1.
Headstock
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A headstock or peghead is part of a guitar or similar stringed instrument such as a lute, mandolin, banjo, ukulele and others of the lute lineage. The main function of a headstock is to house the pegs or mechanism that holds the strings at the head of the instrument, at the tail of the instrument the strings are usually held by a tailpiece or bridge. Machine heads on the headstock are commonly used to tune the instrument by adjusting the tension of strings and, consequentially, two traditional layouts of tuners are called 3+3 and 6 in line tuners, though many other combinations are known, especially for bass guitars and non-6-string guitars. When there are no heads, the guitar headstock may be missing completely. The headstock may be carved separately and glued to neck using some sort of joint, there are two major trends in headstock construction, based on how the string will go after passing the nut. The advantages and disadvantages of both trends are very debatable and subjective, so these two variants are used, Straight headstocks form a plane with a flat surface of neck. This makes neck and headstock easier to manufacture, they can be constructed from a piece of wood. Fender usually uses non-angled, straight headstocks, because of the low angle of the string over the nut, string trees may be used to avoid the string coming out of the nut while playing. Angled headstocks form some kind of angle with a surface of neck. The value of magic angle that gives the best tone and stability is also very debatable, but it is usually in a range from 3° to 25°. Fragile construction is cited as a disadvantage of each style too, single-piece necks are more likely to break on occasional hit and are harder to repair, apart from its main function, the headstock is an important decorative detail of a guitar. It is the place where overwhelming majority of guitar manufacturers draw their logo, some guitars without machine heads have a headstock for purely decorative reasons. Most major guitar brands have signature headstock designs that make their guitars or guitar series easily recognizable, on some electric guitars and basses the finish used on the body is also applied to the face of the headstock. Generally, matched-headstock models carry a premium over their plain counterparts due to the extra processes involved in the finishing process. Although Fender no longer offers matched headstocks on production models made in the United States or Mexico, generally, a guitar is only considered to have a matching headstock if the guitar is usually produced without matching body and headstock finishes
2.
Tuning peg
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A tuning peg is used to hold a string in the pegbox of a stringed instrument. It may be made of ebony, rosewood, boxwood or other material, some tuning pegs are ornamented with shell, metal, or plastic inlays, beads or rings. Turning the peg tightens or loosens the string, changing the pitch produced when the string is played, a pegbox is the part of certain stringed musical instruments that houses the tuning pegs. Friction pegs are most often used on violin family instruments They are also used on instruments, such as the Bulgarian gadulka. A properly working peg will turn easily and hold reliably, that is, modern pegs for violin and viola have conical shafts, turned to a 1,30 taper, changing in diameter by 1 mm over a distance of 30 mm. The taper allows the peg to turn more easily pulled out slightly. Peg dope is a used to coat the bearing surfaces of the tuning pegs of string instruments. Manufactured varieties are sold in either a small stick, a block. A commonly used home expedient treatment involves soap and chalk, in varying proportion depending on whether the peg tends to slip or stick, Peg dope serves two different purposes. It both lubricates the peg shaft so it easily in the pegbox and provides friction to keep the pegs from slipping with the force of string tension. Tuning pegs that are fitted and properly doped will both turn smoothly throughout an entire rotation and hold firmly wherever the player wishes. Without the proper amount of friction to hold the peg in place, string instruments with pegs that are slipping can be tuned briefly, but will be out of tune within minutes as soon as the peg slips again. With too much friction, adjusting the tuning at all is impossible, if the pegs or their holes are not perfectly round, or if the bearing surfaces of the pegs are indented from wear, peg dope will not remedy the resulting problems. Pegs for double bass and guitar family instruments are usually geared, machine head Peg shapers and pegbox reamers in various tapers
3.
Double bass
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The double bass, or simply the bass, is the largest and lowest-pitched bowed string instrument in the modern symphony orchestra. It is an instrument and is typically notated one octave higher than sounding to avoid excessive ledger lines below the staff. The double bass is the modern bowed string instrument that is tuned in fourths, rather than fifths, with strings usually tuned to E1, A1, D2. The instruments exact lineage is still a matter of some debate, the double bass is a standard member of the orchestras string section, as well as the concert band, and is featured in concertos, solo and chamber music in Western classical music. The bass is used in a range of genres, such as jazz, 1950s-style blues and rock and roll, rockabilly, psychobilly, traditional country music, bluegrass, tango. The double bass is played either with a bow or by plucking the strings, in orchestral repertoire and tango music, both arco and pizzicato are employed. In jazz, blues, and rockabilly, pizzicato is the norm, Classical music uses just the natural sound produced acoustically by the instrument, so does traditional bluegrass. In jazz, blues, and related genres, the bass is typically amplified with an amplifier and speaker, the double bass stands around 180 cm from scroll to endpin. However, other sizes are available, such as a 1⁄2 or 3⁄4 and these sizes do not reflect the size relative to a full size, or 4⁄4 bass, a 1⁄2 bass is not half the size of a bass but is only slightly smaller. It is typically constructed from several types of wood, including maple for the back, spruce for the top and it is uncertain whether the instrument is a descendant of the viola da gamba or of the violin, but it is traditionally aligned with the violin family. While the double bass is nearly identical in construction to other violin family instruments, like other violin and viol-family string instruments, the double bass is played either with a bow or by plucking the strings. In orchestral repertoire and tango music, both arco and pizzicato are employed, in jazz, blues, and rockabilly, pizzicato is the norm, except for some solos and also occasional written parts in modern jazz that call for bowing. In classical pedagogy, almost all of the focus is on performing with the bow and producing a good bowed tone, some of these articulations can be combined, for example, the combination of sul ponticello and tremolo can produce eerie, ghostly sounds. Classical bass players do play pizzicato parts in orchestra, but these parts generally require simple notes, vibrato is used to add expression to string playing. In general, very loud, low-register passages are played with little or no vibrato, mid- and higher-register melodies are typically played with more vibrato. The speed and intensity of the vibrato is varied by the performer for an emotional and musical effect, in jazz, rockabilly and other related genres, much or all of the focus is on playing pizzicato. In jazz and jump blues, bassists are required to play extremely rapid pizzicato walking basslines for extended periods, as well, jazz and rockabilly bassists develop virtuoso pizzicato techniques that enable them to play rapid solos that incorporate fast-moving triplet and sixteenth note figures. In jazz and related styles, bassists often add semi-percussive ghost notes into basslines, to add to the rhythmic feel and to add fills to a bassline
4.
Pinion
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A pinion is a round gear used in several applications, usually the smaller gear in a gear drive train, although in the first commercially successful steam locomotive, the pinion was rather large. In many cases, such as remote controlled toys, the pinion is also the drive gear, the smaller gear that drives in a 90-degree angle towards a crown gear in a differential drive. The small front sprocket on a chain driven motorcycle, the round gear that engages and drives a rack in a rack and pinion mechanism and against a rack in a rack railway. In the case of radio-controlled cars with an engine this pinion gear can be referred to as a bell when it is paired with a centrifugal clutch
5.
