Mackerel

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For other uses, see Mackerel (disambiguation).

Mackerel
Some species of mackerel migrate in schools for long distances along the coast and other species cross oceans
Global commercial capture of mackerel in million tonnes
as reported by the FAO 1950–2009[1]

Mackerel is a common name applied to a number of different species of pelagic fish, mostly, but not exclusively, from the family Scombridae. They are found in both temperate and tropical seas, mostly living along the coast or offshore in the oceanic environment.

Mackerel typically have vertical stripes on their backs and deeply forked tails. Many species are restricted in their distribution ranges, and live in separate populations or fish stocks based on geography. Some stocks migrate in large schools along the coast to suitable spawning grounds, where they spawn in fairly shallow waters. After spawning they return the way they came, in smaller schools, to suitable feeding grounds often near an area of upwelling. From there they may move offshore into deeper waters and spend the winter in relative inactivity. Other stocks migrate across oceans.

Smaller mackerel are forage fish for larger predators, including larger mackerel and Atlantic cod.[2] Flocks of seabirds, as well as whales, dolphins, sharks and schools of larger fish such as tuna and marlin follow mackerel schools and attack them in sophisticated and cooperative ways. Mackerel is high in omega-3 oils and is intensively harvested by humans. In 2009, over five million tons were landed by commercial fishermen[1] (see graph on the right). Sport fishermen value the fighting abilities of the king mackerel.[3]

Species[edit]

Over 30 different species, principally belonging to the family Scombridae, are commonly referred to as mackerel. The term "mackerel" means "marked" or "spotted", and derives from the Old French maquerel, around 1300, meaning a pimp or procurer. The connection is not altogether clear, but mackerel spawn enthusiastically in shoals near the coast, and medieval ideas on animal procreation were creative.[4]

Scombroid mackerels[edit]

About 21 species in the family Scombridae are commonly called mackerel. The type species for the scombroid mackerel is the Atlantic mackerel, Scomber scombrus. Until recently, Atlantic chub mackerel and Indo-Pacific chub mackerel were thought to be subspecies of the same species. In 1999, Collette established, on molecular and morphological considerations, that these are separate species.[5] Mackerel are smaller with shorter lifecycles than their close relatives, the tuna, which are also members of the same family.[6][7]

This article is part of a series on
Commercial fish
Blue walleye.jpg
Large pelagic
Forage
Demersal
Mixed

Scombrini, the true mackerels[edit]

The true mackerels belong to the tribe Scombrini.[8] The tribe consists of seven species, each belonging to one of two genera: Scomber and Rastrelliger.[9][10]

True Mackerels (tribe Scombrini)
Common name Scientific name Maximum
length 		Common
length 		Maximum
weight 		Maximum
age 		Trophic
level 		FishBase FAO IUCN status
Short mackerel Rastrelliger brachysoma
(Bleeker, 1851) 		34.5 cm 20 cm kg years 2.72 [11] [12] DD IUCN 3 1.svg Data deficient[13]
Island mackerel R. faughni
(Matsui, 1967) 		20 cm cm 0.75 kg years 3.4 [14] DD IUCN 3 1.svg Data deficient[15]
Indian mackerel R. kanagurta
(Cuvier, 1816) 		35 cm 25 cm kg 4 years 3.19 [16] [17] DD IUCN 3 1.svg Data deficient[18]
Blue mackerel Scomber australasicus
(Cuvier, 1832) 		44 cm 30 cm 1.36 kg years 4.2 [19] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[20]
Atlantic chub mackerel S. colias
(Gmelin, 1789) 		cm cm kg years 3.91 [21] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[22]
Chub mackerel S. japonicus
(Houttuyn, 1782) 		64 cm 30 cm 2.9 kg 18 years 3.09 [23] [24] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[25]
Atlantic mackerel S. scombrus
(Linnaeus, 1758) 		66 cm cm kg 12 years west
18 years east 		3.65 [26] [27] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[5]

Scomberomorini, the Spanish mackerels[edit]

The Spanish mackerels belong to the tribe Scomberomorini, which is the "sister tribe" of the true mackerels.[28] This tribe consists of 21 species in all—18 of those are classified into the genus Scomberomorus,[29] two into Grammatorcynus,[30] and a single species into the monotypic genus Acanthocybium.[31]

