1.
Fish migration
–
Many types of fish migrate on a regular basis, on time scales ranging from daily to annually or longer, and over distances ranging from a few metres to thousands of kilometres. Fish usually migrate to feed or to reproduce, but in cases the reasons are unclear. Migrations involves the fish moving from one part of a body to another on a regular basis. Marine forage fish often make large migrations between their spawning, feeding and nursery grounds, movements are associated with ocean currents and with the availability of food in different areas at different times of year. The migratory movements may partly be linked to the fact that the fish cannot identify their own offspring and moving in this way prevents cannibalism, some species have been described by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea as highly migratory species. These are large fish that move in and out of the exclusive economic zones of different nations. Salmon and striped bass are well-known anadromous fish, and freshwater eels are catadromous fish that make large migrations, some fish such as tuna move to the north and south at different times of year following temperature gradients. The patterns of migration are of great interest to the fishing industry, movements of fish in fresh water also occur, often the fish swim upriver to spawn, and these traditional movements are increasingly being disrupted by the building of dams. As with various aspects of fish life, zoologists have developed empirical classifications for fish migrations. Two terms in particular have been in long-standing wide usage, Anadromous fish migrate from the sea up into water to spawn, examples are salmon. Catadromous fish migrate from fresh water down into the sea to spawn, in a 1949 journal article, George S. Myers coined the inclusive term diadromous to refer to all fishes that migrate between the sea and fresh water. Like the two well known terms, it was formed from classical Greek, diadromous proved a useful word, but terms proposed by Myers for other types of diadromous fishes did not catch on. These included amphidromous, potamodromous, and oceanodromous, although these classifications were originated for fishes, they are, in principle, applicable to any aquatic organism. Forage fish often make great migrations between their spawning, feeding and nursery grounds, schools of a particular stock usually travel in a triangle between these grounds. For example, one stock of herrings have their ground in southern Norway, their feeding ground in Iceland. Wide triangular journeys such as these may be important because forage fish, capelin are a forage fish of the smelt family found in the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In summer, they graze on dense swarms of plankton at the edge of the ice shelf, larger capelin also eat krill and other crustaceans. The capelin move inshore in large schools to spawn and migrate in spring, the migration is affected by ocean currents
2.
Shoaling and schooling
–
In biology, any group of fish that stay together for social reasons are shoaling, and if the group is swimming in the same direction in a coordinated manner, they are schooling. In common usage, the terms are used rather loosely. About one quarter of fish species shoal all their lives, Fish derive many benefits from shoaling behaviour including defence against predators, enhanced foraging success, and higher success in finding a mate. It is also likely that fish benefit from shoal membership through increased hydrodynamic efficiency, Fish use many traits to choose shoalmates. Generally they prefer larger shoals, shoalmates of their own species, shoalmates similar in size and appearance to themselves, healthy fish, the oddity effect posits that any shoal member that stands out in appearance will be preferentially targeted by predators. This may explain why fish prefer to shoal with individuals that resemble themselves, the oddity effect would thus tend to homogenize shoals. An aggregation of fish is the term for any collection of fish that have gathered together in some locality. Fish aggregations can be structured or unstructured, an unstructured aggregation might be a group of mixed species and sizes that have gathered randomly near some local resource, such as food or nesting sites. If, in addition, the aggregation comes together in an interactive, social way, shoaling groups can include fish of disparate sizes and can including mixed-species subgroups. If the shoal becomes more organised, with the fish synchronising their swimming so they all move at the same speed and in the same direction. Schooling fish are usually of the species and the same age/size. Fish schools move with the individual members precisely spaced from each other, the schools undertake complicated manoeuvres, as though the schools have minds of their own. The intricacies of schooling are far from understood, especially the swimming and feeding energetics. Many hypotheses to explain the function of schooling have been suggested, such as orientation, synchronized hunting, predator confusion. Schooling also has disadvantages, such as excretion buildup in the media and oxygen. The way the array in the school probably gives energy saving advantages. Fish can be obligate or facultative shoalers, obligate shoalers, such as tunas, herrings and anchovy, spend all of their time shoaling or schooling, and become agitated if separated from the group. Facultative shoalers, such as Atlantic cod, saiths and some carangids, shoal only some of the time, shoaling fish can shift into a disciplined and coordinated school, then shift back to an amorphous shoal within seconds
3.
Pelagic fish
–
The marine pelagic environment is the largest aquatic habitat on Earth, occupying 1,370 million cubic kilometres, and is the habitat for 11% of known fish species. The oceans have a depth of 4000 metres. About 98% of the water volume is below 100 metres. Marine pelagic fish can be divided into pelagic coastal fish and oceanic pelagic fish, coastal fish inhabit the relatively shallow and sunlit waters above the continental shelf, while oceanic fish inhabit the vast and deep waters beyond the continental shelf. Pelagic fish range in size from small forage fish, such as herrings and sardines, to large apex predator oceanic fishes, such as bluefin tuna. They are usually agile swimmers with streamlined bodies, capable of sustained cruising on long-distance migrations, the Indo-Pacific sailfish, an oceanic pelagic fish, can sprint at over 110 kilometres per hour. Some tuna species cruise across the Pacific Ocean, many pelagic fish swim in schools weighing hundreds of tonnes. Others are solitary, like the ocean sunfish weighing over 500 kilograms. Epipelagic fish inhabit the epipelagic zone, the epipelagic zone is the water from the surface of the sea down to 200 metres. It is also referred to as the waters or the sunlit zone. The photic zone is defined as the surface waters down to the point where the sunlight has attenuated to 1% of the surface value and this depth depends on how turbid the water is, but in clear water can extend to 200 metres, coinciding with the epipelagic zone. The photic zone has sufficient light for phytoplankton to photosynthese, the epipelagic zone is vast, and is the home for most pelagic fish. The zone is well lit so visual predators can use their eyesight, is well mixed and oxygenated from wave action. However, it is an almost featureless habitat and this lack of habitat diversity results in a lack of species diversity, so the zone supports less than 2% of the worlds known fish species. Epipelagic fish can be divided into small forage fish and larger predator fish which feed on them. Forage fish school and filter feed on plankton, most epipelagic fish have streamlined bodies capable of sustained cruising on migrations. In general, predatory and forage fish share the same morphological features, predator fish are usually fusiform with large mouths, smooth bodies, and deeply forked tails. Many use vision to predate zooplankton or smaller fish, while others feed on plankton
4.
Scombridae
–
The Scombridae family of the mackerels, tunas, and bonitos includes many of the most important and familiar food fishes. The family consists of 51 species in 15 genera and two subfamilies, all species are in the subfamily Scombrinae, except the butterfly kingfish, which is the sole member of subfamily Gasterochismatinae. Scombrids have two fins and a series of finlets behind the rear dorsal fin and anal fin. The caudal fin is divided and rigid, with a slender. The first dorsal fin and the fins are normally retracted into body grooves. Species lengths vary from the 20 cm of the island mackerel to the 4.58 m recorded for the immense Atlantic bluefin tuna, scombrids are generally predators of the open ocean, and are found worldwide in tropical and temperate waters. They are capable of speed, due to a highly streamlined body. Some members of the family, in particular the tunas, are notable for being partially endothermic, other adaptations include a large amount of red muscle, allowing them to maintain activity over long periods. Two of the fastest recorded scombrids are the wahoo and the yellowfin tuna, a compendium of fossil marine animal genera. Media related to Scombridae at Wikimedia Commons Skaphandrus. com Scombridae
5.
Fish stock
–
All species have geographic limits to their distribution, which are determined by their tolerance to environmental conditions, and their ability to compete successfully with other species. For fish, it is rare for an individual to reproduce randomly with all individuals of that species within its biological range. There is a tendency to form a series of discrete populations which have a degree of reproductive isolation from each other in space, in time. This isolation is reflected in the development between sub-populations of genetic differences, morphological variations and exposure to different chemical regimes and parasitic species. Sub-populations also respond to fishing in such a way that fishing on one population appears to have no effect on the dynamics of a neighbouring population. Stock identification is a field of science which aims to identify these subpopulations. The United Nations defines straddling stocks as stocks of such as pollock. Sovereign responsibility must be worked out in collaboration with neighbouring coastal states, usually this is done through the medium of an intergovernmental regional organisation set up for the purpose of coordinating the management of that stock. Straddling stocks are usually pelagic, rather than demersal, demersal species move less than pelagic species, since they tend to relate to bottom topography. Pelagic species are mobile, their movements influenced by ocean temperatures. Straddling stock can be compared with transboundary stock, Straddling stock range both within an EEZ as well as in the high seas. Transboundary stock range in the EEZs of at least two countries, a stock can be both transboundary and straddling. In fisheries science and ecology, stock assessment is an important tool in fisheries management, the stocks for individual marine species can boom and bust in linked and compensatory ways. For example, in billfish longline fisheries, the Atlantic catch of blue marlin declined in the 1960s and this was accompanied by an increase in sailfish catch. The sailfish catch then declined from the end of the 1970s to the end of the 1980s, as a result, the overall billfish catch remained fairly stable. At Georges Bank, a decline in cod during the 1960s was accompanied by a rise in flatfish, booke HE The stock concept revisited, perspectives on its history in fisheries Fisheries Research,43, 9–11. Doi,10. 1016/S0165-783600063-6 Cadrin SX, Friedland KD and Waldman JR Stock Identification Methods, ISBN 0-12-154351-X Pintassilgo, P and Lindroos, M Management of Straddling Fish Stocks, A Bioeconomic Approach In, Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems – Volume 5, UNESCO. Identification of stocks of horse macekerel, Trachurus trachurus Identification of stocks of herring, Clupea harengus FAO Fisheries Department and its SOFIA report addressing fish stocks
6.