Worm drive
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A worm drive is a gear arrangement in which a worm meshes with a worm gear. The two elements are called the worm screw and worm wheel. The terminology is confused by imprecise use of the term worm gear to refer to the worm. Like other gear arrangements, a drive can reduce rotational speed or transmit higher torque. A worm is an example of a screw, one of the six simple machines, a gearbox designed using a worm and worm-wheel is considerably smaller than one made from plain spur gears, and has its drive axes at 90° to each other. With a single start worm, for each 360° turn of the worm, therefore, regardless of the worms size, the gear ratio is the size of the worm gear - to -1. Given a single start worm, a 20 tooth worm gear reduces the speed by the ratio of 20,1, with spur gears, a gear of 12 teeth must match with a 240 tooth gear to achieve the same 20,1 ratio. There are three different types of gears that can be used in a worm drive, the first are non-throated worm gears. These dont have a throat, or groove, machined around the circumference of either the worm or worm wheel, the second are single-throated worm gears, in which the worm wheel is throated. The final type are double-throated worm gears, which have both gears throated and this type of gearing can support the highest loading. An enveloping worm has one or more teeth and increases in diameter from its middle portion toward both ends, double-enveloping wormgearing comprises enveloping worms mated with fully enveloping wormgears. It is also known as globoidal wormgearing and this can be an advantage when it is desired to eliminate any possibility of the output driving the input. If a multistart worm is used then the ratio reduces accordingly, Worm gear configurations in which the gear cannot drive the worm are called self-locking. Whether a worm and gear is self-locking depends on the angle, the pressure angle. The use of a worm screw reduced this effect, further worm drive development led to recirculating ball bearings to reduce frictional forces, which transmitted some steering force to the wheel. This aids vehicle control and reduces wear that could cause difficulties in steering precisely, Worm drives are a compact means of substantially decreasing speed and increasing torque. Worm drives are used in presses, rolling mills, conveying engineering, mining machines, on rudders. In addition, milling heads and rotary tables are positioned using high-precision duplex worm drives with adjustable backlash, Worm gears are used on many lift/elevator and escalator-drive applications due to their compact size and the non-reversibility of the gear
6.
Banjo
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The banjo is a four-, five- or six-stringed instrument with a thin membrane stretched over a frame or cavity as a resonator, called the head. The membrane, or head, is made of plastic, although animal skin is still occasionally but rarely used. Early forms of the instrument were fashioned by Africans in America, the banjo is frequently associated with country, folk, Irish traditional and bluegrass music. Historically, the banjo occupied a place in African American traditional music. The banjo, with the fiddle, is a mainstay of American old-time music and it is also very frequently used in Traditional Jazz. The modern banjo derives from instruments that had used in the Caribbean since the 17th century by enslaved people taken from West Africa. Written references to the banjo in North America appear in the 18th century, the etymology of the name banjo is uncertain. The word could have come from the Yoruba word Bami jo and it may derive from the Kimbundu word mbanza. A Banza, a five double string courses Portuguese viuhela with two short strings, mbanza is a string African instrument that has been built after the Portuguese Banza. Banza is quite similar to Banjo, various instruments in Africa, chief among them the kora, feature a skin head and gourd body. Banjos with fingerboards and tuning pegs are known from the Caribbean as early as the 17th century, 18th- and early 19th-century writers transcribed the name of these instruments variously as bangie, banza, bonjaw, banjer and banjar. Instruments similar to the banjo have been played in many countries, another likely relative of the banjo is the akonting, a spike folk lute played by the Jola tribe of Senegambia, and the ubaw-akwala of the Igbo. Early, African-influenced banjos were built around a body and a wooden stick neck. These instruments had varying numbers of strings, though often including some form of drone, the five-string banjo was popularized by Joel Walker Sweeney, an American minstrel performer from Appomattox Court House, Virginia. In the 1830s Sweeney became the first white performer to play the banjo on stage and his version of the instrument replaced the gourd with a drum-like sound box and included four full-length strings alongside a short fifth string. This new banjo was at first tuned dGdf♯a, though by the 1890s this had been transposed up to gcgbd, Banjos were introduced in Britain by Sweeneys group, the American Virginia Minstrels, in the 1840s, and became very popular in music halls. In the Antebellum South, many black slaves played the banjo, two techniques closely associated with the five-string banjo are rolls and drones. Rolls are right hand fingering pattern that consist of eight notes that subdivide each measure
7.
Epicyclic gearing
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An epicyclic gear train consists of two gears mounted so that the center of one gear revolves around the center of the other. A carrier connects the centers of the two gears and rotates to carry one gear, called the planet gear, around the other, the planet and sun gears mesh so that their pitch circles roll without slip. A point on the circle of the planet gear traces an epicycloid curve. In this simplified case, the sun gear is fixed and the planetary gear roll around the sun gear. An epicyclic gear train can be assembled so the planet gear rolls on the inside of the circle of a fixed, outer gear ring, or ring gear. In this case, the curve traced by a point on the circle of the planet is a hypocycloid. The combination of gear trains with a planet engaging both a sun gear and a ring gear is called a planetary gear train. In this case, the gear is usually fixed and the sun gear is driven. Epicyclic gears get their name from their earliest application, which was the modeling of the movements of the planets in the heavens. Believing the planets, as everything in the heavens, to be perfect, they could travel in perfect circles. At around 500 BC, the Greeks invented the idea of epicycles, with this theory Claudius Ptolemy in the Almagest in 148 AD was able to predict planetary orbital paths. The Antikythera Mechanism, circa 80 BC, had gearing which was able to approximate the moons path through the heavens. Epicyclic gearing or planetary gearing is a system consisting of one or more outer gears, or planet gears, revolving about a central. Typically, the gears are mounted on a movable arm or carrier. Epicyclic gearing systems also incorporate the use of a ring gear or annulus. Planetary gears are classified as simple or compound planetary gears. Simple planetary gears have one sun, one ring, one carrier, Compound planetary gears involve one or more of the following three types of structures, meshed-planet, stepped-planet, and multi-stage structures. Compared to simple planetary gears, compound planetary gears have the advantages of larger reduction ratio, higher torque-to-weight ratio, and more flexible configurations
8.
Gibson Firebird
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The Gibson Firebird is a solid-body electric guitar manufactured by Gibson from 1963 to the present. The Gibson Guitar Corporation released several new styles during the 1950s to compete with Fenders solid-body instruments, after success with the Les Paul in the 1950s, Gibsons popularity began to wane in the 1960s. Fenders colors, shapes and multiple pickups were endorsed by notable guitarists, Gibsons guitars, most of which were hollow or semi-hollow designs, seemed old-fashioned. Coupled with higher prices, this contributed to a decline in sales, Gibson had made forays into radical body shapes - the Flying V and Explorer in the 1950s - which met limited initial success. The president of Gibson, Ted McCarty, hired car designer Ray Dietrich to design a guitar that would have popular appeal, under Dietrich, the Firebird took on the lines of mid-50s car tailfins. Dietrich took the Explorer design and rounded the edges, the most unusual aspect is that the guitar is backward in that the right-hand horn of the body is longer than the other. Thus, the original Firebirds were unofficially referred to as reverse, the Firebird looks like an Explorer with softer points, or maybe a reverse Fender Jaguar or Jazzmaster. The Firebird is the first Gibson solid-body to use neck-through construction, the neck itself is made up of five plies of mahogany interspersed with four narrow strips of walnut for added strength. Other features were reverse headstock and banjo-style planetary geared tuning keys, there are no screw poles on Firebird pickups. Some Firebirds from 1965 featured Gibsons single-coil P-90 pickup, the Firebird line went on sale in mid-1963 with four models distinguished by pickup and tailpiece configurations. Unlike the Les Paul and SG line, which used the terms Junior, Special, Standard and Custom, Gibsons line of Thunderbird basses is rooted in the design of the Firebird, and uses even Roman numerals to distinguish it. From 1965 to 1969, Gibson introduced non-reverse models after failing to achieve marketing success with the unusual reverse-body design, Gibson had also received complaints from Fender that the Firebird headstock mirrored the Stratocaster and that the body violated Fenders design patents, with Fender threatening a lawsuit. The non-reverse body is a more standard double-cutaway design, with the horn being longer than the treble horn. It also had a standard glued-in neck rather than construction, as well as other, less noticeable changes in design. Pickup and tailpiece configuration for the V and VII were the same as the earlier models, although the I-. After a few years of disappointing sales, the line was dropped. Reverse body Firebirds were first reissued in 1972, with a commemorative Bicentennial modelreleased in 1976, the bicentennial model was distinguished by a red-white-blue logo on the white pickguard. The logo on most other models is red, the reissue Firebirds are usually based on the original reverse body design, however Gibson reintroduced the non-reverse Firebird in 2002 as a Custom Shop guitar
9.