Spanish Mackerels (tribe Scomberomorini)
Common name Scientific name Maximum
length 		Common
length 		Maximum
weight 		Maximum
age 		Trophic
level 		FishBase FAO IUCN status
Wahoo Acanthocybium solandri
(Cuvier in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1832) 		250 cm 170 cm 83 kg years 4.4 [32] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[33]
Shark mackerel Grammatorcynus bicarinatus
(Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) 		112 cm cm 13.5 kg years 4.5 [34] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[35]
Double-lined mackerel G. bilineatus
(Rüppell, 1836) 		100 cm 50 cm 3.5 kg years 4.18 [36] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[37]
Serra Spanish mackerel Scomberomorus brasiliensis
(Collette, Russo & Zavala-Camin, 1978) 		cm cm kg years 3.31 [38] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[39]
King mackerel S. cavalla
(Cuvier, 1829) 		184 cm 70 cm 45 kg 14 years 4.5 [40] [41] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[42]
Narrow-barred Spanish mackerel S. commerson
(Lacepède, 1800) 		240 cm 120 cm kg years 4.5 [43] [44] NT IUCN 3 1.svg Near threatened[45]
Monterey Spanish mackerel S. concolor
(Lockington, 1879) 		cm cm kg years 4.24 [46] VU IUCN 3 1.svg Vulnerable[47]
Indo-Pacific king mackerel S. guttatus
(Bloch & Schneider, 1801) 		76 cm 55 cm kg years 4.28 [48] [49] DD IUCN 3 1.svg Data deficient[50]
Korean mackerel S. koreanus
(Kishinouye, 1915) 		150 cm 60 cm 15 kg years 4.2 [51] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[52]
Streaked Spanish mackerel S. lineolatus
(Cuvier, 1829) 		80 cm 70 cm kg years 4.5 [53] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[54]
Atlantic Spanish mackerel S. maculatus
(Mitchill, 1815) 		91 cm cm 5.89 kg 5 years 4.5 [55] [56] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[57]
Papuan Spanish mackerel S. multiradiatus
Munro, 1964 		35 cm cm 0.5 kg years 4.0 [58] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[59]
Australian spotted mackerel S. munroi
(Collette & Russo, 1980) 		104 cm cm 10.2 kg years 4.3 [60] NT IUCN 3 1.svg Near threatened[61]
Japanese Spanish mackerel S. niphonius
(Cuvier, 1832) 		100 cm cm 7.1 kg years 4.5 [62] [63] DD IUCN 3 1.svg Data deficient[64]
Queen mackerel S. plurilineatus
Fourmanoir, 1966 		120 cm  cm 12.5 kg years 4.2 [65] DD IUCN 3 1.svg Data deficient[66]
Queensland school mackerel S. queenslandicus
(Munro, 1943) 		100 cm 80 cm 12.2 kg years 4.5 [67] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[68]
Cero mackerel S. regalis
(Bloch, 1793) 		183 cm  cm 7.8 kg years 4.5 [69] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[70]
Broadbarred king mackerel S. semifasciatus
(Macleay, 1883) 		120 cm cm kg 10 years 4.5 [71] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[72]
Pacific sierra S. sierra
(Cuvier, 1832) 		99 cm 60 cm 8.2 kg years 4.5 [73] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[74]
Chinese mackerel S. sinensis
(Cuvier, 1832) 		247 cm 100 cm kg years 4.5 [75] DD IUCN 3 1.svg Data deficient[76]
West African Spanish mackerel S. tritor
(Cuvier, 1832) 		cm cm kg years 4.26 [77] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[78]

Other mackerel[edit]

In addition, a number of species with mackerel-like characteristics in the families Carangidae, Hexagrammidae and Gempylidae are commonly referred to as mackerel. There has been some confusion between the Pacific jack mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus) and the heavily harvested Chilean jack mackerel (Trachurus murphyi). These have been thought at times to be the same species, but are now recognised as separate species.[79]