Upwelling
–
The nutrient-rich upwelled water stimulates the growth and reproduction of primary producers such as phytoplankton. Due to the biomass of phytoplankton and presence of water in these regions, upwelling zones can be identified by cool sea surface temperatures. The increased availability in upwelling regions results in levels of primary productivity. Approximately 25% of the global marine fish catches come from five upwellings that occupy only 5% of the total ocean area. Upwellings that are driven by coastal currents or diverging open ocean have the greatest impact on nutrient-enriched waters, the three main drivers that work together to cause upwelling are wind, Coriolis effects, and Ekman transport. They operate differently for different types of upwelling, but the effects are the same. In the overall process of upwelling, winds blow across the sea surface at a particular direction, as a result of the wind, the water is transported a net of 90 degrees from the direction of the wind due to Coriolis forces and Ekman transport. This results in a spiral of water movement down the water column, then, it is the Coriolis forces that dictate which way the water will move, in the Northern hemisphere, the water is transported to the right of the direction of the wind. In the Southern Hemisphere, the water is transported to the left of the wind, if this net movement of water is divergent, then upwelling of deep water occurs to replace the water that was lost. The major upwellings in the ocean are associated with the divergence of currents that bring deeper, colder, coastal upwelling is the best known type of upwelling, and the most closely related to human activities as it supports some of the most productive fisheries in the world. Wind-driven currents are diverted to the right of the winds in the Northern Hemisphere, the result is a net movement of surface water at right angles to the direction of the wind, known as the Ekman transport. When Ekman transport is occurring away from the coast, surface waters moving away are replaced by deeper, colder, and denser water. Normally, this process occurs at a rate of about 5–10 meters per day. Deep waters are rich in nutrients, including nitrate, phosphate and silicic acid, Upwelling regions therefore result in very high levels of primary production in comparison to other areas of the ocean. They account for about 50% of global marine productivity, high primary production propagates up the food chain because phytoplankton are at the base of the oceanic food chain. All of these currents support major fisheries, the four major eastern boundary currents in which coastal upwelling primarily occurs are the Canary Current, Benguela Current, California Current, and Humboldt Current. The Benguela Current is the boundary of the South Atlantic subtropical gyre. The subsystems are divided by an area of permanent upwelling off of Luderitz, the California Current System is an eastern boundary current of the North Pacific that is also characterized by a north and south split
7.
Forage fish
–
Forage fish, also called prey fish or bait fish, are small pelagic fish which are preyed on by larger predators for food. Predators include other fish, seabirds and marine mammals. Typical ocean forage fish feed near the base of the chain on plankton. They include particularly fishes of the family Clupeidae, but also small fish, including halfbeaks, silversides, smelt such as capelin. Forage fish compensate for their size by forming schools. Some swim in synchronised grids with their mouths open so they can efficiently filter plankton and these schools can become immense shoals which move along coastlines and migrate across open oceans. The shoals are concentrated fuel resources for the marine predators. The ocean primary producers, mainly contained in plankton, produce energy from the sun and are the raw fuel for the ocean food webs. Forage fish transfer this energy by eating the plankton and becoming food themselves for the top predators, in this way, forage fish occupy the central positions in ocean and lake food webs. The fishing industry catches forage fish primarily for feeding to farmed animals, some fisheries scientists are expressing concern that this will affect the populations of predator fish that depend on them. Herrings are a preeminent forage fish, often marketed as sardines or pilchards, the term “forage fish” is a term used in fisheries, and is applied also to forage species that are not true fish, but play a significant role as prey for predators. Thus invertebrates such as squid and shrimp are also referred to as forage fish, even the tiny shrimp-like creatures called krill, small enough to be eaten by other forage fish, yet large enough to eat the same zooplankton as forage fish, are often classified as forage fish. Forage fish utilise the biomass of copepods, mysids and krill in the zone to become the dominant converters of the enormous ocean production of zooplankton. They are, in turn, central prey items for higher trophic levels, Forage fish may have achieved their dominance because of the way they live in huge, and often extremely fast cruising schools. Though forage fish are abundant, there are few species. There are more species of primary producers and apex predators in the ocean there are forage fish. Forage fish occupy central positions in the food webs. The position that a fish occupies in a web is called its trophic level
8.
Atlantic cod
–
The Atlantic cod is a benthopelagic fish of the family Gadidae, widely consumed by humans. It is also known as cod or codling. Dry cod may be prepared as unsalted stockfish or as cured salt cod or clipfish, the largest individual on record was 6 feet long and weighed 211 lb, however usually the cod is between 24 inches and 4 feet long, and weighs 88 lb. There is generally no difference in weight or size between sexes of Atlantic Cod, Atlantic Cod can live for 25 years, and usually attains sexual maturity between ages two and four, although cod in the northeast Arctic can take as long as eight years to fully mature. Colouring is brown or green, with spots on the dorsal side, a stripe along its lateral line is clearly visible. Its habitat ranges from the shoreline down to the continental shelf, several cod stocks collapsed in the 1990s and have failed to recover even with the cessation of fishing. This absence of the predator has led to a trophic cascade in many areas. Many other cod stocks remain at risk, the Atlantic cod is labelled vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Adult cod form squirting aggregations from late winter to spring, females release their eggs in batches, and males compete to fertilize them. Fertilized eggs drift with currents and develop into larvae. Age of maturation varies between cod stocks, from two to four in the west Atlantic, but as late as eight years in the northeast Arctic. Cod can live for 13 years or more, the Atlantic cod is one of three cod species in the genus Gadus along with Pacific cod and Greenland cod. A variety of species are colloquially known as cod, but they are not strictly classified within the Gadus genus, though some are in the Atlantic cod family. Atlantic cod are a species and move in large, size-structured aggregations. Larger fish act as scouts and lead the shoals direction, particularly during post spawning migrations inshore for feeding, Cod actively feed during migration and changes in shoal structure occur when food is encountered. Shoals are generally thought to be leaderless, with all fish having equal status. However, some studies suggest that leading fish gain certain feeding benefits, one study of a migrating Atlantic cod shoal showed significant variability in feeding habits based on size and position in the shoal. Larger scouts consumed a more variable, higher quantity of food, while trailing fish had less variable diets, Atlantic cod are apex predators in the Baltic and adults are generally free from the concerns of predation
9.
Tuna
–
A tuna is a saltwater fish that belongs to the tribe Thunnini, a sub-grouping of the mackerel family – which together with the tunas, also includes the bonitos, mackerels, and Spanish mackerels. Thunnini comprises fifteen species across five genera, the sizes of which vary greatly, the bluefin averages 2 m, and is believed to live for up to 50 years. Tuna and mackerel sharks are the species of fish that can maintain a body temperature higher than that of the surrounding water. An active and agile predator, the tuna has a sleek, streamlined body, found in warm seas, it is extensively fished commercially, and is popular as a game fish. As a result of over-fishing, stocks of tuna species such as the southern bluefin tuna have been reduced dangerously close to the point of extinction. The term tuna ultimately derives from Thunnus, the Middle Latin form of the Ancient Greek, θύννος tunny-fish – which is in turn derived from θύνω, rush, the following cladogram illustrates the relationship between the tunas and other tribes of the family Scombridae. The true tunas are those that belong to the genus Thunnus, until recently, it was thought that there were seven Thunnus species, and that Atlantic bluefin tuna and Pacific bluefin tuna were subspecies of a single species. In 1999, Collette established that based on molecular and morphological considerations, they are in fact distinct species. The genus Thunnus is further classified into two subgenera, Thunnus, and Thunnus, the Thunnini tribe also includes seven additional species of tuna across four genera. They are, The tuna is a sleek and streamlined fish and it has two closely spaced dorsal fins on its back, The first is depressible – it can be laid down, flush, in a groove that runs along its back. Seven to ten yellow finlets run from the fins to the tail. The caudal peduncle, to which the tail is attached, is quite thin, the tunas dorsal side is generally a metallic dark blue, while the ventral side, or underside, is silvery or whitish, for camouflage. Thunnus are widely but sparsely distributed throughout the oceans of the world, generally in tropical, all tunas are able to maintain the temperature of certain parts of their body above the temperature of ambient seawater. For example, bluefin can maintain a body temperature of 25–33 °C. However, unlike typical endothermic creatures such as mammals and birds, tunas achieve endothermy by conserving the heat generated through normal metabolism. In all tunas, the heart operates at ambient temperature, as it receives cooled blood, also unlike most fish, which have white flesh, the muscle tissue of tuna ranges from pink to dark red. The red myotomal muscles derive their color from myoglobin, an oxygen-binding molecule, the oxygen-rich blood further enables energy delivery to their muscles. For powerful swimming animals like dolphins and tuna, cavitation may be detrimental, even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed, because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful
10.
Marlin
–
A marlin is a fish from the family Istiophoridae, which includes about 10 species. It has a body, a spear-like snout or bill. Its common name is thought to derive from its resemblance to a sailors marlinspike, even more so than their close relatives, the scombrids, marlins are fast swimmers, reaching speeds of about 80 km/h. They are popular sporting fish in tropical areas, the marlins are perciform fish, most closely related to the swordfish and Scombridae. On the 85th day, Santiago, the old fisherman, hooks a resolute marlin, marlin fishing Sailfish Froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds. A compendium of fossil marine animal genera, ghost Fish Revelation May Alter Marlins Status from National Public Radio
11.
Omega-3 fatty acid
–
Omega-3 fatty acids—also called ω-3 fatty acids or n-3 fatty acids—are polyunsaturated fatty acids with a double bond at the third carbon atom from the end of the carbon chain. One way in which a fatty acid is named is determined by the location of the first double bond, counted from the end, that is. However, the chemical nomenclature system starts from the carbonyl end. The three types of fatty acids involved in human physiology are α-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid. Marine algae and phytoplankton are primary sources of fatty acids. Dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids does not appear to affect the risk of death, furthermore, fish oil supplement studies have failed to support claims of preventing heart attacks or strokes. Omega-3 fatty acids are important for normal metabolism, the ability to make the longer-chain omega-3 fatty acids from ALA may be impaired in aging. In foods exposed to air, unsaturated fatty acids are vulnerable to oxidation, supplementation does not appear to be associated with a lower risk of all-cause mortality. The evidence linking the consumption of fish to the risk of cancer is poor, supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids does not appear to affect this either. A2006 review concluded there was no link between omega-3 fatty acids consumption and cancer. In those with advanced cancer and cachexia, omega-3 fatty acids supplements may be of benefit, improving appetite, weight, there is tentative evidence that marine omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reduce the risk of breast cancer but this is not conclusive. The effect of consumption on cancer is not conclusive. There is a risk with higher blood levels of DPA. Evidence, in the population generally, does not support a role for omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in preventing cardiovascular disease or stroke. No protective effect against the development of stroke or all-cause mortality was seen in this population, eating a diet high in fish that contain long chain omega-3 fatty acids does appear to decrease the risk of stroke. Fish oil supplementation has not been shown to benefit revascularization or abnormal heart rhythms and has no effect on heart failure hospital admission rates, furthermore, fish oil supplement studies have failed to support claims of preventing heart attacks or strokes. Evidence suggests that omega-3 fatty acids modestly lower blood pressure in people with hypertension, Omega-3 fatty acids reduce blood triglyceride levels but do not significantly change the level of LDL cholesterol or HDL cholesterol in the blood. ALA does not confer the cardiovascular benefits of EPA and DHAs
12.