Guitar tunings
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Guitar tunings assign pitches to the open strings of guitars, including acoustic guitars, electric guitars and classical guitars, among others. Tunings can be described by the pitches that are denoted by notes in Western music. By convention, the notes are ordered from lowest-pitched string to the highest-pitched, Tuning is described in how-to manuals for guitarists. Standard tuning defines the pitches as E, A, D, G, B. Standard tuning is used by most guitarists, and frequently used tunings can be understood as variations on standard tuning, “Nonstandard” tunings are also called “alternative” or “alternate”. Some tunings are used for songs by professional musicians. There are hundreds of such tunings, which are minor variants of established tunings. Communities of guitarists who share a tradition often use the same or similar tunings. The hundreds of alternative tunings have been classified into a number of categories, “open”. Modal, dropped, and many other tunings are mentioned in the supplementary list of guitar tunings, Standard tuning is the tuning most frequently used on a 6-string guitar and musicians assume this tuning by default if a specific alternate or scordatura is not mentioned. It consists of the notes, E2-A2-D3-G3-B3-E4. The letter gives the name of each note, and the number indicates in which octave the pitch lies. The fifth string is tuned to 110 Hz, exactly two octaves below the standard reference pitch of 440 Hz. Tuning forks and electronic tuners that match these frequencies are commonly available, Tuning forks which provide the pitch of the high E string are also common. The guitar is conventionally an equal-tempered instrument, the frets are positioned logarithmically, creating equally-tempered pitches along each string. However, guitarists who tune by ear will typically tune “clean” so that dissonant beating between particular strings is minimized, in this way, open intervals can be more consonant. This is known as just intonation, which is at variance with equal temperament, when the guitar is tuned in this way, open tunings theoretically allow for certain chords to be more consonant. Standard tuning provides reasonably simple fingering for playing standard scales and basic chords in all major and minor keys, the open notes of the second and third strings are separated by a four-semitone interval
10.
Newton (unit)
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The newton is the International System of Units derived unit of force. It is named after Isaac Newton in recognition of his work on classical mechanics, see below for the conversion factors. One newton is the force needed to one kilogram of mass at the rate of one metre per second squared in direction of the applied force. In 1948, the 9th CGPM resolution 7 adopted the name newton for this force, the MKS system then became the blueprint for todays SI system of units. The newton thus became the unit of force in le Système International dUnités. This SI unit is named after Isaac Newton, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case. Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, section 5.2. Newtons second law of motion states that F = ma, where F is the applied, m is the mass of the object receiving the force. The newton is therefore, where the symbols are used for the units, N for newton, kg for kilogram, m for metre. In dimensional analysis, F = M L T2 where F is force, M is mass, L is length, at average gravity on earth, a kilogram mass exerts a force of about 9.8 newtons. An average-sized apple exerts about one newton of force, which we measure as the apples weight, for example, the tractive effort of a Class Y steam train and the thrust of an F100 fighter jet engine are both around 130 kN. One kilonewton,1 kN, is 102.0 kgf,1 kN =102 kg ×9.81 m/s2 So for example, a platform rated at 321 kilonewtons will safely support a 32,100 kilograms load. Specifications in kilonewtons are common in safety specifications for, the values of fasteners, Earth anchors. Working loads in tension and in shear, thrust of rocket engines and launch vehicles clamping forces of the various moulds in injection moulding machines used to manufacture plastic parts
11.
Classical guitar
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The classical guitar is the member of the guitar family used in classical music. It is an acoustical wooden guitar with strings made of nylon, the traditional classical guitar has twelve frets clear of the body and is held on the left leg, so that the hand that plucks or strums the strings does so near the back of the soundhole. The modern steel string guitar, on the hand, usually has fourteen frets clear of the body and is commonly played off the hip. Examples of early guitars include the early romantic guitar. Classical guitar strings once made of catgut are now made of polymers as nylon. A guitar family tree may be identified, the flamenco guitar derives from the modern classical, but has differences in material, construction and sound. Todays modern classical guitar was established by the designs of the 19th-century Spanish luthier. Cultural baroque court music, 19th century opera and its influences, 19th century folk songs, Latin American music, thus over recent decades we have become accustomed to specialist artists with expertise in the art of vihuela, lute, Baroque guitar, 19th-century guitar, etc. Different types of guitars have different sound aesthetics, e. g. different colour-spectrum characteristics, different response and these guitars in turn sound different from the Torres models used by Segovia, that are suited for interpretations of romantic-modern works such as Moreno Torroba. When considering the guitar from a perspective, the musical instrument used is just as important as the musical language. As an example, It is impossible to play a historically informed de Visee or Corbetta on a classical guitar. The reason is that the guitar used courses, which are two strings close together, that are plucked together. This gives baroque guitars an unmistakable sound characteristic and tonal texture that is an part of an interpretation. Additionally the sound aesthetic of the guitar is very different from modern classical type guitars. However, they are considered to emphasize the fundamental too heavily for earlier repertoire, Some attribute this to the popularity of Segovia, considering him the catalyst for change toward the Spanish design and the so-called modern school in the 1920s and beyond. Some people consider it to have been influence of Segovia. It was the 19th century classical guitarist Francisco Tárrega who first popularized the Torres design as a solo instrument. Vihuela, renaissance guitars and baroque guitars have a bright sound - rich in overtones -, later in Spain a style of music emerged that favored a stronger fundamental, With the change of music a stronger fundamental was demanded and the fan bracing system was approached
12.
Steel-string acoustic guitar
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The steel-string acoustic guitar is a modern form of guitar that descends from the classical guitar, but is strung with steel strings for a brighter, louder sound. It is often referred to simply as a guitar, though the nylon-strung classical guitar is also sometimes called an acoustic guitar. The most common type is called a flat top guitar, to distinguish it from the more specialized archtop guitar. The standard tuning for a guitar is E-A-D-G-B-E, although many players, particularly fingerpickers, use alternate tunings, such as open G, open D. There are many variations in construction and materials used in steel-string guitars, different combinations of woods and construction elements affect the timbre or tone of the guitar. Many players and luthiers are convinced that a well-made guitars tone improves over time, acoustic guitars are commonly constructed in several different body types. The proportion and overall size of two parts helps determine the overall tonal balance and native sound of a particular body style – the larger the body. The 00, also called the Double-Oh or the Grand Concert and it has the thinnest soundbox and the smallest overall size of the major styles, making it very comfortable to play but also one of the quietest. Its smaller size makes it suitable for younger or smaller-framed players and these guitars are commonly called parlor steels as they are well-suited to smaller rooms. Martins 00-xxx series and Taylors x12 series are common examples, the Grand Auditorium guitar, sometimes called the 000 or the Triple-Oh, is very similar in design to the Grand Concert, but slightly wider and deeper. Many 000-style guitars also have a back panel to increase the volume of space in the soundbox without making the soundbox deeper at the edges. Eric Claptons signature Martin guitar, for example, is of this style, Martins 000-xxx series and Taylors x14 series are well-known examples of the Grand Auditorium style. The Dreadnought style was designed by Martin Guitars to produce a deeper sound than classic-style guitars and this body styles combination of a small profile with a deep sound has made it immensely popular, and it has since been copied by virtually every major steel-string luthier. Martins D series guitars, such as the highly-prized D-28, are examples of the Dreadnought. This comes at the expense of being oversized, with a very deep sounding box, the foremost example of this style is the Gibson J-200, but like the Dreadnought, most guitar manufacturers have at least one jumbo model. Any of these body type can optionally incorporate a cutaway, a cutaway guitar has a redesigned upper bout that removes a section of the soundbox on the underside of the neck, hence the name cutaway. This allows for access to the frets that are located on top of the soundbox past the heel of the neck. The tradeoff is reduced soundbox volume, and often a change in bracing, the 12-string guitar replaces each single string with a course of two strings
13.