Other mackerel species
Family Common name Scientific name Maximum
length 		Common
length 		Maximum
weight 		Maximum
age 		Trophic
level 		FishBase FAO IUCN status
Scombridae
Gasterochisma 		Butterfly mackerel Gasterochisma melampus Richardson, 1845 175 cm 153 cm  kg years 4.4 [80] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[81]
Carangidae
Jack mackerel 		Atlantic horse mackerel Trachurus trachurus (Linnaeus, 1758) 70 cm 22 cm 2.0 kg years 3.64 [82] [83] Not assessed
Blue jack mackerel T. picturatus (Bowdich, 1825) 60 cm 25 cm kg years 3.32 [84] DD IUCN 3 1.svg Data deficient[85]
Cape horse mackerel T. capensis (Castelnau, 1861) 60 cm 30 cm kg years 3.47 [86] [87] Not assessed[88]
Chilean jack mackerel T. murphyi (Nichols, 1920) 70 cm 45 cm kg 16 years 3.49 [89] [90] DD IUCN 3 1.svg Data deficient[91]
Cunene horse mackerel T. trecae (Cadenat, 1950) 35 cm cm 2.0 kg years 3.49 [92] [93] Not assessed
Greenback horse mackerel T. declivis (Jenyns, 1841) 64 cm 42 cm kg 25 years 3.93 [94] [95] Not assessed[96]
Japanese horse mackerel T. japonicus (Temminck & Schlegel, 1844) 50 cm 35 cm 0.66 kg 12 years 3.4 [97] [98] Not assessed
Mediterranean horse mackerel T. mediterraneus (Steindachner, 1868) 60 cm 30 cm kg years 3.59 [99] [100] Not assessed
Pacific jack mackerel T. symmetricus (Ayres, 1855) 81 cm 55 cm kg 30 years 3.56 [101] LC IUCN 3 1.svg Least concern[102]
Yellowtail horse mackerel T. novaezelandiae (Richardson, 1843) 50 cm 35 cm kg 25 years 4.5 [103] Not assessed
Gempylidae
Snake mackerel 		Black snake mackerel Nealotus tripes (Johnson, 1865) 25 cm 15 cm kg years 4.2 [104] Not assessed
Blacksail snake mackerel Thyrsitoides marleyi (Fowler, 1929) 200 cm 100 cm kg years 4.19 [105] Not assessed
Snake mackerel Gempylus serpens (Cuvier, 1829) 100 cm 60 cm kg years 4.35 [106] Not assessed
Violet snake mackerel Nesiarchus nasutus (Johnson, 1862) 130 cm 80 cm kg years 4.33 [107] Not assessed
* White snake mackerel Thyrsitops lepidopoides (Cuvier, 1832) 40 cm 25 cm kg years 3.86 [108] Not assessed
Hexagrammidae Okhotsk atka mackerel Pleurogrammus azonus (Jordan & Metz, 1913) 62 cm cm 1.6 kg 12 years 3.58 [109] [110] Not assessed
Atka mackerel P. monopterygius (Pallas, 1810) 56.5 cm cm 2.0 kg 14 years 3.33 [111] Not assessed
Still life with mackerel, lemon and tomato, Van Gogh, 1886

The term mackerel is also used as a modifier in the common names of other fish, sometimes indicating the fish has vertical stripes similar to a scombroid mackerel:

By extension, the term is applied also to other species such as the mackerel tabby cat,[112] and to inanimate objects such as the altocumulus mackerel sky cloud formation.[113]

Characteristics[edit]

Like other scombroids, mackerel such as this Atlantic mackerel are superb swimmers, and can retract their fins into grooves on their bodies for streamlining. They have deeply forked tails and are smaller and slimmer than tuna.[114][115]

Most mackerel belong to the family Scombridae, which also includes tuna and bonito. Generally mackerel are much smaller and slimmer than tuna, though in other respects they share many common characteristics. Their scales, if present at all, are extremely small. Like tuna and bonito, mackerel are voracious feeders, and are swift and manoeuvrable swimmers, able to streamline themselves by retracting their fins into grooves on their body. Like other scombroids, their bodies are cylindrical with numerous finlets on the dorsal and ventral sides behind the dorsal and anal fins, but unlike the deep-bodied tuna, they are slim.[114]

The type species for scombroid mackerels is the Atlantic mackerel, Scomber scombrus. These fish are iridescent blue-green above with a silvery underbelly and twenty to thirty near vertical wavy black stripes running across their upper body.[26][116]