King mackerel
–
The king mackerel or kingfish is a migratory species of mackerel of the western Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. It is an important species to both the commercial and recreational fishing industries, the king mackerel is a medium-sized fish, typically encountered from five to 14 kg, but is known to exceed 40 kg. The entire body is covered with small, hardly visible. The first dorsal fin is entirely colorless and is folded back into a body groove. The lateral line starts high on the shoulder, dips abruptly at mid-body, coloration is olive on the back, fading to silver with a rosy iridescence on the sides, fading to white on the belly. Fish under 5 kg show yellowish-brown spots on the flanks, somewhat smaller than the spots of the Atlantic Spanish mackerel and its cutting-edged teeth are large, uniform, closely spaced and flattened from side to side. These teeth look very similar to those of the bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix, the king mackerel is a subtropical species of the Atlantic Coast of the Americas. Common in the zone from North Carolina to Brazil, it occurs as far south as Rio de Janeiro. Nonetheless, a preference for temperatures in the range of 20 to 29 °C may limit distribution. King mackerel commonly occur in depths of 12–45 m, where the principal fisheries occur, larger kings often occur inshore, in the mouths of inlets and harbors, and occasionally even at the 180 m depths at the edge of the Gulf Stream. At least two groups of king mackerel have been found to exist off the American coast. A Gulf of Mexico group ranges from the Texas coast in summer to the middle-east coast of Florida from November through March, spawning occurs throughout the summer off the northern Gulf Coast. An Atlantic group is abundant off North Carolina in spring and fall and this group migrates to southeast Florida, where it spawns from May through August, and slowly returns through summer. Apparently, this group winters in deep water off the Carolinas, as tagging studies have shown they are never found off Florida in winter, eggs and sperm are shed into the sea and their union is by chance. Depending on size, a female may shed from 50,000 to several million eggs over the spawning season, fertilized eggs hatch in about 24 hours. The newly hatched larva is about 2.5 mm long with a yolk sack. Little is known about king mackerel in their first year of life, yearling fish typically attain an average weight of 1. 4–1.8 kg and a fork length of 60 cm. At age seven, females average 10 kg, males 5 kg, king mackerel may attain 40 kg, but any over 7 kg is almost certainly a female
13.
Old French
–
Old French was the Gallo-Romance dialect continuum spoken from the 9th century to the 14th century. In the 14th century, these came to be collectively known as the langues doïl. The mid-14th century is taken as the period to Middle French. The areal of Old French in contemporary terms corresponded to the parts of the Kingdom of France, Upper Burgundy. As part of the emerging Gallo-Romance dialect continuum, the langues doïl were contrasted with the langue doc, in these examples, we notice a clear consequence of bilingualism, that sometimes even changed the first syllable of the Latin words. Pope estimated that perhaps still 15% of the vocabulary of modern French derives from Germanic sources, at the third Council of Tours in 813, priests were ordered to preach in the vernacular language, since the common people could no longer understand formal Latin. The second-oldest document in Old French is the Eulalia sequence, which is important for reconstruction of Old French pronunciation due to its consistent spelling. The Capetians langue doïl, the forerunner of modern standard French, did not begin to become the common speech of all of France, however, until after the French Revolution. In the Late Middle Ages, the Old French dialects diverged into a number of distinct langues doïl, during the Early Modern period, French now becomes established as the official language of the Kingdom of France throughout the realm, also including the langue doc-speaking territories in the south. Old French gives way to Middle French in the mid-14th century, the earliest extant French literary texts date from the ninth century, but very few texts before the 11th century have survived. The first literary works written in Old French were saints lives, the Canticle of Saint Eulalie, written in the second half of the 9th century, is generally accepted as the first such text. The first of these is the area of the chansons de geste. More than one hundred chansons de geste have survived in three hundred manuscripts. The oldest and most celebrated of the chansons de geste is The Song of Roland, a fourth grouping, not listed by Bertrand, is the Crusade cycle, dealing with the First Crusade and its immediate aftermath. Jean Bodels other two categories—the Matter of Rome and the Matter of Britain—concern the French romance or roman, around a hundred verse romances survive from the period 1150–1220. From around 1200 on, the tendency was increasingly to write the romances in prose, the most important romance of the 13th century is the Romance of the Rose which breaks considerably from the conventions of the chivalric adventure story. The Occitan or Provençal poets were called troubadours, from the word trobar to find, lyric poets in Old French are called trouvères. By the late 13th century, the tradition in France had begun to develop in ways that differed significantly from the troubadour poets
14.
Spawn (biology)
–
Spawn is the eggs and sperm released or deposited into water by aquatic animals. As a verb, to refers to the process of releasing the eggs and sperm. Most aquatic animals, except for aquatic mammals and reptiles, reproduce through the process of spawning, spawn consists of the reproductive cells of many aquatic animals, some of which will become fertilized and produce offspring. The process of spawning typically involves females releasing ova into the water, often in large quantities, fungi, such as mushrooms, are also said to spawn a white, fibrous matter that forms the matrix from which they grow. Marine animals, and particularly fish, commonly reproduce by broadcast spawning. This is a method of reproduction where the female releases many unfertilised eggs into the water. At the same time, a male or many males release a lot of sperm into the water which fertilises some of these eggs, the eggs contain a drop of nutrient oil to sustain the embryo as it develops inside the egg case. The oil also provides buoyancy, so the float and drift with the current. The strategy for survival of broadcast spawning is to disperse the fertilised eggs, there the larvae develop as they consume their fat stores, and eventually hatch from the egg capsule into miniature versions of their parents. To survive, they must then become miniature predators themselves, feeding on plankton, fish eventually encounter others of their own kind, where they form aggregations and learn to school. Internally, the sexes of most marine animals can be determined by looking at the gonads, male lampreys, hagfish and salmon discharge their sperm into the body cavity where it is expelled through pores in the abdomen. Male sharks and rays can pass sperm along a duct into a seminal vesicle, externally, many marine animals, even when spawning, show little sexual dimorphism or little difference in colouration. Where species are dimorphic, such as sharks or guppies, the males often have penis-like intromittent organs in the form of a modified fin, a species is semelparous if its individuals spawn only once in their lifetime, and iteroparous if its individuals spawn more than once. The term semelparity comes from the Latin semel, once, and pario, to beget, while iteroparity comes from itero, to repeat, semelparity is sometimes called big bang reproduction, since the single reproductive event of semelparous organisms is usually large and fatal to the spawners. The classic example of an animal is the Pacific salmon, which lives for many years in the ocean before swimming to the freshwater stream of its birth, spawning. Other spawning animals which are semelparous include mayflies, squid, octopus, smelt, capelin, semelparity is often associated with r-strategists. However, most fish and other spawning animals are iteroparous, when the internal ovaries or egg masses of fish and certain marine animals are ripe for spawning they are called roe. Roe from certain species, such as shrimp, scallop, crab, caviar is a name for the processed, salted roe of non-fertilized sturgeon
15.
Type species
–
A similar concept is used for suprageneric groups called a type genus. In botanical nomenclature, these terms have no standing under the code of nomenclature. In botany, the type of a name is a specimen which is also the type of a species name. The species name that has that type can also be referred to as the type of the genus name, names of genus and family ranks, the various subdivisions of those ranks, and some higher-rank names based on genus names, have such types. In bacteriology, a species is assigned for each genus. Every named genus or subgenus in zoology, whether or not currently recognized as valid, is associated with a type species. In practice, however, there is a backlog of untypified names defined in older publications when it was not required to specify a type, a type species is both a concept and a practical system that is used in the classification and nomenclature of animals. The type species represents the species and thus definition for a particular genus name. In the Glossary, type species is defined as The nominal species that is the type of a nominal genus or subgenus. The type species permanently attaches a formal name to a genus by providing just one species within that genus to which the name is permanently linked. The species name in turn is fixed, in theory, to a type specimen, for example, the type species for the land snail genus Monacha is Monacha cartusiana. That genus is placed within the family Hygromiidae. The type genus for that family is the genus Hygromia, the concept of the type species in zoology was introduced by Pierre André Latreille. The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature states that the name of the type species should always be cited. It gives an example in Article 67.1, Astacus marinus Fabricius,1775 was later designated as the type species of the genus Homarus, thus giving it the name Homarus marinus. However, the species of Homarus should always be cited using its original name. 3, the type of the genus name Elodes is quoted as the type of the species name Hypericum aegypticum, Glossary of scientific naming Genetypes – genetic sequence data from type specimens. Holotype Paratype Principle of Typification Type Type genus
16.
Atlantic chub mackerel
–
Atlantic chub mackerel is a pelagic schooling species of mackerel found in the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Black Sea. It was originally thought to be a subspecies of the chub mackerel Scomber japonicus colias, the Atlantic chub mackerel is a long, streamlined fish with a deeply forked tail. The first dorsal fin has 9 or 10 spines and is separated from the dorsal fin by a space at least as long as its base. The origin of the fin is directly below or just behind the origin of the second dorsal fin. This fish is silvery in colour, the surface has oblique zigzagging lines while the belly is paler. This fish is abundant in the eastern Mediterranean. Two variants are distinguished, in the summer and autumn, after it has bred. The Greek names for the two forms are koliós and tsíros, respectively and they are usually roasted, although the former form is often packed in salt for later consumption. The fish releases its own oil into the packing and acquires a very long shelf life. The same evening it is very briefly seared over a fire and this fish has a wide range and is abundant over parts of that range. Although it is fished in places, the population seems relatively stable. Scomber colias at FishBase USDOI, Fishes of the Gulf of Maine
17.