Electric guitar
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The vibrations of the strings are sensed by a pickup, of which the most common type is the magnetic pickup, which uses the principle of direct electromagnetic induction. The signal generated by a guitar is too weak to drive a loudspeaker, so it is plugged into a guitar amplifier before being sent to a loudspeaker. The output of a guitar is an electric signal. Invented in 1931, the electric guitar was adopted by jazz guitarists. Early proponents of the guitar on record included Les Paul, Lonnie Johnson, Sister Rosetta Tharpe, T-Bone Walker. During the 1950s and 1960s, the guitar became the most important instrument in pop music. It has evolved into an instrument that is capable of a multitude of sounds and styles in genres ranging from pop and rock to country music, blues and jazz. It served as a component in the development of electric blues, rock and roll, rock music, heavy metal music. Electric guitar design and construction vary greatly in the shape of the body and the configuration of the neck, bridge, Guitars may have a fixed bridge or a spring-loaded hinged bridge that lets players bend the pitch of notes or chords up or down or perform vibrato effects. The sound of a guitar can be modified by new playing techniques such as string bending, tapping, hammering on, using audio feedback, in a small group, such as a power trio, one guitarist switches between both roles. In larger rock and metal bands, there is often a rhythm guitarist, many experiments at electrically amplifying the vibrations of a string instrument were made dating back to the early part of the 20th century. Patents from the 1910s show telephone transmitters were adapted and placed inside violins, hobbyists in the 1920s used carbon button microphones attached to the bridge, however, these detected vibration from the bridge on top of the instrument, resulting in a weak signal. With numerous people experimenting with electrical instruments in the 1920s and early 1930s, Electric guitars were originally designed by acoustic guitar makers and instrument manufacturers. Some of the earliest electric guitars adapted hollow-bodied acoustic instruments and used tungsten pickups, the first electrically amplified guitar was designed in 1931 by George Beauchamp, the general manager of the National Guitar Corporation, with Paul Barth, who was vice president. The maple body prototype for the one-piece cast aluminum frying pan was built by Harry Watson, commercial production began in late summer of 1932 by the Ro-Pat-In Corporation, in Los Angeles, a partnership of Beauchamp, Adolph Rickenbacker, and Paul Barth. In 1934, the company was renamed the Rickenbacker Electro Stringed Instrument Company, in that year Beauchamp applied for a United States patent for an Electrical Stringed Musical Instrument and the patent was issued in 1937. The Electro-Spanish Ken Roberts provided players a full 25 scale, with 17 frets free of the fretboard and it is estimated that fewer than 50 Electro-Spanish Ken Roberts were constructed between 1933 and 1937, fewer than 10 are known to survive today. The need for the guitar became apparent during the big band era as orchestras increased in size, particularly when acoustic guitars had to compete with large
14.
Lubrication
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The lubricant can be a solid, a solid/liquid dispersion, a liquid such as oil or water, a liquid-liquid dispersion or a gas. Lubrication can also describe the phenomenon where reduction of friction occurs unintentionally, the science of friction, lubrication and wear is called tribology. Adequate lubrication allows smooth continuous operation of equipment, reduces the rate of wear, hydrodynamic lubrication is where the motion of the contacting surfaces, and the exact design of the bearing is used to pump lubricant around the bearing to maintain the lubricating film. This design of bearing may wear when started, stopped or reversed, the basis of the hydrodynamic theory of lubrication is the Reynolds equation. The governing equations of the theory of lubrication and some analytical solutions can be found in the reference. Elastohydrodynamic lubrication, Mostly for nonconforming surfaces or higher load conditions, such strain creates a load-bearing area, which provides an almost parallel gap for the fluid to flow through. Much as in hydrodynamic lubrication, the motion of the contacting bodies generates a flow induced pressure, in such high pressure regimes, the viscosity of the fluid may rise considerably. At full film elastohydrodynamic lubrication the generated lubricant film completely separates the surfaces, contact between raised solid features, or asperities, can occur, leading to a mixed-lubrication or boundary lubrication regime. Boundary lubrication, The hydrodynamic effects are negligible, the bodies come into closer contact at their asperities, the heat developed by the local pressures causes a condition which is called stick-slip, and some asperities break off. Boundary lubrication is also defined as that regime in which the load is carried by the surface rather than by the lubricant. Mixed lubrication, This regime is in between the full film elastohydrodynamic and boundary lubrication regimes, the generated lubricant film is not enough to separate the bodies completely, but hydrodynamic effects are considerable. Besides supporting the load the lubricant may have to perform other functions as well, for instance it may cool the contact areas, while carrying out these functions the lubricant is constantly replaced from the contact areas either by the relative movement or by externally induced forces. Lubrication is required for operation of mechanical systems pistons, pumps, cams, bearings, turbines. In some applications, such as engines, the film between the piston and the cylinder wall also seals the combustion chamber, preventing combustion gases from escaping into the crankcase
15.
Gibson Les Paul
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The Gibson Les Paul is a solid body electric guitar that was first sold by the Gibson Guitar Corporation in 1952. The Les Paul was designed by Gibson president Ted McCarty, factory manager John Huis and their team, the Les Paul was originally offered with a gold finish and two P-90 pickups. In 1957, humbucking pickups were added, along with sunburst finishes in 1958, the sunburst 1958–1960 Les Paul – today one of the best-known electric guitar types in the world – was considered a failure, with low production and sales. For 1961, the Les Paul was redesigned into what is now known as the Gibson SG and this design continued as a separate guitar when the traditional single cutaway, carved top bodystyle was re-introduced in 1963. The Les Paul has been produced in countless versions and editions since. Along with Fenders Telecaster and Stratocaster, it was one of the first mass-produced electric solid-body guitars, Les Pauls have been used in many genres, including rock, country, pop, soul, rhythm and blues, blues, jazz, reggae, punk, and heavy metal. In 1950, the ancestors of Fender Telecaster were introduced to the musical market, in reaction to market demand, Gibson Guitar president Ted McCarty brought guitarist Les Paul into the company as a consultant. Les Paul was an innovator who had been experimenting with guitar design for years. He hand-built a solid-body prototype called The Log, often suggested as the first solid-body Spanish guitar ever built, in 1951, Paul, McCarty, and his team at the Gibson Guitar Corporation began work on what would eventually become the Les Paul Model. Early prototypes are very similar to the final version, the new Les Paul guitar was to be an expensive, well-made instrument in accordance with Gibsons reputation at the time. Although recollections differ regarding who contributed what to the Les Paul design, however, this reversal would have caused the guitar to become too heavy, and Pauls request was refused. Paul states that the original Custom should have had the maple cap, Les Pauls contributions to the guitar line bearing his name were more than cosmetic, but certainly included them. For example, Paul specified that the guitar be offered in a finish, not only for flashiness. The later-issue Les Paul models included flame maple and quilted maple tops, the 1952 Les Pauls featured two P-90 single coil pickups, and a one-piece, trapeze-style bridge/tailpiece with strings fitted under a steel stop-bar. The guitar made its debut when Paul used it onstage in June,1952. On July 24,1952, at a special musicians clinic at the Waldorf-Astoria hotel, it was previewed by prominent guitarists such as Tiger Haynes, George Barnes, Mundell Lowe, Tony Mottola, and Billy Mure. The clinic preceded the annual NAMM Show held at the New Yorker hotel starting July 27, a second Les Paul model was introduced in 1953. Called the Les Paul Custom, this guitar with gold-plated hardware was dubbed the Black Beauty
16.
