary considerably. Mass of water per unit volume as in the equation above is defined as volumetric humidity. Because of the confusion, British Standard BS1339 suggests avoiding the term absolute humidity. Units should always be carefully checked, many humidity charts are given in g/kg or kg/kg, but any mass units may be used. The field concerned with the study of physical and thermodynamic properties of mixtures is named psychrometrics
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Monsoon
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Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase. The term is sometimes used for locally heavy but short-term rains. The major monsoon systems of the world consist of the West African and Asia-Australian monsoons, the inclusion of the North and South American monsoons with incomplete wind reversal has been debated. The south-west monsoon winds are called Nairutya Maarut in India, the English monsoon came from Portuguese monção, ultimately from Arabic mawsim and/or Hindi mausam, perhaps partly via early modern Dutch monsun. Strengthening of the Asian monsoon has been linked to the uplift of the Tibetan Plateau after the collision of the Indian sub-continent and Asia around 50 million years ago. Because of studies of records from the Arabian Sea and that of the wind-blown dust in the Loess Plateau of China, testing of this hypothesis awaits deep ocean sampling by the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program. The monsoon has varied significantly in strength since this time, largely linked to climate change. A study of marine plankton suggested that the Indian Monsoon strengthened around 5 million years ago, then, during ice periods, the sea level fell and the Indonesian Seaway closed. When this happened, cold waters in the Pacific were impeded from flowing into the Indian Ocean and it is believed that the resulting increase in sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean increased the intensity of monsoons. Five episodes during the Quaternary at 2.22 Ma,1.83 Ma,0.68 Ma,0.45 Ma and 0.04 Ma were identified which showed a weakening of Leeuwin Current. The weakening of the LC would have an effect on the sea surface temperature field in the Indian Ocean, thus these five intervals could probably be those of considerable lowering of SST in the Indian Ocean and would have influenced Indian monsoon intensity. The impact of monsoon on the weather is different from place to place. In some places there is just a likelihood of having a more or less rain. In other places, quasi semi-deserts are turned into green grasslands where all sorts of plants. The Indian Monsoon turns large parts of India from a kind of semi-desert into green lands, see photos only taken 3 months apart in the Western Ghats. In places like this it is crucial for farmers to have the right timing for putting the seeds on the fields, Monsoons are large-scale sea breezes which occur when the temperature on land is significantly warmer or cooler than the temperature of the ocean. These temperature imbalances happen because oceans and land absorb heat in different ways, in contrast, dirt, sand, and rocks have lower heat capacities, and they can only transmit heat into the earth by conduction and not by convection. Therefore, bodies of water stay at an even temperature
New Zealand, Auckland