Chub mackerel
–
The chub mackerel, Pacific mackerel, or Pacific chub mackerel is a mackerel which closely resembles the Atlantic chub mackerel. In most species, the mackerel is known to travel in large schools and it is a smaller fish than its better-known relatives, growing to a length around 8 to 14 inches. They follow thrown bait as readily and bite quite as greedily as Atlantic mackerel do and their breeding habits have not been studied. Fossils of Scomber japonicus have found in the Pliocene of Italy. Chub mackerel are widespread in the Indo-Pacific and they are absent from the Indian Ocean except for South Africa from KwaZulu-Natal to Western Cape, and are replaced by the closely related Atlantic chub mackerel in the Atlantic. The chub mackerel is widely distributed, usually found in the northwestern, southeastern, in the eastern Pacific, it can be found from central Mexico to southeastern Alaska. Chub mackerel are generally found within 20 miles off the coast in waters between 50 and 72°F, young mackerel live around sandy beaches or kelp beds, while adults are found in deeper waters in shallow banks to 1000 feet deep. Chub mackerel school with other species, as well such as other types of mackerels. As larvae, chub mackerel feed mainly on copepods and rotifers, chub mackerel larvae can consume up to 87% of their dry body weight a day. As juveniles, chub mackerel feed mainly on zooplankton, as adults, they feed on mysids and euphausids. Spawning between chub mackerel typically occurs at temperatures of 59 to 68°F and this in turn, leads to different mating seasons depending on what part of the hemisphere they are located. Females lay about 100,000 to 400,000 eggs during breeding season, the mackerel is constantly competing with other fish for food. Although maturation of chub mackerel has never been documented, data show that spawning can happen from March through October. Sometimes in females, ripe translucent eggs appear simultaneously with unripe ova in early stages of development, the chub mackerel is not a predator, so it relies on camouflaging itself to stay hidden from its predators. Although it cannot change colors or spray ink like other species, it has a dorsal pattern very similar to the light pattern that the waves. When in danger, they close to the surface of the water to merge with the flickering light of the sun. From above, spotting the chub mackerel is difficult, which keep it safe from predatory birds. This is the technique chub mackerel use to stay hidden from their predators, such as sharks, birds, known to fisherman as the hardhead, the chub mackerel is regularly fished and canned for human consumption, pet food, bait, or served fresh
18.
Predatory fish
–
Predatory fish are fish that prey upon other fish or animals. Some predatory fish include perch, muskie, pike, walleye, levels of large predatory fish in the global oceans were estimated to be about 10% of their pre-industrial levels by 2003. Large predatory fish are most at risk of extinction, there was a level of large predatory fish extinctions during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago. Creation of marine reserves has been found to restore populations of predatory fish such as the Serranidae — groupers. Predatory fish switch between types of prey in response to variations in their abundance, such changes in preference are disproportionate and are selected for as evolutionarily efficient. Predatory fish may become a pest if they are introduced into an ecosystem in which they become a new top predator, an example, which has caused much trouble in Maryland and Florida, is the snakehead fish. Predators are an important factor to consider in managing fisheries, and methods for doing so are available, feeding frenzy Scale eating Shark attack Shark feeding Predatory fish on AquaticCommunity. com Predator fish in oceans on alarming decline, experts say Washington Post,21 February 2011
19.
Billfish
–
The term billfish refers to a group of predatory fish characterised by prominent bills, or rostra, and by their large size, some are longer than 4 m. Billfish include sailfish and marlin, which make up the family Istiophoridae and they are apex predators which feed on a wide variety of smaller fish, crustaceans, and cephalopods. Billfish are pelagic and highly migratory and they are found in all oceans, although they usually inhabit tropical and subtropical waters, swordfish are found in temperate waters, as well. Billfish use their long spears or sword-like upper beaks to slash at and their bills can also be used to spear prey, and have been known to spear boats, but they are not normally used in that way. They are highly valued as gamefish by sports fishermen, the term billfish refers to the fishes of the families Xiphiidae and Istiophoridae. These large fishes are characterized by the prolongation of the jaw, much beyond the lower jaw into a long rostrum which is flat and sword-like or rounded. The 12 species of true billfish are divided into two families and five genera, one family, Xiphiidae, contains only one species, the swordfish Xiphias gladius, and the other family, Istiophoridae contains 11 species in four genera, including marlin, spearfish, and sailfish. Controversy exists about whether the Indo-Pacific blue marlin, Makaira mazara, is the species as the Atlantic blue marlin. FishBase follows Nakamura in recognizing M. mazara as a distinct species, a number of other fishes have pronounced bills or beaks, and are sometimes referred to as billfish. However, they are not true billfish, halfbeaks look somewhat like miniature billfish, and the sawfish and sawshark, which are cartilaginous fishes with spectacular rostrums shaped like a chain saw. Paddlefish have elongated rostrums containing electroreceptors that can detect weak electrical fields, paddlefish are filter feeders and may use their rostrum to detect zooplankton. Billfish have a long, bony, spear-shaped bill, sometimes called a snout, the swordfish has the longest bill, about one-third its body length. Like a true sword, it is smooth, flat, pointed, the bills of other billfish are shorter and rounder, more like spears. Billfish normally use their bills to slash at schooling fish and they swim through the fish school at high speed, slashing left and right, and then circle back to eat the fish they stunned. Adult swordfish have no teeth, and other billfish have only small file-like teeth and they swallow their catch whole, head-first. Billfish dont normally spear with their bills, though occasionally a marlin will flip a fish into the air, given the speed and power of these fish, when they do spear things the results can be dramatic. Predators of billfish, such as white and mako sharks, have been found with billfish spears embedded in them. Pelagic fish generally are fascinated by floating objects, and congregate about them, Billfish can accidentally impale boats and other floating objects when they pursue the small fish that aggregate around them
20.
Bonito
–
Bonitos are a tribe of medium-sized, ray-finned predatory fish in the family Scombridae – a family it shares with the mackerel, tuna, and Spanish mackerel tribes, and also the butterfly kingfish. Also called the Sardini tribe, it consists of eight species across four genera, bonito is an adjective that means pretty applied to males or masculine objects both in Portuguese and Spanish, but it is unclear whether the name of the fish is related to this. However, it is said to be derived of the Italian buono, the bonito has a moderate fat content. Bonito may not be marketed as tuna in all countries, however, the Atlantic bonito is also found in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, where it is a popular food fish, eaten grilled, pickled, or baked. Other fish sometimes called bonito include skipjack tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis Sardini
21.
Mackerel
–
Mackerel is a common name applied to a number of different species of pelagic fish, mostly, but not exclusively, from the family Scombridae. They are found in temperate and tropical seas, mostly living along the coast or offshore in the oceanic environment. Mackerel typically have stripes on their backs and deeply forked tails. Many species are restricted in their ranges, and live in separate populations or fish stocks based on geography. Some stocks migrate in schools along the coast to suitable spawning grounds. After spawning they return the way they came, in smaller schools, from there they may move offshore into deeper waters and spend the winter in relative inactivity. Smaller mackerel are forage fish for larger predators, including larger mackerel, flocks of seabirds, as well as whales, dolphins, sharks and schools of larger fish such as tuna and marlin follow mackerel schools and attack them in sophisticated and cooperative ways. Mackerel is high in oils and is intensively harvested by humans. In 2009, over five tons were landed by commercial fishermen. Sport fishermen value the fighting abilities of the king mackerel, over thirty different species, principally belonging to the family Scombridae, are commonly referred to as mackerel. The term mackerel means marked or spotted, the term mackerel derives from the Old French maquerel, c.1300, meaning a pimp or procurer. The connection is not altogether clear, but mackerel spawn enthusiastically in shoals near the coast, about 21 species in the family Scombridae are commonly called mackerel. The type species for the mackerel is the Atlantic mackerel. Until recently, it was thought that Atlantic chub mackerel and Indo-Pacific chub mackerel were subspecies of the same species, in 1999 Collette established, on molecular and morphological considerations, that these are separate species. Mackerel are smaller with shorter life cycles than their relatives, the tuna. The true mackerels belong to the tribe Scombrini, the tribe consists of seven species, each belonging to one of two genera, Scomber and Rastrelliger. The Spanish mackerels belong to the tribe Scomberomorini, which is the tribe of the true mackerels. This tribe consists of 21 species in all—18 of those are classified into the genus Scomberomorus, in addition, a number of species with mackerel-like characteristics in the families Carangidae, Hexagrammidae and Gempylidae are commonly referred to as mackerel
22.
Salmon
–
Salmon /ˈsæmən/ is the common name for several species of ray-finned fish in the family Salmonidae. Other fish in the family include trout, char, grayling. Salmon are native to tributaries of the North Atlantic and Pacific Ocean, many species of salmon have been introduced into non-native environments such as the Great Lakes of North America and Patagonia in South America. Salmon are intensively farmed in parts of the world. Typically, salmon are anadromous, they are born in water, migrate to the ocean. However, populations of species are restricted to fresh water through their lives. Various species of salmon display anadromous life strategies while others display freshwater resident life strategies, folklore has it that the fish return to the exact spot where they were born to spawn, tracking studies have shown this to be mostly true. A portion of a salmon run may stray and spawn in different freshwater systems. The percent of straying depends on the species of salmon, homing behavior has been shown to depend on olfactory memory. The term salmon comes from the Latin salmo, which in turn may have originated from salire, the nine commercially important species of salmon occur in two genera. The genus Salmo contains the Atlantic salmon, found in the north Atlantic, the genus Oncorhynchus contains eight species which occur naturally only in the North Pacific. As a group, these are known as Pacific salmon, Chinook salmon have been introduced in New Zealand and Patagonia. Coho, freshwater sockeye, and Atlantic salmon have established in Patagonia. † Both the Salmo and Oncorhynchus genera also contain a number of species referred to as trout, within Salmo, additional minor taxa have been called salmon in English, i. e. the Adriatic salmon and Black Sea salmon. The steelhead anadromous form of the rainbow trout migrates to sea, also a number of other species have common names which refer to them as being salmon. The British Columbia salmon fossil provides evidence that the divergence between Pacific and Atlantic salmon had not yet occurred 40 million years ago, Both the fossil record and analysis of mitochondrial DNA suggest the divergence occurred by 10 to 20 million years ago. This independent evidence from DNA analysis and the fossil record rejects the theory of salmon divergence. Atlantic salmon reproduce in northern rivers on both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, landlocked salmon live in a number of lakes in eastern North America and in Northern Europe, for instance in lakes Sebago, Onega, Ladoga, Saimaa, Vänern, and Winnipesaukee
23.