Fender Telecaster
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The Fender Telecaster, colloquially known as the Tele /ˈtɛli/, is the worlds first commercially successful solid-body electric guitar. Its simple yet effective design and revolutionary sound broke ground and set trends in electric guitar manufacturing, the Fender Telecaster was developed by Leo Fender in Fullerton, California in 1950. In the period roughly between 1932 and 1949, several craftsmen and companies experimented with electric guitars, but none had made a significant impact on the market. Leo Fenders Telecaster was the design that made bolt-on neck, solid body guitars viable in the marketplace, players had been wiring up their instruments in search of greater volume and projection since the late 1920s, and electric semi-acoustics had long been widely available. That hand-built prototype, a white guitar, had most of the features of what would become the Telecaster. The initial single-pickup production model appeared in 1950, and was called the Esquire, fewer than fifty guitars were originally produced under that name, and most were replaced under warranty because of early manufacturing problems. In particular, the Esquire necks had no truss rod and many were replaced due to bent necks, later in 1950, this single-pickup model was discontinued, and a two-pickup model was renamed the Broadcaster. From this point onwards all Fender necks incorporated truss rods, the Esquire was reintroduced in 1951 as a single pickup Telecaster, at a lower price. The so-called Nocaster was a variant of Telecaster. Produced in early to mid-1951, it was the result of action from the Gretsch company over the guitars previous name. By the summer of 1951 the guitar was officially renamed as the Telecaster and has known as such ever since. The term Nocaster was originally coined by collectors to denote these transitional guitars that appeared without a name on the headstock. Since they were manufactured in this form for only a few very early in the Broadcaster/Telecasters history, original Nocasters are highly prized. There are no official numbers, but experts estimate that fewer than 500 Nocasters were produced. Fender has since registered Nocaster as a trademark to denote its modern replicas of this famous rarity, in 1951, Fender released the innovative and musically influential Precision Bass as a similar looking stable-mate to the Telecaster. This body style was released as the Fender Telecaster Bass in 1968 after the Precision Bass had been changed in 1957 to make it more closely resemble the Stratocaster guitar. Leo Fenders simple and modular design was geared to mass production, Guitars were not constructed individually, as in traditional luthiery. Rather, components were produced quickly and inexpensively in quantity and assembled into a guitar on an assembly line, the bodies were bandsawn and routed from slabs, rather than hand-carved individually, as with other guitars made at the time, such as Gibsons
17.
Fender Stratocaster
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The Fender Stratocaster is a model of electric guitar designed in 1954 by Leo Fender, Bill Carson, George Fullerton, and Freddie Tavares. The Fender Musical Instruments Corporation has continuously manufactured the Stratocaster from 1954 to the present and it is a double-cutaway guitar, with an extended top horn shape for balance. Along with the Gibson Les Paul, it is one of the most often emulated electric guitar shapes, Stratocaster and Strat are trademark terms belonging to Fender. The Fender Stratocaster was the first guitar to feature three pickups and a spring tension tremolo system, as well as being the first Fender with a contoured body, the Stratocasters sleek, contoured body shape differed from the flat, slab-like design of the Telecaster. The Stratocasters double cutaways allowed players access to higher positions on the neck. Starting in 1954, the Stratocaster was offered with a solid, deeply contoured ash body, a 21-fret one-piece maple neck with black dot inlays, the color was originally a two color sunburst pattern, although custom color guitars were produced. In 1956, Fender began using alder for sunburst and most custom color Stratocaster bodies, in 1960, the available custom colors were standardized, many of which were automobile lacquer colors from DuPont available at an additional 5% cost. A unique single-ply, 8-screw hole white pickguard held all electronic components except the recessed jack plate—facilitating easy assembly, in this floating position, players could move the bridge-mounted tremolo arm up or down to modulate the pitch of the notes being played. Hank Marvin, Jeff Beck and Ike Turner used the Strats floating tremolo extensively in their playing, as string gauges have changed, players have experimented with the number of tremolo springs, and modern Stratocasters ship with three springs. Some Strats have a bridge in place of the tremolo assembly. There is considerable debate about the effects on tone and sustain of the used in the tremolo systems inertia bar. The Stratocaster features three single coil pickups, with the originally selected by a 3-way switch. In 1977 Fender introduced a 5-way selector making such pickup combinations more stable, dick Dale is a prominent Stratocaster player who also collaborated with Leo Fender in developing the Fender Showman amplifier. In the early 1960s, the instrument was also championed by Hank Marvin, guitarist for the Shadows, in 1965, George Harrison and John Lennon acquired Stratocasters and used them for Help. Rubber Soul and later recording sessions, the double unison guitar solo on Nowhere Man is played by Harrison and Lennon on their new Stratocasters, after the introduction of the Fender Stratocaster Ultra series in 1989, ebony was officially selected as a fretboard material on some models. In December 1965 the Stratocaster was given a broader headstock with altered decals to match the size of the Jazzmaster, during the CBS era, particularly the 1970s, the perceived quality of Fender instruments fell. During this time, vintage instruments from the era became popular. Dan Smith, with the help of John Page, proceeded to work on a reissue of the most popular guitars of Leo Fenders era
18.
Music Man (company)
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Music Man is an American guitar and bass guitar manufacturer. It is a division of the Ernie Ball corporation, the Music Man story began in 1971 when Forrest White and Tom Walker formed a company they would call Tri-Sonix, Inc. Tom Walker approached Leo Fender about financial help in forming Tri-Sonix, Tom Walker worked as a sales rep at Fender. Because of a 10-year non-compete clause in the 1965 contract that sold the Fender companies to CBS, the name of this partnership was changed to Musitek, Inc. by 1973 and in January 1974 the final name, Music Man, appeared. Leo Fender did not like the name Tri-Sonix, so the name evolved under Leo Fenders suggestion to call the new company Music Man, in 1974, the company started producing its first product, an amplifier designed by Leo Fender and Tom Walker called the Sixty Five. It was a hybrid of tube and solid state technology, the number of designs rapidly increased. 15 of the 28 pages from 1976 catalogue were dedicated to amplification, in 1975, Fenders legal restriction had expired and after a vote of the board he was named the president of Music Man. However, this wasnt Fenders sole enterprise and he also owned and ran a consulting firm called CLF Research in Fullerton, California. By 1976, it had built a facility for musical instruments and was contracted to make Music Man products. In June 1976, production started on guitars and in August basses followed, the 1976 catalogue shows the first offerings, A two pickup guitar called the StingRay 1 and the StingRay Bass. The StingRay Bass featured a single large hum-bucking pickup with a two-band fixed-frequency EQ, a row of string mutes sat on the bridge. Basses were produced in fretted and fretless versions and these instruments were designed by Leo Fender and Forrest White. Tom Walker played a part in the design of the bass preamp. They were the first production guitar and basses to use active electronics which could boost levels in selected frequency bands, the preamps were coated with epoxy to prevent reverse engineering. While highly innovative electronically, the guitar was not blessed cosmetically, part of the reason for the poor sales of the guitar was that the preamp actually made the sound too clean for most Rock and Roll guitarists. In December 1978, a two pickup bass was introduced called the Sabre, a redesigned guitar bearing the same name followed. CLF Research and Music Man were treated as separate companies, headed by Leo Fender and Tommy Walker, Fender made the guitars and basses, while Walkers company made the amplifiers and sold accessories. The instruments were made at CLF and shipped to Music Mans warehouse, problems with fibers in the finish caused Music Mans inspectors to reject a high percentage of the instruments, and return them to CLF for refinishing
19.