It might seem that the prominent stripes on the back of mackerels are there to provide camouflage against broken backgrounds. That is not the case, because mackerel live in midwater pelagic environments which have no background.[117] However, fish have an optokinetic reflex in their visual systems which can be sensitive to moving stripes.[118] In order for fish to school efficiently, they need feedback mechanisms that help them align themselves with adjacent fish, and match their speed. The stripes on neighbouring fish provide "schooling marks" which signal changes in relative position.[117][119]

Mackerel, such as these Pacific jack mackerel, usually have vertical stripes on their sides which provide "schooling marks", visual clues that help them stay in formation as they school.[117]

There is a layer of thin reflecting platelets on some of the mackerel stripes. In 1998, E J Denton and D M Rowe argued that these platelets transmit additional information to other fish about how a given fish moves. As the orientation of the fish changes relative to another fish, the amount of light reflected to the second fish by this layer also changes. This sensitivity to orientation gives the mackerel "considerable advantages in being able to react quickly while schooling and feeding."[120]

Mackerel range in size from small forage fish to larger game fish. Coastal mackerel tend to be small.[121] The king mackerel is an example of a larger mackerel. Most fish are cold-blooded, but there are exceptions. Certain species of fish maintain elevated body temperatures. Endothermic bony fishes are all in the suborder Scombroidei and include the butterfly mackerel, a species of primitive mackerel.[122]

Mackerel are strong swimmers. Atlantic mackerel can swim at a sustained speed of 0.98 metres/sec with a burst speed of 5.5 m/s,[123][124] while chub mackerel can swim at a sustained speed of 0.92 m/s with a burst speed of 2.25 m/s.[114]

Distribution[edit]

King mackerels cruise on long migrations at 10 kilometres per hour.[125][126]

Most mackerel species have restricted distribution ranges.[114]

  • Atlantic Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus) occupy the waters off the east coast of North America from the Cape Cod area south to the Yucatan Peninsula. Its population is considered to include two fish stocks, defined by geography. As summer approaches, one stock moves in large schools north from Florida up the coast to spawn in shallow waters off the New England coast. It then returns to winter in deeper waters off Florida. The other stock migrates in large schools along the coast from Mexico to spawn in shallow waters of the Gulf of Mexico off Texas. It then returns to winter in deeper waters off the Mexican coast.[56] These stocks are managed separately, even though genetically they are identical.[57]
  • The Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) is a coastal species found only in the north Atlantic. The stock on the west side of the Atlantic is largely independent of the stock on the east side. The stock on the east Atlantic currently operates as three separate stocks, the southern, western and North Sea stocks, each with their own migration patterns. Some mixing of the east Atlantic stocks takes place in feeding grounds towards the north, but there is almost no mixing between the east and west Atlantic stocks.[5][127][128][129][130]
  • Another common coastal species, the chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus), is absent from the Atlantic Ocean but is widespread across both hemispheres in the Pacific, where its migration patterns are somewhat similar to those of Atlantic mackerel. In the northern hemisphere, chub mackerel migrate northwards in the summer to feeding grounds, and southwards in the winter when they spawn in relatively shallow waters. In the southern hemisphere the migrations are reversed. After spawning, some stocks migrate down the continental slope to deeper water and spend the rest of the winter in relative inactivity.[23]
  • The Chilean jack mackerel (Trachurus murphyi), the most intensively harvested mackerel-like species, is found in the south Pacific from West Australia to the coasts of Chile and Peru.[89] A sister species, the Pacific jack mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus), is found in the north Pacific. The Chilean jack mackerel occurs along the coasts in upwelling areas, but also migrates across the open ocean. Its abundance can fluctuate markedly as ocean conditions change,[91] and is particularly affected by the El Niño.

Three species of jack mackerels are found in coastal waters around New Zealand: the Australasian, Chilean and Pacific jack mackerels. They are mainly captured using purse seine nets, and are managed as a single stock that includes multiple species.[131]

Some mackerel species migrate vertically. Adult snake mackerels conduct a diel vertical migration, staying in deeper water during the day and rising to the surface at night to feed. The young and juveniles also migrate vertically but in the opposite direction, staying near the surface during the day and moving deeper at night.[132] This species feeds on squid, pelagic crustaceans, lanternfishes, flying fishes, sauries and other mackerel.[133] It is in turn preyed upon by tuna and marlin.[134]