Shark
–
Sharks are a group of elasmobranch fish characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton, five to seven gill slits on the sides of the head, and pectoral fins that are not fused to the head. Modern sharks are classified within the clade Selachimorpha and are the group to the rays. Under this broader definition, the earliest known sharks date back to more than 420 million years ago, acanthodians are often referred to as spiny sharks, though they are not part of Chondrichthyes proper, they are a paraphyletic assemblage leading to cartilaginous fish as a whole. Since then, sharks have diversified into over 500 species, Sharks are found in all seas and are common to depths of 2,000 metres. They generally do not live in freshwater although there are a few exceptions, such as the bull shark and the river shark. Sharks have a covering of dermal denticles that protects their skin from damage and they have numerous sets of replaceable teeth. Well-known species such as the white shark, tiger shark, blue shark, mako shark. Many shark populations are threatened by human activities, until the 16th century, sharks were known to mariners as sea dogs. The etymology of the shark is uncertain. One theory is that it derives from the Yucatec Maya word xok, however, the Middle English Dictionary records an isolated occurrence of the word shark in a letter written by Thomas Beckington in 1442, which rules out a New World etymology. Evidence for the existence of sharks dates from the Ordovician period, 450–420 million years ago, before land vertebrates existed and before many plants had colonized the continents. Only scales have been recovered from the first sharks and not all agree that these are from true sharks. The oldest generally accepted shark scales are from about 420 million years ago, the first sharks looked very different from modern sharks. The majority of sharks can be traced back to around 100 million years ago. Most fossils are of teeth, often in large numbers, partial skeletons and even complete fossilized remains have been discovered. Estimates suggest that sharks grow tens of thousands of teeth over a lifetime, the teeth consist of easily fossilized calcium phosphate, an apatite. When a shark dies, the decomposing skeleton breaks up, scattering the apatite prisms, preservation requires rapid burial in bottom sediments. Among the most ancient and primitive sharks is Cladoselache, from about 370 million years ago, which has been found within Paleozoic strata in Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee
24.
Anchovy
–
An anchovy is a small, common salt-water forage fish of the family Engraulidae. The 144 species are placed in 17 genera, they are found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, and in the Black Sea, Anchovies are usually classified as oily fish. Anchovies are small, green fish with blue reflections due to a longitudinal stripe that runs from the base of the caudal fin. They range from 2 to 40 cm in length. The snout is blunt with tiny, sharp teeth in both jaws, the snout contains a unique rostral organ, believed to be sensory in nature, although its exact function is unknown. The mouth is larger than that of herrings and silversides, two fish which anchovies closely resemble in other respects, the anchovy eats plankton and recently hatched fish. Anchovies are found in scattered areas throughout the oceans, but are concentrated in temperate waters. They are generally accepting of a wide range of temperatures. Large schools can be found in shallow, brackish areas with muddy bottoms, as in estuaries and they are abundant in the Mediterranean, particularly in the Alboran Sea, Aegean Sea and the Black Sea. The species is caught along the coasts of Crete, Greece, Sicily, Italy, France, Turkey. They are also found on the coast of northern Africa, the range of the species also extends along the Atlantic coast of Europe to the south of Norway. Spawning occurs between October and March, but not in water colder than 12 °C, the anchovy appears to spawn at least 100 km from the shore, near the surface of the water. The anchovy is a significant food source for almost every predatory fish in its environment, including the California halibut, rock fish, yellowtail, shark, chinook, and coho salmon. It is also important to marine mammals and birds, for example, breeding success of California brown pelicans. Anchovies, like most clupeoids, are filter-feeders that open their mouths as they swim, as water passes through the mouth and out the gills, food particles are sieved by gill rakers and transferred into the esophagus. * Type species On average, the Turkish commercial fishing fleet catches around 300,000 tons per year, the largest catch is in November and December. The Peruvian anchovy fishery is one of the largest in the world, in 1973 it collapsed catastrophically due to the combined effects of overfishing and El Niño and did not recover fully for two decades. A traditional method of processing and preserving anchovies is to gut and salt them in brine, allow them to mature and this results in a characteristic strong flavor and the flesh turns deep grey
25.
Herring
–
Herring are forage fish, mostly belonging to the family Clupeidae. Herring often move in schools around fishing banks and near the coast. Three species of Clupea are recognised, and provide about 90% of all captured in fisheries. Most abundant of all is the Atlantic herring, providing half of all herring capture. Fishes called herring are found in India, in the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean. Herring played a role in the history of marine fisheries in Europe. These oily fish also have a history as an important food fish. A number of different species, most belonging to the family Clupeidae, are referred to as herrings. The origins of the herring is somewhat unclear, though it may derive from the Old High German heri meaning a host, multitude. The type genus of the herring family Clupeidae is Clupea, Clupea contains three species, the Atlantic herring found in the north Atlantic, the Pacific herring found in the north Pacific, and the Araucanian herring found off the coast of Chile. Subspecific divisions have been suggested for both the Atlantic and Pacific herrings, but their biological basis remain unclear, in addition, a number of related species, all in the family Clupeidae, are commonly referred to as herrings. The table immediately below includes those members of the Clupeidae family referred to by FishBase as herrings which have been assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. There are also a number of other species called herrings, which may be related to clupeids or just share some characteristics of herrings. Just which of these species are called herrings can vary with locality, some examples, The species of Clupea belong to the larger family Clupeidae, which comprises some 200 species that share similar features. These silvery-coloured fish have a dorsal fin, which is soft. They have no lateral line and have a lower jaw. At least one stock of Atlantic herring spawns in every month of the year, each spawns at a different time and place. Greenland populations spawn in 0–5 metres of water while North Sea herrings spawn at up to 200 metres in autumn
26.
Menhaden
–
Menhaden, also known as mossbunker and bunker, are forage fish of the genera Brevoortia and Ethmidium, two genera of marine fish in the family Clupeidae. Menhaden is a blend of poghaden and an Algonquian word akin to Narragansett munnawhatteaûg, derived from munnohquohteau ‘he fertilizes’ and it is generally thought that Pilgrims were advised by Tisquantum to plant menhaden with their crops. Menhaden are flat, have soft flesh, and a forked tail. They rarely exceed 15 inches in length, and have a weight range. Gulf menhaden and Atlantic menhaden are small oily-fleshed fish, bright silver and they tend to have larger scales than Yellowfin menhaden and Finescale menhaden. In addition, Yellowfin menhaden tail rays are a yellow in contrast to those of the Atlantic menhaden. Recent taxonomic work using DNA comparisons have organized the North American menhadens into large-scaled and small-scaled designations, Menhaden have two main sources of food, phytoplankton and zooplankton. A menhaden’s diet varies considerably over the course of its lifetime, the smallest menhaden, typically those under one year old, eat primarily phytoplankton. After that age, adult menhaden gradually shift to a diet comprised almost exclusively of zooplankton, Menhaden are omnivorous filter feeders, feeding by straining plankton and algae from water. Along with oysters, which water on the sea bed, menhaden play a key role in the food chain in estuaries. Atlantic menhaden are an important link between plankton and upper level predators, because of their filter feeding abilities, menhaden consume and redistribute a significant amount of energy within and between Chesapeake Bay and other estuaries, and the coastal ocean. Because they play this role, and their abundance, menhaden are a prey species for many predatory fish, such as striped bass, bluefish, mackerel, flounder, tuna, drums. They are also an important food source for many birds, including egrets, ospreys, seagulls, northern gannets, pelicans. In 2012 the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission declared that the Atlantic menhaden was depleted due to overfishing, the decision was driven by issues with water quality in the Chesapeake Bay and failing efforts to re-introduce predator species, due to lack of menhaden on which they could feed. Menhaden are not used directly for food and they are processed into fish oil and fish meal that are used as food ingredients, animal feed, and dietary supplements. It has a high fat content. Fish oil made from menhaden also is used as a raw material for such as lipstick. According to James Kirkley of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, the first is known as a reduction fishery
27.
Sardine
–
Sardine and pilchard are common names used to refer to various small, oily fish within the herring family of Clupeidae. The term sardine was first used in English during the early 15th century and may come from the Mediterranean island of Sardinia, the terms sardine and pilchard are not precise, and what is meant depends on the region. The United Kingdoms Sea Fish Industry Authority, for example, classifies sardines as young pilchards, one criterion suggests fish shorter in length than 15 cm are sardines, and larger fish are pilchards. Typically, sardines are caught with encircling nets, particularly purse seines, many modifications of encircling nets are used, including traps or weirs. The latter are stationary enclosures composed of stakes into which schools of sardines are diverted as they swim along the coast, the fish are caught mainly at night, when they approach the surface to feed on plankton. After harvesting, the fish are submerged in brine while they are transported to shore, sardines are commercially fished for a variety of uses, for bait, for immediate consumption, for drying, salting, or smoking, and for reduction into fish meal or oil. The chief use of sardines is for consumption, but fish meal is used as animal feed, while sardine oil has many uses, including the manufacture of paint, varnish. Sardines are commonly consumed by human beings, fresh sardines are often grilled, pickled or smoked, or preserved in cans. Sardines are rich in vitamins and minerals, a small serving of sardines once a day can provide 13 percent of vitamin B2, roughly one-quarter of niacin, and about 150 percent of the recommended daily value of vitamin B12. All B vitamins help to support proper nervous system function and are used for energy metabolism, also, sardines are high in the major minerals such as phosphorus, calcium, potassium, and some trace minerals including iron and selenium. Sardines are also a source of marine omega-3 fatty acids. Recent studies suggest that consumption of omega-3 fatty acids reduces the likelihood of developing Alzheimers disease. These fatty acids can also lower blood sugar levels and they are also a good source of vitamin D, calcium, vitamin B12, and protein. Because they are low in the chain, sardines are very low in contaminants such as mercury. Pilchard fishing and processing became an industry in Cornwall from around 1750 to around 1880. Catches varied from year to year and, in 1871 the catch was 47,000 hogsheads while in 1877 only 9,477 hogsheads, a hogshead contained 2,300 to 4,000 pilchards and, when filled with pressed pilchards, weighed 476 lbs. The pilchards were exported to Roman Catholic countries such as Italy. The chief market for the oil was Bristol where it is used on machinery, as of 2007, however, stocks are improving
28.