Bass guitar
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The bass guitar is a stringed instrument played primarily with the fingers or thumb, by plucking, slapping, popping, strumming, tapping, thumping, or picking with a plectrum, often known as a pick. The bass guitar is similar in appearance and construction to a guitar, but with a longer neck and scale length. The four-string bass, by far the most common, is tuned the same as the double bass. The bass guitar is an instrument, as it is notated in bass clef an octave higher than it sounds to avoid excessive ledger lines. Like the electric guitar, the guitar has pickups and it is plugged into an amplifier and speaker on stage, or into a larger PA system using a DI unit. Since the 1960s, the guitar has largely replaced the double bass in popular music as the bass instrument in the rhythm section. While types of basslines vary widely from one style of music to another, many styles of music utilise the bass guitar, including rock, heavy metal, pop, punk rock, country, reggae, gospel, blues, symphonic rock, and jazz. It is often a solo instrument in jazz, jazz fusion, Latin, funk, progressive rock and other rock, the adoption of a guitar form made the instrument easier to hold and transport than any of the existing stringed bass instruments. The addition of frets enabled bassists to play in more easily than on acoustic or electric upright basses. Around 100 of these instruments were made during this period, around 1947, Tutmarcs son, Bud, began marketing a similar bass under the Serenader brand name, prominently advertised in the nationally distributed L. D. Heater Music Company wholesale jobber catalogue of 1948, however, the Tutmarc family inventions did not achieve market success. In the 1950s, Leo Fender, with the help of his employee George Fullerton and his Fender Precision Bass, which began production in October 1951, became a widely copied industry standard. This split pickup, introduced in 1957, appears to have been two mandolin pickups, the pole pieces and leads of the coils were reversed with respect to each other, producing a humbucking effect. Humbucking is a design that electrically cancels the effect of any AC hum, the Fender Bass was a revolutionary new instrument, which could be easily transported, and which was less prone to feedback when amplified than acoustic bass instruments. Monk Montgomery was the first bass player to tour with the Fender bass guitar, roy Johnson, and Shifty Henry with Louis Jordan & His Tympany Five, were other early Fender bass pioneers. Bill Black, playing with Elvis Presley, switched from bass to the Fender Precision Bass around 1957. The bass guitar was intended to appeal to guitarists as well as upright bass players, following Fenders lead, in 1953, Gibson released the first short scale violin-shaped electric bass with extendable end pin, allowing it to be played upright or horizontally. In 1959 these were followed by the more conventional-looking EB-0 Bass, the EB-0 was very similar to a Gibson SG in appearance
20.
Floyd Rose
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The Floyd Rose Locking Tremolo, or simply Floyd Rose, is a type of locking vibrato arm for a guitar. Floyd D. Rose invented the locking vibrato in 1977, the first of its kind, Floyd D. Rose first started working on what became the Floyd Rose Tremolo in 1976. He was playing in a band at the time, inspired by Jimi Hendrix. At the time, Rose made and sold jewelry, and so had the skills and tools to fabricate small metal parts. After noticing that one issue with regular nut design is that the string moves freely and he installed this nut in his 1957 Fender Stratocaster. Later he improved this design by using hardened steel—otherwise the strings wore the clamps down too quickly—and redesigned the bridge, Rose hand-made the first bridges and nuts, which were quickly picked up by some influential guitarists at the time, such as Eddie Van Halen. Other well-known guitarists who picked it up early were Neal Schon, who purportedly got serial number 3, Brad Gillis, and Steve Vai. The first patent was awarded in 1979, and shortly afterward, Kramers guitar models with the Floyd Rose bridge became very popular, leading them to drop the earlier Rockinger vibrato in favor of the Floyd Rose between June 1982 and January 1983. The Floyd Rose designs popularity led to companies making similar bridges. Notably, courts found that Gary Kahlers vibrato bridge infringed on Floyd Roses patents, Floyd Rose and Kramer went on to make licensing agreements with other manufacturers, and there are now several different models available based on the double-locking design. In January 1991, Kramers exclusive distribution agreement with Rose ended when Fender announced they would be the new exclusive distributor of Floyd Rose products. Floyd Rose collaborated with Fender to design a Fender Deluxe Locking Tremolo, introduced in 1991 on the Strat Plus Deluxe, the USA Contemporary Stratocaster, Fender used the Floyd Rose-designed locking vibrato system on certain humbucker-equipped American Deluxe and Showmaster models until 2007. In 2005, distribution of the Floyd Rose Original reverted to Floyd Rose, position I illustrates the normal position of an ideally tuned Floyd Rose bridge. The bridge balances on a point, being pulled counter-clockwise by the strings tension. Controlled by special tuning screws, these two forces are balanced such that the surface is parallel to the guitar body. The strings are locked tightly with a mechanism at the nut as well as at the bridge. Position II illustrates the position of the bridge when the arm is pushed down towards the guitar body. The bridge rotates around a pivot point counter-clockwise and the tension in each string decreases, the sound of any notes being played becomes flat
21.
Steinberger
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Steinberger is a series of distinctive electric guitars and bass guitars, designed and originally manufactured by Ned Steinberger. The name Steinberger can be used to refer to either the instruments themselves or the company originally produced them. Although the name has applied to a variety of instruments, it is primarily associated with a minimalist headless design of electric basses. The best-known Steinberger design is the L-series instrument, sometimes described as shaped like a broom, boat oar, the headstock was eliminated, the tuning hardware instead installed on a tailpiece mounted to the face of the guitar body. The tuners utilized a finer than normal 18,1 gear ratio, with 40 threads per inch, depending on the tailpiece, calibrated or uncalibrated double-ball end strings were used, the former required to use the transposing feature of the TransTrem vibrato unit. The rationale for the design was the elimination of unnecessary weight, especially the unbalanced headstock. The all-synthetic construction gave a smooth sound and feel, immediate note attack. Depending upon the preferences of the listener, this was either a good thing, as it made the instrument sonically clean, or a bad thing, as it made the instrument sound synthetic and unnatural. Steinberger was and still is proud of this dichotomy and one of their slogans was We dont make em like they used to, the TransTrem provided the functionality of a capo in addition to vibrato effects. Bass and guitar versions were available, later designs included, P-series guitars and basses featured a smaller wooden body with bolt-on composite neck. The body was shaped more like an arrow or mini-A than the rectangular L series body, s-series which featured the only Steinberger with a headstock. Very rare with about 300-350 built, the guitar featured Ned Steinbergers 40,1 gearless tuners. M-series guitars and basses, designed by English luthier Roger Giffin and these had a twin-cutaway wooden body and a bolt-on graphite neck, resulting in a more traditional look, yet still with the headless tuning system and optional TransTrem. K-series guitars designed by American luthier Steve Klein and these featured an ergonomically designed body of non-standard shape again married to a headless graphite neck. A similar version is made by luthier Lorenzo German, an employee of Klein who currently owns and runs Klein Electric Guitars. Q-series basses featured twin cutaway bodies and a bolt-on graphite neck, the body style was more modern than the M series. Introduced in 1990 the body underwent a significant revision in the mid 90s, Synapse guitars and basses are the latest instruments manufactured by Gibson under the Steinberger name, and are in current production. As well as a guitar model, the Synapse line also includes baritone guitars with a built-in Transcale capo that can be rolled up the frets
22.
Hohner
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KG is a German company specialising in the manufacture of musical instruments. Founded in 1857 by Matthias Hohner, Hohner is identified especially with harmonicas, the Hohner company has invented and produced many different styles, and most of the harmonicas used by professionals. The company also makes kazoos, recorder flutes, melodicas, banjos, guitars, bass guitars, accordions, from the 1940s through 1990s, the company also manufactured various electric/electronic keyboards. Especially in the 1960s and 1990s, they manufactured a range of innovative and popular electromechanical keyboard instruments, the Cembalet, Pianet, Basset, Guitaret, and Clavinet. In the 1980s, several Casio synths were sold under the Hohner brand - for example, the Casio HT-3000/Hohner KS61midi, the roots of the Hohner firm are in Trossingen, Baden-Württemberg. Matthias Hohner, who was originally a clockmaker, started making harmonicas in 1857 with his wife,650 were made in the first year. Hohner harmonicas quickly became popular, and during Matthias lifetime he built the largest harmonica factory in the world, during the American Civil War Matthias Hohner gave harmonicas to family members in the United States who in turn gave them to the fighting soldiers. In the 1920s, Hohner began manufacturing chromatic harmonicas that can be played in any key, famous harmonicist Borrah Minevitch claimed he sold his design for the chromatic harmonica to Hohner. In the mid-1950s Hohner began producing electric guitars, in the 1970s Hohner began manufacturing acoustic guitars, and re-producing electric guitars. Matthias Karl Hohner, son of Dipl. -Ing and his son Matthias Francisco Hohner belonged to the first generation of direct descedents who did not enter into the family business. Many direct descedents of the founder are still active as members of the Deutsches Harmonika Museum, the Marine Band is the base model of the line. Technically named the Marine Band 1896/20 for the year it was introduced and it also has some tuning variations like the 1896N and the 1896H. The Marine Band has been Hohners most popular model of harmonica for generations, made in Germany on a wood comb, most blues and rock artists play a Marine Band. Several noted users are Bob Dylan, John Lennon, Bruce Springsteen, Little Walter, there are various subdivisions of the Marine Band. The Special 20 was introduced in the mid 1970s and it has the same reeds as a Marine Band, but it has a plastic comb instead of a wooden comb, and rounded edges. It was the first Hohner harmonica to have a comb, which not only made the instrument more airtight. Made in Germany, this quickly became the preferred choice of many rock. Now, most harmonicas being manufactured from all companies are based upon the Special 20 and its most noted user is John Popper, who appears on the blister
23.