Life cycle[edit]

Gannets and other seabirds fuel themselves with mackerel

Mackerel are prolific broadcast spawners and must breed near the surface of the water due to the eggs of the females floating. Individual females lay between 300,000 and 1,500,000 eggs.[114] Their eggs and larvae are pelagic, that is, they float free in the open sea. The larvae and juvenile mackerel feed on zooplankton. As adults they have sharp teeth, and hunt small crustaceans such as copepods, as well as forage fish, shrimp and squid. In turn they are hunted by larger pelagic animals such as tuna, billfish, sea lions, sharks and pelicans.[24][41][135]

Off Madagascar, spinner sharks follow migrating schools of mackerel.[136] Bryde's whales feed on mackerel when they can find them. They use several feeding methods, including skimming the surface, lunging, and bubble nets.[137]

Fisheries[edit]

Global capture of mackerel in tonnes reported by the FAO 1950–2009
↑  Scombroid mackerels[1]
↑  Non-scombroid mackerels[1]
Main commercial species
The chub mackerel is the most intensively fished mackerel in the scombroid family
Chilean jack mackerel have been overfished and may be in danger of collapsing. Here an entire school of about 400 tons is encircled by a purse seiner.

Chub mackerel, Scomber japonicus, are the most intensively fished scombroid mackerel. As can be seen from the graph on the right, they account for about half the total capture production of scombroid mackerels.[1] As a species they are easily confused with Atlantic mackerel. Chub mackerel migrate long distances in oceans and across the Mediterranean. They can be caught with drift nets and suitable trawls, but are most usually caught with surround nets at night by attracting them with lampara lamps.[138]

The remaining catch of scombroid mackerels is divided equally between the Atlantic mackerel and all other scombroid mackerels. Just two species account for about 75% of the total catch of scombroid mackerels.[1]

Chilean jack mackerel are the most commonly fished non-scombroid mackerel, fished as heavily as chub mackerel[1][90] (see second graph on the right). The species has been overfished, and its fishery may now be in danger of collapsing.[139][140]

Smaller mackerel behave like herrings, and are captured in similar ways.[141] Fish species like these, which school near the surface, can be caught efficiently by purse seining. Huge purse seiner vessels use spotter planes to locate the schooling fish. Then they close in using sophisticated sonar to track the shape of the shoal. Entire schools are then encircled with fast auxiliary boats which deploy purse seine nets as they speed around the school.[142][143]

Suitably designed trollers can also catch mackerels effectively when they swim near the surface. Trollers typically have several long booms which they lift and drop with "topping lifts". They haul their lines with electric or hydraulic reels.[144] Fish aggregating devices are also used to target mackerel.[145]

Management[edit]

The North Sea has been overfished to the point where the ecological balance has become disrupted and many jobs in the fishing industry have been lost.[146]

The Southeast US region spans the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and the US Southeast Atlantic. Overfishing of king and Spanish mackerel occurred in the 1980s. Regulations were introduced to restrict the size, amount of catch, fishing locations and bag limits for recreational fishers as well as commercial fishers. Gillnets were banned in waters off Florida. By 2001, the mackerel stocks had bounced back.[147]

As food[edit]

Atlantic mackerel on ice at a fishmongers
Main article: Mackerel as food

Mackerel is an important food fish that is consumed worldwide.[148] As an oily fish, it is a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids.[149] The flesh of mackerel spoils quickly, especially in the tropics, and can cause scombroid food poisoning. Accordingly, it should be eaten on the day of capture, unless properly refrigerated or cured.[150]