Alosinae
–
The Alosinae, or the shads, are a subfamily of fishes in the herring family Clupeidae. The subfamily comprises seven genera worldwide, and about 30 species, the shads are pelagic schooling fish, of which many are anadromous or even landlocked. Several species are of importance, e. g. in the genus Alosa, Brevoortia. The Shad Foundation Shad Planking, a Virginia political gathering featuring the consumption of shad
29.
Sprat
–
A sprat is the common name applied to a group of forage fish belonging to the genus Sprattus in the family Clupeidae. The term is applied to a number of other small sprat-like forage fish. Like most forage fishes, sprats are highly active small oily fish and they travel in large schools with other fish and swim continuously throughout the day. They are also recognized for their value as they contain high levels of polyunsaturated fats. Sprats are sometimes passed for other fish, products sold as having been prepared from anchovies and sardines are sometimes prepared from sprats and they are known for their smooth flavour and are easy to mistake for baby sardines. True sprats belong to the genus Sprattus in the family Clupeidae, * Type species The term is also commonly applied to a number of other small sprat-like forage fish which share characteristics of the true sprat. Apart from the true sprats, FishBase list another 48 species whose common names ends with sprat, the development of young larval sprat and reproductive success of the sprat have been largely influenced by environmental factors. Some of these factors that are affecting the sprat can be seen in the Baltic Sea, where specific gravity, water temperature, depth, and other such factors play a role in the success of the sprat. The amount of sprat over the last two decades has fluctuated due primarily to availability of zooplankton, a food source. Although the overall survival rates of the sprat decreased in the late 1980s and early 1990s, recent studies suggesting that there is a progression in the reproductive success of the sprat acknowledge that there has been a significant increase in spawning stock biomass. The metabolic rate of the sprat is highly influenced by factors such as water temperature. Several related fish such as the Atlantic Herring have a lower metabolic rate than that of the sprat. Fish of the different species of sprat are found in parts of the world including New Zealand, Australia. By far, the most highly studied location where the sprat, most commonly Sprattus sprattus, resides is the Baltic Sea, the Baltic Sea provides the sprat with a highly diverse environment, with spatial and temporal potential allowing for successful reproduction. One of the most well-known locations in the Baltic Sea where they forage for their food is the Bornholm Basin, although the Baltic Sea has undergone several ecological changes during the last two decades, the sprat has dramatically increased in population. In the Baltic Sea, cod, herring, and sprat are considered the most important species, cod is the top predator while the herring and sprat are recognized primarily as prey. This has been proven by many studies that analyze the contents of such fish. Although cod primarily feed on adult sprat, sprat tend to feed on cod before they have fully developed
30.
Demersal fish
–
Demersal fish live and feed on or near the bottom of seas or lakes. They occupy the sea floors and lake beds, which usually consist of mud, sand, in coastal waters they are found on or near the continental shelf, and in deep waters they are found on or near the continental slope or along the continental rise. They are not generally found in the deepest waters, such as abyssal depths or on the abyssal plain, the word demersal comes from the Latin demergere, which means to sink. They can be contrasted with fish which live and feed away from the bottom in the open water column. Demersal fish fillets contain little fish oil, whereas pelagic fish can contain up to 30 percent. Demersal fish can be divided into two types, strictly benthic fish which can rest on the sea floor, and benthopelagic fish which can float in the water column just above the sea floor. As with other bottom feeders, a mechanism to deal with substrate is often necessary, with demersal fish the sand is usually pumped out of the mouth through the gill slit. Most demersal fish exhibit a ventral region so as to more easily rest their body on the substrate. The exception may be the flatfish, which are laterally depressed, also, many exhibit what is termed an inferior mouth, which means that the mouth is pointed downwards, this is beneficial as their food is often going to be below them in the substrate. Those bottom feeders with upward-pointing mouths, such as stargazers, tend to seize swimming prey, benthic fish, sometimes called groundfish, are denser than water, so they can rest on the sea floor. They either lie-and-wait as ambush predators, maybe covering themselves with sand or otherwise camouflaging themselves, benthic fish which can bury themselves include dragonets, flatfish and stingrays. Flatfish are an order of ray-finned benthic fishes which lie flat on the ocean floor, examples are flounder, sole, turbot, plaice, and halibut. The adult fish of many species have eyes on one side of the head. When the fish hatches, one eye is located on side of its head. But as the fish grows from the stage, one eye migrates to the other side of the body as a process of metamorphosis. The flatfish then changes its habits, and camouflages itself by lying on the bottom of the floor with both eyes facing upwards. The side on which the eye migrates depends on the species, flounder ambush their prey, feeding at soft muddy area of the sea bottom, near bridge piles, docks, artificial and coral reefs. Their diet consists mainly of fish spawn, crustaceans, polychaetes, the great hammerhead swings its head in broad angles over the sea floor to pick up the electrical signatures of stingrays buried in the sand
31.
Cod
–
Cod is the common name for the genus Gadus of demersal fishes, belonging to the family Gadidae. Cod is also used as part of the name for a number of other fish species. Gadus morhua was named by Linnaeus in 1758, Cod is popular as a food with a mild flavour and a dense, flaky, white flesh. Cod livers are processed to make cod liver oil, an important source of vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, young Atlantic cod or haddock prepared in strips for cooking is called scrod. In the United Kingdom, Atlantic cod is one of the most common ingredients in fish and chips, along with haddock, at various times in the past, taxonomists included many species in the genus Gadus. Most of these are now classified in other genera, or have been recognized as simply forms of one of three species. All these species have a number of names, most of them ending with the word cod, whereas other species. However, many other, unrelated species also have names ending with cod. The usage often changes with different localities and at different times, three species in the Gadus genus are currently called cod, Cod forms part of the common name of many other fish no longer classified in the genus Gadus. The tadpole cod family has now placed in Gadidae. Gadiformes include, Some fish have common names derived from cod, such as codling, Some fish commonly known as cod are unrelated to Gadus. Part of this confusion is market-driven. Severely shrunken Atlantic cod stocks have led to the marketing of cod replacements using culinary names of the form x cod, the common names for the following species have become well established, note that all inhabit the Southern Hemisphere. Most are better known as groupers, and belong to the family Serranidae, Some fish that do not have cod in their names are sometimes sold as cod. Haddock and whiting belong to the family, the Gadidae. Haddock Melanogrammus aeglefinus Whiting Merlangius merlangus Cods of the genus Gadus have three rounded dorsal and two anal fins, the pelvic fins are small, with the first ray extended, and are set under the gill cover, in front of the pectoral fins. The upper jaw extends over the jaw, which has a well-developed chin barbel. The eyes are medium-sized, approximately the same as the length of the chin barbel, Cod have a distinct white lateral line running from the gill slit above the pectoral fin, to the base of the caudal or tail fin
32.
Eel
–
An eel is any fish belonging to the order Anguilliformes, which consists of four suborders,20 families,111 genera and about 800 species. The term eel is used for some other similarly shaped fish, such as electric eels and spiny eels. Eels are elongated fish, ranging in length from 5 cm in the eel to 4 m in the slender giant moray. Adults range in weight from 30 g to well over 25 kg and they possess no pelvic fins, and many species also lack pectoral fins. The dorsal and anal fins are fused with the caudal fin, eels swim by generating body waves which travel the length of their bodies. They can swim backwards by reversing the direction of the wave, most eels live in the shallow waters of the ocean and burrow into sand, mud, or amongst rocks. A majority of eel species are nocturnal, thus are rarely seen, sometimes, they are seen living together in holes, or eel pits. Some species of eels live in deeper water on the continental shelves. Only members of the Anguilla regularly inhabit fresh water, but they, too, the heaviest true eel is the European conger. The maximum size of species has been reported as reaching a length of 3 m. Other eels are longer, but do not weigh as much, such as the giant moray which reaches 4 m. Eels begin life as flat and transparent larvae, called leptocephali, Eel larvae drift in the surface waters of the sea, feeding on marine snow, small particles that float in the water. Eel larvae then metamorphose into glass eels and then become elvers before finally seeking out their juvenile, freshwater elvers travel upstream and are forced to climb up obstructions, such as weirs, dam walls, and natural waterfalls. Lady Colin Campbell found, at Ballisodare, the eel fisheries were greatly improved by the hanging of loosely plaited grass ladders over barriers and this classification follows FishBase in dividing the eels into 20 families. Additional families included in other classifications are noted below the family with which they are synomized in the Fish Base system, identifying the origin of the freshwater species has been problematic. Genomic studies indicate they are a group which originated among the deep-sea eels. The electric eel of South America is not a true eel, freshwater eels and marine eels are commonly used in Japanese cuisine, foods such as unadon and unajū are popular, but expensive. Eels are also popular in Chinese cuisine, and are prepared in many different ways
33.