Washburn Guitars
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Washburn Guitars is an American manufacturer and importer of guitars, mandolins, and other string instruments. The original company was established in 1883 in Chicago, Illinois, the modern Washburn is a division of US Music Corp. in turn now owned by JAM Industries USA. Lyon & Healy began in 1864 as a partnership of businessman George W. Lyon and Patrick J. Healy, acting as the Chicago, Illinois, outlet for Boston sheet music publisher Oliver Ditson, by 1865, the company had expanded into reed organs and some small instruments. Lyon & Healy achieved independence by 1880, and around 1888 the company launched fully into fretted and plucked instruments under the Washburn brand, tracing the history of any particular instrument of this period presents many obstacles. As well, they built instruments for other retailers and distributors under various house brands, in 1912, Washburn introduced the Lakeside Jumbo guitar, which some condider the first dreadnought-sized guitar. It bridged the gap between smaller-bodied parlor guitars of the late 19th and early 20th century and modern-day dreadnought and jumbo acoustic guitars, George Lyon retired from the company in 1889. Patrick Healy then led the company into a period of expansion, beginning with a larger new factory and improved mass-production techniques. Their 1892 catalog claimed to manufacture 100,000 instruments annually, by the 1920s, Lyon & Healy faced growing competition from other instrument manufacturers as well as from the rise of other forms of entertainment, particularly film and the gramophone. Tonk Brothers turned to manufacturer J. R. Stewart Company to purchase and operate the massive factory, some of the Stewart assets were acquired by the Regal Musical Instrument Company, which had purchased the Regal brand name in 1908 from Lyon & Healy. Regal was chosen to reopen the Washburn factory, though the Washburn brand was preserved, it never regained its preeminence, and by the early 1940s had declined to nothing. There is no connection between the original Washburn brand and the modern Washburn International. In the early 1960s, retail store the Chicago Guitar Gallery hired Rudolf Rudy Schlacher, a few years later, Schlacher opened The Sound Post to focus on guitars. He soon realized the potential for lower-cost quality instruments. Tom Beckmen and his wife Judy Fink Beckmen in 1972 left careers as music salesman and teacher to launch a music business in Los Angeles. With assistance from Ikutaro Kakehashi, Schlacher was able to find instrument factories in Japan that could meet the desired standards, fretted Industries acquired other lines as well, such as Oscar Schmidt autoharps. Schlacher bought out Johnstone in 1987, and changed the name to Washburn International. A stateside manufacturing operation was opened in 1991 for higher-end, short-run and that year, a Chicago Tribune article confidently places Washburn among the top three guitar manufacturers in the world, behind only Fender and Gibson. On December 15,2002, Washburn International announced that it had completed acquisition of U. S, Music Corporation, and would be rolling its assets into that company in a reverse merger
24.
Gear train
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A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
25.
Backlash (engineering)
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In mechanical engineering, backlash, sometimes called lash or play, is a clearance or lost motion in a mechanism caused by gaps between the parts. 1-8 and is a form of deadband. An example, in the context of gears and gear trains, is the amount of clearance between mated gear teeth and it can be seen when the direction of movement is reversed and the slack or lost motion is taken up before the reversal of motion is complete. Another example is in a train with mechanical tappets, where a certain range of lash is necessary for the valves to work properly. Depending on the application, backlash may or may not be desirable and it is unavoidable for nearly all reversing mechanical couplings, although its effects can be negated or compensated for. In many applications, the ideal would be zero backlash. Reasons for the presence of backlash include allowing for lubrication, manufacturing errors, deflection under load, factors affecting the amount backlash required in a gear train include errors in profile, pitch, tooth thickness, helix angle and center distance, and run-out. The greater the accuracy the smaller the backlash needed, backlash is most commonly created by cutting the teeth deeper into the gears than the ideal depth. Another way of introducing backlash is by increasing the distances between the gears. However, if the pinion is significantly smaller than the gear it is meshing with then it is practice to account for all of the backlash in the larger gear. This maintains as much strength as possible in the pinions teeth, the amount of additional material removed when making the gears depends on the pressure angle of the teeth. For a 14. 5° pressure angle the distance the cutting tool is moved in equals the amount of backlash desired. For a 20° pressure angle the distance equals 0.73 times the amount of backlash desired. As a rule of thumb the average backlash is defined as 0.04 divided by the pitch, the minimum being 0.03 divided by the diametral pitch. In a gear train, backlash is cumulative, when a gear-train is reversed the driving gear is turned a short distance, equal to the total of all the backlashes, before the final driven gear begins to rotate. In certain applications, backlash is a characteristic and should be minimized. The best example here is a radio tuning dial where one may make precise tuning movements both forwards and backwards. One of the more common designs splits the gear into two gears, each half the thickness of the original, loads smaller than the force of the springs do not compress the springs and with no gaps between the teeth to be taken up, backlash is eliminated
26.
Gear
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A gear or cogwheel is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed part to transmit torque. Geared devices can change the speed, torque, and direction of a power source, Gears almost always produce a change in torque, creating a mechanical advantage, through their gear ratio, and thus may be considered a simple machine. The teeth on the two meshing gears all have the same shape, two or more meshing gears, working in a sequence, are called a gear train or a transmission. A gear can mesh with a linear toothed part, called a rack, the gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a crossed, belt pulley system. An advantage of gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slippage, in transmissions with multiple gear ratios—such as bicycles, motorcycles, and cars—the term gear as in first gear refers to a gear ratio rather than an actual physical gear. The term describes similar devices, even when the ratio is continuous rather than discrete, or when the device does not actually contain gears. Early examples of gears date from the 4th century BC in China, examples of further development include, Ma Jun used gears as part of a south-pointing chariot. The Antikythera mechanism is an example of an early and intricate geared device. Its time of construction is now estimated between 150 and 100 BC, the water-powered grain-mill, the water-powered saw mill, fulling mill, and other applications of watermill often used gears. The first mechanical clocks were built in AD725, the 1386 Salisbury cathedral clock may be the worlds oldest working mechanical clock. The definite ratio that teeth give gears provides an advantage over other drives in precision machines such as watches that depend upon an exact velocity ratio, an external gear is one with the teeth formed on the outer surface of a cylinder or cone. Conversely, a gear is one with the teeth formed on the inner surface of a cylinder or cone. For bevel gears, a gear is one with the pitch angle exceeding 90 degrees. Internal gears do not cause output shaft direction reversal, spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or disk with teeth projecting radially, though the teeth are not straight-sided, the edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears mesh together correctly only if fitted to parallel shafts, No axial thrust is created by the tooth loads. Spur gears are excellent at moderate speeds but tend to be noisy at high speeds, helical or dry fixed gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, since the gear is curved, this angling makes the tooth shape a segment of a helix
27.