Mackerel preservation is not simple. Before the 19th-century development of canning and the widespread availability of refrigeration, salting and smoking were the principal preservation methods available.[151] Historically in England, this fish was not preserved, but was consumed only in its fresh form. However, spoilage was common, leading the authors of The Cambridge Economic History of Europe to remark: "There are more references to stinking mackerel in English literature than to any other fish!"[141] In France mackerel was traditionally pickled with large amounts of salt, which allowed it to be sold widely across the country.[141]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g Based on data sourced from the relevant FAO Species Fact Sheets
  2. ^ Daan, N. (December 1973). "A quantitative analysis of the food intake of North Sea cod, Gadus Morhua". Netherlands Journal of Sea Research. 6 (4): 479–517. doi:10.1016/0077-7579(73)90002-1. 
  3. ^ Merriam-Webster (2003) King mackerel Page 688. ISBN 978-0-87779-809-5.
  4. ^ Mackerel Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
  5. ^ a b c Collette B; et al. (2011). "Scomber scombrus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 2 March 2012. 
  6. ^ Juan-Jorda, MJ; Mosqueira, I; Cooper, AB; Freire, J; Dulvy, NK (2011). "Global population trajectories of tunas and their relatives". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (51): 20650–20655. doi:10.1073/pnas.1107743108. 
  7. ^ Tuna and mackerel populations have reduced by 60% in the last century ScienceDaily, 8 February 2012.
  8. ^ "Scombrini". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 10 December 2012. 
  9. ^ "Scomber". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 10 December 2012. 
  10. ^ "Rastrelliger". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 10 December 2012. 
  11. ^ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2012). "Rastrelliger brachysoma" in FishBase. March 2012 version.
  12. ^ Rastrelliger brachysoma (Bleeker, 1851) FAO, Species Fact Sheet. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
  13. ^ Collette B; et al. (2011). "Rastrelliger brachysoma". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 2 March 2012. 
  14. ^ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2012). "Rastrelliger faughni" in FishBase. March 2012 version.
  15. ^ Collette B; et al. (2011). "Rastrelliger faughni". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 2 March 2012. 
  16. ^ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2012). "Rastrelliger kanagurta" in FishBase. March 2012 version.
  17. ^ Rastrelliger kanagurta (Cuvier, 1817) FAO, Species Fact Sheet. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
  18. ^ Collette B; et al. (2011). "Rastrelliger kanagurta". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 2 March 2012. 
  19. ^ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2012). "Scomber australasicus" in FishBase. March 2012 version.
  20. ^ Collette B; et al. (2011). "Scomber australasicus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 2 March 2012. 
  21. ^ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2012). "Scomber colias" in FishBase. March 2012 version.
  22. ^ Collette B; et al. (2011). "Scomber colias". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 2 March 2012. 
  23. ^ a b Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2012). "Scomber japonicus" in FishBase. March 2012 version.
  24. ^ a b Scomber japonicus (Houttuyn, 1782) FAO, Species Fact Sheet. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
  25. ^ Collette B; et al. (2011). "Scomber japonicus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 2 March 2012. 
  26. ^ a b Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2012). "Scomber scombrus" in FishBase. March 2012 version.
  27. ^ Scomber scombrus (Linnaeus, 1758) FAO, Species Fact Sheet. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
  28. ^ "Scomberomorini". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 10 December 2012. 
  29. ^ "Scomberomorus". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 10 December 2012. 
  30. ^ "Grammatorcynus". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 10 December 2012. 
  31. ^ "Acanthocybium". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 10 December 2012. 
  32. ^ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2012). "Acanthocybium solandri" in FishBase. December 2012 version.
  33. ^ Collette B; et al. (2011). "Acanthocybium solandri". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 8 December 2012. 
  34. ^ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2012). "Grammatorcynus bicarinatus" in FishBase. March 2012 version.
  35. ^ Collette B, Fox W & Nelson R (2011). "Grammatorcynus bicarinatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 2 March 2012. 
  36. ^ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2012). "Grammatorcynus bilineatus" in FishBase. March 2012 version.
  37. ^ Collette B; et al. (2011). "Grammatorcynus bilineatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 2 March 2012. 
  38. ^ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2012). "Scomberomorus brasiliensis" in FishBase. March 2012 version.
  39. ^ Collette B; et al. (2011). "Scomberomorus brasiliensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 2 March 2012. 
  40. ^ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2012). "Scomberomorus cavalla" in FishBase. March 2012 version.
  41. ^ a b Scomberomorus cavalla (Cuvier, 1829) FAO, Species Fact Sheet. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
  42. ^ Collette B; et al. (2011). "Scomberomorus cavalla". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 2 March 2012. 
  43. ^ Froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. (2012). "Scomberomorus commerson" in FishBase. March 2012 version.
  44. ^ Scomberomorus commerson (Lacepède, 1800) FAO, Species Fact Sheet. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
  45. ^ Collette B; et al. (2011). "Scomberomorus commerson". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 2 March 2012. 
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Other references[edit]

External links[edit]

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