Flatfish
–
A flatfish is a member of the order Pleuronectiformes of ray-finned demersal fishes, also called the Heterosomata, sometimes classified as a suborder of Perciformes. In many species, both lie on one side of the head, one or the other migrating through. Some species face their left sides upward, some face their right sides upward, many important food fish are in this order, including the flounders, soles, turbot, plaice, and halibut. Some flatfish can camouflage themselves on the ocean floor. Over 700 species are in the 11 families, the largest families are Bothidae, Cynoglossidae, Paralichthyidae, Pleuronectidae, and Soleidae, with more than 100 species each. Some families are the results of relatively recent splits, for example, the Achiridae were classified as a subfamily of Soleidae in the past, and the Samaridae were considered a subfamily of the Pleuronectidae. The Pleuronectidae may be split further still, as some authorities elevate Paralichthodinae, Poecilopsettinae, the taxonomy of some groups is in need of a review, as the last monograph covering the entire order was John Roxborough Normans Monograph of the Flatfishes published in 1934. New species are described with some regularity and undescribed species likely remain, hybrids are well known in flatfishes. The Pleuronectidae, of fishes, have the largest number of reported hybrids. Two of the most famous intergeneric hybrids are between the European plaice and European flounder in the Baltic Sea, and between the English sole and starry flounder in Puget Sound. The offspring of the species pair is popularly known as the hybrid sole and was initially believed to be a valid species in its own right. Flatfishes are found in worldwide, ranging from the Arctic, through the tropics. Most species are found in depths between 0 and 500 m, but a few have been recorded from depths in excess of 1,500 m, none have been confirmed from the abyssal or hadal zones. Among the deepwater species, Symphurus thermophilus lives in congregating around ponds of sulphur at hydrothermal vents on the seafloor, no other flatfish is known from hydrothermal vents. Many species will enter brackish or fresh water, and a number of soles. The most obvious characteristic of the flatfish is its asymmetry, with both eyes lying on the side of the head in the adult fish. In some families, the eyes are usually on the side of the body. The primitive spiny turbots include equal numbers of right- and left-sided individuals, other distinguishing features of the order are the presence of protrusible eyes, another adaptation to living on the seabed, and the extension of the dorsal fin onto the head
34.
Pollock
–
Pollock is the common name used for either of the two species of North Atlantic marine fish in the genus Pollachius. Pollachius pollachius is referred to as pollock in both North America and the United Kingdom, while Pollachius virens today is known as coley in the British Isles. Other names for P. pollachius include the Atlantic pollock, European pollock, lieu jaune, the currently recognized species in this genus are, P. pollachius P. virens Both species can grow to 105 centimetres and can weigh up to 21 kilograms. P. virens has a defined, silvery lateral line running down the sides. Above the lateral line, the color is a greenish black, the belly is white, while P. pollachius has a distinctly crooked lateral line, grayish to golden belly, and a dark brown back. P. pollachius also has a strong underbite and it can be found in water up to 180 metres deep over rocks, and anywhere in the water column. One member of the genus Gadus is also referred to as Pollock. While related to the above pollock species, they are not members of the genus Pollachius, Alaska pollock generally spawn in late winter and early spring in the southeastern Bering Sea. The Alaska pollock is a significant part of the fishery in the Gulf of Alaska. Atlantic pollock is considered to be a whitefish, although it is a fairly strongly flavored one. Traditionally a popular source of food in countries, such as Norway, in the United Kingdom it has previously been largely consumed as a cheaper and versatile alternative to cod. However, in recent years, pollock has become popular due to overfishing of cod. It can now be found in most supermarkets as fresh fillets or prepared freezer items, for example, it is used minced in fish fingers or as an ingredient in imitation crab meat. Because of its gray color, pollock is often prepared, as in Norway, as fried fish balls, or if juvenile sized, breaded with oatmeal and fried. Year-old fish are split, salted, and dried over a peat hearth in Orkney. The fish can also be salted and smoked and achieve a salmon-like orange color, as is the case in Germany, in Korea, pollock may be repeatedly frozen and defrosted to create hwangtae, half-dried to create ko-da-ri, or fully dried and eaten as book-o. In 2009, U. K. supermarket Sainsburys briefly renamed pollock colin in a bid to boost ecofriendly sales of the fish as an alternative to cod. Sainsburys, which said the new name was derived from the French for cooked pollock, launched the product under the banner Colin, froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds
35.
Batoidea
–
Batoidea is a superorder of cartilaginous fish commonly known as rays. They and their relatives, the sharks, comprise the subclass Elasmobranchii. Rays are the largest group of fishes, with well over 600 species in 26 families. Rays are distinguished by their bodies, enlarged pectoral fins that are fused to the head. Batoids are flat-bodied, and, like sharks, are marine fish, meaning they have a boneless skeleton made of a tough. Most batoids have five ventral slot-like body openings called gill slits that lead from the gills, batoid gill slits lie under the pectoral fins on the underside, whereas a sharks are on the sides of the head. Most batoids have a flat, disk-like body, with the exception of the guitarfishes and sawfishes, many species of batoid have developed their pectoral fins into broad flat wing-like appendages. The eyes and spiracles are located on top of the head, Batoids have a ventrally located mouth and can considerably protrude their upper jaw away from the cranium to capture prey. The jaws have euhyostylic type suspension, which relies completely on the hyomandibular cartilages for support, bottom-dwelling batoids breathe by taking water in through the spiracles, rather than through the mouth as most fishes do, and passing it outward through the gills. Batoids reproduce in a number of ways, as is characteristic of elasmobranchs, batoids undergo internal fertilisation. All skates and some rays are oviparous while other rays are ovoviviparous, meaning that they give birth to young which develop in a womb but without involvement of a placenta. The eggs of oviparous skates are laid in egg cases that are commonly known as mermaids purses. Most species live on the sea floor, in a variety of geographical regions — mainly in coastal waters, most batoids have a cosmopolitan distribution, preferring tropical and subtropical marine environments, although there are temperate and cold-water species. Only a few species, like manta rays, live in the open sea, most batoids have developed heavy, rounded teeth for crushing the shells of bottom-dwelling species such as snails, clams, oysters, crustaceans, and some fish, depending on the species. The classification of batoids is currently undergoing revision, however, molecular evidence refutes the hypothesis that skates, nelsons 2006 Fishes of the World recognizes four orders. The Mesozoic Sclerorhynchoidea are basal or incertae sedis, they show features of the Rajiformes but have snouts resembling those of sawfishes, Rays are basically flattened sharks, adapted for feeding on the bottom. Guitarfish are somewhat between sharks and rays, and show characteristics of both, list of threatened rays Shark references. Database of bibliography of living/fossil sharks and rays with more than 15.000 listed papers, martin, R Aidan, Batoids, Sawfishes, Guitarfishes, Electric Rays, Skates, and Sting Rays, Elasmo research, ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research
36.
Carp
–
Carp are various species of oily freshwater fish from the family Cyprinidae, a very large group of fish native to Europe and Asia. The cypriniformes are traditionally grouped with the Characiformes, Siluriformes, and Gymnotiformes to create the superorder Ostariophysi, the third anterior-most pair of ribs is in contact with the extension of the labyrinth and the posterior with the swim bladder. Most cypriniformes have scales and teeth on the pharyngeal bones which may be modified in relation to the diet. Tribolodon is the only cyprinid genus which tolerates salt water, several species move into brackish water but return to fresh water to spawn. All of the other cypriniformes live in waters and have a wide geographical range. Some consider all cyprinid fishes carp, and the family Cyprinidae itself is known as the carp family. Carp have long been an important food fish to humans, several species such as the various goldfish breeds and the domesticated common carp variety known as koi have been popular ornamental fishes. As a result, carp have been introduced to various locations, several species of carp are listed as invasive species by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and, worldwide, large sums of money are spent on carp control. At least some species of carp are able to survive for months with no oxygen by metabolizing glycogen to form ethanol. Carp are variable in terms of angling value, in Europe, even when not fished for food, they are eagerly sought by anglers, being considered highly prized coarse fish that are difficult to hook. The UK has a thriving carp angling market, in the United States, carp are also classified as a rough fish, as well as damaging to naturalized exotic species, but with sporting qualities. Many states departments of natural resources are beginning to view the carp as a fish instead of a maligned pest. Various species of carp have been domesticated and reared as food fish across Europe and these various species appear to have been domesticated independently, as the various domesticated carp species are native to different parts of Eurasia. Aquaculture has been pursued in China for at least 2,400 years, a tract by Fan Li in the fifth century BC details many of the ways carp were raised in ponds. The common carp, Cyprinus carpio, is originally from Central Europe, several carp species were domesticated in East Asia. Carp that are originally from South Asia, for example catla, rohu and their hardiness and adaptability have allowed domesticated species to be propagated all around the world. Although the carp was an important aquatic food item, as fish species have become readily available for the table. Demand has declined, partly due to the appearance of more desirable fish such as trout and salmon through intensive farming
37.
Tilapia
–
Tilapia is the common name for nearly a hundred species of cichlid fish from the tilapiine cichlid tribe. Tilapia are mainly freshwater fish inhabiting shallow streams, ponds, rivers and lakes, historically, they have been of major importance in artisan fishing in Africa and the Middle East, and they are of increasing importance in aquaculture and aquaponics. Tilapia is the fourth most consumed fish in the United States dating back to 2002, the popularity of tilapia came about due to its cheap price, easy preparation, and its mild taste. Tilapia was a symbol of rebirth in Egyptian art, and was in addition associated with Hathor and it was also said to accompany and protect the sun god on his daily journey across the sky. Tilapia were one of the three types of fish caught in Biblical times from the Sea of Galilee. At that time they were called Amnoon, in Arabic the fish is called Musht, which means a comb, as resembled by its backfin or commonly now as St. Peters fish. The name St. Peters fish comes from the story in the Gospel of Matthew about the apostle Peter catching a fish that carried a coin in its mouth and these species have been the target of small-scale artisanal fisheries in the area for thousands of years. The common name tilapia is based on the name of the cichlid genus Tilapia, which is itself a latinisation of thiape, scottish zoologist Andrew Smith named the genus in 1840. Tilapia typically have laterally compressed, deep bodies, like other cichlids, their lower pharyngeal bones are fused into a single tooth-bearing structure. This means they are efficient feeders that can capture and process a variety of food items. Their mouths are protrusible, usually bordered with wide and often swollen lips, typically tilapia have a long dorsal fin, and a lateral line which often breaks towards the end of the dorsal fin, and starts again two or three rows of scales below. Some Nile tilapia can grow as long as two feet, other than their temperature sensitivity, tilapia exist in or can adapt to a very wide range of conditions. One extreme example is the Salton Sea, where tilapia introduced when the water was brackish now live in saltwater so salty that it kills marine fish, Tilapia are also known to be a mouth breeding species. Mouth breeding means they carry the eggs and young fish in their mouths for several days after the yolk sac is absorbed. Tilapia as a name has been applied to various cichlids from three distinct genera, Oreochromis, Sarotherodon and Tilapia. The members of the two genera used to belong to the genus Tilapia but have since been split off into their own genera. However, particular species within are still commonly called tilapia regardless of the change in their actual taxonomic nomenclature, the species remaining in Tilapia in particular still seem to be a paraphyletic assemblage. Tilapia has been used as controls for certain aquatic plant problems
38.