Cittern
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The cittern or cithren is a stringed instrument dating from the Renaissance. Modern scholars debate its exact history, but it is accepted that it is descended from the Medieval citole. It looks much like the modern-day flat-back mandolin and the modern Irish bouzouki and its flat-back design was simpler and cheaper to construct than the lute. It was also easier to play, smaller, less delicate, played by all classes, the cittern was a premier instrument of casual music-making much as is the guitar today. The cittern is one of the few metal-strung instruments known from the Renaissance period and it generally has four courses of strings, one or more course being usually tuned in octaves, though instruments with more or fewer courses were made. The tuning and narrow range allow the player a number of chord shapes useful for both simple song accompaniment and dances, however much more complex music was written for it. Its bright and cheerful timbre make it a valuable counterpoint to gut-strung instruments, the Spanish bandurria, still used today, is a similar instrument. DUMAIN, The head of a bodkin, BIRON, A Deaths face in a ring. The leading 18th century Swedish songwriter Carl Michael Bellman played mostly on the cittern, in Germany the cittern survives under the names Waldzither and Lutherzither. The last name comes from the belief that Martin Luther played this instrument, also, the names Thüringer Waldzither in Thüringer Wald, Harzzither in the Harz mountains, Halszither in German-speaking Switzerland are used. There is a tendency in modern German to interchange the words for cittern, the term waldzither came into use around 1900, to distinguish citterns from zithers. The cittern family survives as the Corsican cetara and the Portuguese guitar, the guitarra portuguesa is typically used to play the popular traditional music known as fado. Chitarra Italiana Cithara Italica English guitar Stringed instrument tunings Gregory Doc Rossi Martina Rosenberger Musics Delight on the Cithren, John Playford. Renovata Cythara, The Renaissance Cittern Pages Stefan Sobell website G.1550 at the National Music Museum Decorated Cittern by Joachim Tielke, Hamburg, ca.1685 at The Metropolitan Museum of Art
28.
Johann Georg Stauffer
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This page is mainly based on a translation of the German Wikipedia article, located here. Johann Georg Stauffer was an Austrian luthier and the most important Viennese luthier of his time, Stauffer was born in the Viennese suburb of Weißgerber, the son of Mathias Stauffer, a labourer from Weyregg am Attersee. He studied under the luthier Franz Geissenhof, in June 1800 he took the Vienna oath of citizenship and in May 1802 he married Josepha Fischer in the Schottenkirche, Vienna. He took over the workshop of Ignaz Christian Bartl, initially he built instruments modeled after the Italian guitar masters Giovanni Battista Fabricatore and Gaetano Vinaccia, he then developed several variants, typical of his own guitar style. In 1813/14, he applied for the vacant position of Court Luthier, from 1830-1836 Stauffer was also active as a music publisher. He devoted more time to his inventions, which is probably the reason for the beginning of his serious financial problems, in 1829 he made representations to the City Council for an advance of 1,000 guilders. In 1831/32 his financial troubles continued and he was arrested for debt. He then worked temporarily in the workshop of his son Johann Anton Stauffer, the last period of his life Stauffer spent in Viennas St. Marx citizens care home, where he could continue to work in a small workshop on his ideas for the guitar and other instruments. In 1853 he finally died impoverished, of paralysis of the lungs, Johann Georg Stauffer had three sons, the pianist Franz Stauffer. The luthier and pianist Johann Anton Stauffer, who took over his fathers workshop in 1833, alois Stauffer The Viennese guitar as built by Johann Georg Stauffer is a gut string guitar with a curved back, narrower waist and bridge pins. By 1825/30, the instruments usually had a headstock in a figure eight shape and this Stauffer headstock and design was reproduced by his son Anton, and copied by many luthiers in the 19th century. The asymmetrical headstock is variously referred to as being shaped like a scroll, a snail, as of 2014 such Stauffer style machine heads are still made by the UK company Rodgers Tuning Machines. The Stauffer-style scroll headstock and tuning machines have been in use since the 19th century, in 1823 J. G. Stauffer built his Arpeggione, an instrument with characteristics of the guitar and the cello. Composer Franz Schubert, who also had a Stauffer guitar, wrote a sonata for the Arpeggione, Stauffer also built Terz guitars, the Contraguitar, and experimented with new forms of violin. The luthier Peter Teufelsdorfer, based in the Hungarian city of Pest was for some time in dispute with Stauffer over some of his inventions, which Teufelsdorfer said he had developed himself. The founder of Martin Guitars, Christian Frederick Martin, born in 1796 in Markneukirchen, Germany, first studied with his father, Johann Georg Martin, Markneukirchen was a centre for instrument making. At 15 years of age he went to Vienna to allegedly complete an apprenticeship with Stauffer, in 1825, Martin married Ottilie Kühle, the daughter the Viennese harp maker Karl Kühle. His relationship apparently cooled with Stauffer, and Martin returned to work in his fathers workshop, Martin remained in Vienna until at least 1827, after which he returned to his hometown and opened his own shop
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Christian Frederick Martin
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Christian Frederick Martin, Sr. was a German-born American luthier who specialized in guitars. He made the first guitar in the United States in the 1830s, born in Markneukirchen, Germany to a family of cabinet makers, Martin became an apprentice of the guitar maker Johann Georg Stauffer of Vienna, Austria. Martin also became a foreman at Stauffers workshop, Martin was the second of five children and was more commonly known as Friedrich, given the German custom of using the second given name. In Martins case, four of the childrens first given names are a derivation of Christian, as a result of a dispute between the Cabinet Makers Guild, of which Martin was a member, and the Violin Makers Guild, Martin moved to the United States in 1833. The move occurred less than a year after his father Johann Georg Martin died, on arriving in New York City, he set up shop at 196 Hudson Street on the Lower West Side. Martin’s first workshop housed a small production setup in the room. This shop was the forerunner of C. F. Martin & Company, Martins guitar construction and design innovations produced a model of flattop guitar that is still in use today. C. F. Martin & Company Acoustic guitar BBC, How Martin guitars became an American Stradivarius,21 November 2013 Michael Lorenz, Stauffer Miscellanea, Vienna 2014
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C. F. Martin & Company
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Martin & Company is an American guitar manufacturer established in 1833 by Christian Frederick Martin. Martin is highly regarded for its guitars and is a leading manufacturer of flat top guitars. Martin instruments can sell for thousands of dollars, and vintage instruments occasionally command six-figure prices, the company has also made mandolins as well as several models of electric guitars and electric basses, although none of these other instruments are currently in production. The companys headquarters and primary factory are situated in Nazareth, Pennsylvania, the building includes the Martin Guitar Museum, which features over 170 guitars made by the company over its history. Visitors can see pictures of famous guitar owners, try out some guitars, Martin also manufactures instruments in Navojoa, Mexico. Martin produced 182 instruments during 1901, increasing to 56,422 in 2000, the company has been run by the Martin family throughout its history. The current chairman and CEO, C. F, Chris Martin IV, is the great-great-great-grandson of the founder. The firm was the first to many of the characteristic features of the modern flat top. Influential Martin innovations include the Dreadnought body style and scalloped bracing, C. F. Martin was born in 1796 in Markneukirchen, Germany, and came from a long line of cabinet makers and woodworkers. His father, Johann Georg Martin, also built guitars, by the age of 15, according to the book Martin Guitars, A History by Mike Longworth, C. F. Martin apprenticed to Johann Georg Stauffer, a well-known guitar maker in Vienna, Austria. Martin returned to his hometown after completing training and opened his own guitar-making shop, however, he soon became embroiled in a controversy between two guilds. In the early 1800s, European craftsmen still operated under the guild system, the guitar was a relatively new instrument, and most guitar makers were members of the Cabinet Makers Guild. However, the Violin Makers Guild claimed exclusive rights to manufacture musical instruments, the Violin Makers Guild filed appeals on three occasions—the first in 1806—to prevent cabinet makers from producing guitars. Johann Martin is mentioned in a surviving submission dated 1832, although the cabinet makers successfully defended their right to build guitars, C. F. Martin believed that the guild system was too restrictive and moved to New York City in 1833. By 1838, he moved his business to Nazareth, Pennsylvania, the Martin company is generally credited with developing the X-bracing system during the 1850s although C. F. Martin did not apply for a patent on the new bracing system. The Martin company was the first to use X-bracing on a large scale, from the 1860s on, fan bracing became standard in Europe. Martin and other American builders including Washburn and others since forgotten used X-bracing instead, the growing popularity of the guitar in the early 1900s led to a demand for louder and more percussive guitars. In response, many began to use metal strings instead of the traditional catgut