Tribe (biology)
–
In biology, a tribe is a taxonomic rank above genus, but below family and subfamily. It is sometimes subdivided into subtribes, in zoology, some examples include the tribes Caprini, Hominini, Bombini, and Thunnini. The standard ending for the name of a tribe is -ini. The tribe Hominini is divided into subtribes by some scientists, subtribe Hominina then comprises humans, the standard ending for the name of a zoological subtribe is -ina. In botany, examples include the tribes Acalypheae and Hyacintheae, the standard ending for the name of a botanical tribe is -eae. The tribe Hyacintheae is divided into subtribes, including the subtribe Massoniinae, the standard ending for the name of a botanical subtribe is -inae. In bacteriology, the form of names is as in botany, e. g. Pseudomonadeae
39.
Genus
–
A genus is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms in biology. In the hierarchy of classification, genus comes above species. In binomial nomenclature, the name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus. Felis catus and Felis silvestris are two species within the genus Felis, Felis is a genus within the family Felidae. The composition of a genus is determined by a taxonomist, the standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. Moreover, genera should be composed of units of the same kind as other genera. The term comes from the Latin genus, a noun form cognate with gignere, linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum, but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort is considered the founder of the modern concept of genera. The scientific name of a genus may be called the name or generic epithet. It plays a role in binomial nomenclature, the system of naming organisms. The rules for the names of organisms are laid down in the Nomenclature Codes. The standard way of scientifically describing species and other lower-ranked taxa is by binomial nomenclature, the generic name forms its first half. For example, the gray wolfs binomial name is Canis lupus, with Canis being the name shared by the wolfs close relatives. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany. Especially with these names, when the generic name is known from context. Because animals are typically only grouped within subspecies, it is written as a trinomen with a third name. Dog breeds, meanwhile, are not scientifically distinguished, there are several divisions of plant species and therefore their infraspecific names generally include contractions explaining the relation. For example, the genus Hibiscus includes hundreds of other species apart from the Rose of Sharon or common garden hibiscus, Rose of Sharon doesnt have subspecies but has cultivars that carry desired traits, such as the bright white H. syriaca Diana. Hawaiian hibiscus, meanwhile, includes several separate species, since not all botanists agree on the divisions or names between species, it is common to specify the source of the name using author abbreviations
40.
Scomber
–
Scomber is a genus of fish in the family Scombridae living in the open ocean found in Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Ocean. The genus Scomber and the genus Rastrelliger comprise the tribe Scombrini and these fishes have an elongated body, highly streamlined, muscular and agile. The eyes are large, the head is elongated, with a big mouth provided with teeth and they have two dorsal triangular fins, with some stabilizing fins along the caudal peduncle. The basic color is blue-green with a white belly and a darker back. They are known from various localities of Germany, Italy, Romania, Japan and Mexico
41.
Rastrelliger
–
Rastrelliger is a mackerel genus in the family Scombridae. The three species of Rastrelliger together with the four species of Scomber comprise the tribe Scombrini, known as the true mackerels, island mackerel, R. faughni Matsui,1967. Media related to Rastrelliger at Wikimedia Commons
42.
Trophic level
–
The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain. The word trophic derives from the Greek τροφή referring to food or feeding, a food chain represents a succession of organisms that eat another organism and are, in turn, eaten themselves. The number of steps an organism is from the start of the chain is a measure of its trophic level. Food chains start at trophic level 1 with primary producers such as plants, move to herbivores at level 2, predators at level 3, the path along the chain can form either a one-way flow or a food web. Ecological communities with higher biodiversity form more complex trophic paths, the three basic ways in which organisms get food are as producers, consumers and decomposers. Producers are typically plants or algae, Plants and algae do not usually eat other organisms, but pull nutrients from the soil or the ocean and manufacture their own food using photosynthesis. For this reason, they are called primary producers, in this way, it is energy from the sun that usually powers the base of the food chain. An exception occurs in deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems, where there is no sunlight, here primary producers manufacture food through a process called chemosynthesis. Consumers are species that cannot manufacture their own food and need to other organisms. Animals that eat primary producers are called herbivores, animals that eat other animals are called carnivores, and animals that eat both plant and other animals are called omnivores. Decomposers break down plant and animal material and wastes and release it again as energy. Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi, feed on waste and dead matter, Trophic levels can be represented by numbers, starting at level 1 with plants. Further trophic levels are numbered according to how far the organism is along the food chain. Level 1, Plants and algae make their own food and are called primary producers, level 2, Herbivores eat plants and are called primary consumers. Level 3, Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers, level 4, Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers. Level 5, Apex predators that have no predators are at the top of the food chain. In real world ecosystems, there is more than one chain for most organisms. A diagram that sets out the network of intersecting and overlapping food chains for an ecosystem is called its food web
43.
FishBase
–
FishBase is a global species database of fish species. It is the largest and most extensively accessed online database on adult finfish on the web, over time it has evolved into a dynamic and versatile ecological tool that is widely cited in scholarly publications. The site has about 700,000 unique visitors per month, hypotheses, such as this one, could be tested only if large amounts of empirical data were available. At the time, fisheries management used analytical models which required estimates for fish growth and it can be particularly difficult for people in developing countries who need such information. Such a database would be useful if the data has also been standardised and validated. Pauly recruited Rainer Froese, and the beginnings of a software database along these lines was encoded in 1988 and this database, initially confined to tropical fish, became the prototype for FishBase. FishBase was subsequently extended to cover all finfish, and was launched on the Web in August 1996 and it is now the largest and most accessed online database for fish in the world. In 1995 the first CD-ROM was released as FishBase 100, subsequent CDs have been released annually. The software runs on Microsoft Access which operates only on Microsoft Windows, FishBase covers adult finfish, but does not detail the early and juvenile stages of fish. In 1999 a complimentary database, called LarvalBase, went online under the supervision of Bernd Ueberschär. It covers ichthyoplankton and the stage of fishes, with detailed data on fish eggs and larvae, fish identification. Given FishBases success, there was a demand for a database covering forms of life other than finfish. This resulted, in 2006, in the birth of SeaLifeBase, altogether, there are about 300,000 known species in this category. As awareness of FishBase has grown among fish specialists, it has attracted over 1,700 contributors and collaborators, since 2000 FishBase has been supervised by a consortium consisting of nine international institutions. The Leibniz Institute of Marine Sciences in Kiel, Germany, functions as the coordinating body, Catalog of Fishes List of online encyclopedias Bailly N Why there may be discrepancies in the assessment of scientific names between the Catalog of Fishes and FishBase Version 2,6 May 2010. Bailly N, Reyes Jr R, Atanacio R and Froese R Simple Identification Tools in FishBase In, Nimis PL and Vignes Lebbe R. Tools for Identifying Biodiversity, Progress and Problems, pages 31–36. Froese R The science in Fishbase In, Villy Christensen and Jay Maclean Ecosystem Approaches to Fisheries, A Global Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Froese R and Pauly D FishBase 2000, concepts, design and data sources ICLARM, Philippines. Froese R and Pauly D Fishbase as a tool for comparing the life patterns of flatfish Netherlands Journal of Sea Research,32
44.
International Union for Conservation of Nature
–
The International Union for Conservation of Nature is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying. IUCNs mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of resources is equitable. Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to equality, poverty alleviation. Unlike other international NGOs, IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation and it tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice, and through lobbying and partnerships. The organization is best known to the public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List. IUCN has a membership of over 1200 governmental and non-governmental organizations, some 11,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs approximately 1000 full-time staff in more than 60 countries and its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland. IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, and plays a role in the implementation of several conventions on nature conservation. It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature, in the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its relations with the business sector have caused controversy. It was previously called the International Union for Protection of Nature, establishment In 1947, the Swiss League for the Protection of Nature organised an international conference on the protection of nature in Brunnen. It is considered to be the first government-organized non-governmental organization, the initiative to set up the new organisation came from UNESCO and especially from its first Director General, the British biologist Julian Huxley. At the time of its founding IUPN was the international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation Early years. Its secretariat was located in Brussels and its first work program focused on saving species and habitats, increasing and applying knowledge, advancing education, promoting international agreements and promoting conservation. Providing a solid base for conservation action was the heart of all activities. IUPN and UNESCO were closely associated and they jointly organized the 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature. In preparation for this conference a list of endangered species was drawn up for the first time
45.
Short mackerel
–
The short mackerel or shortbodied mackerel is a species of mackerel in the family Scombridae. Its habitat is the waters of Southeast Asia and Melanesia. It is of importance in the fisheries industry. The short mackerel can attain a length of 34.5 cm. It reaches maturity at a length of about 17 cm, the species has the typical appearance of a medium-sized mackerel and is of silver colour. The short mackerel is pelagic but prefers to feed in estuarine habitats, the spawning season can extend from March to September, with individual populations spawning in batches. The species is of commercial importance, and is caught by various methods ranging from gillnetting to dynamite fishing. Pla thu is an important fish in Thai cuisine, where it is sold in the market with the head bent downwards. Pla thu is typically fried and eaten with nam phrik kapi, boiled and raw vegetables and leafy greens, as well as pieces of cha-om omelette, the name pla thu is sometimes also applied to the Indian mackerel, which is prepared in the same way. In the traditional way of processing the pla thu for preservation, the gills are removed and this is done to allow three fishes to fit into a small open-work bamboo basket of a predetermined size. Once in the baskets, the fish are boiled for a few minutes in large basins of sea-water with salt added at 1 kg of salt for every 4 litres of water, the pla thu prepared in this way will keep for a very long time in the refrigerator. In former times, it kept for two weeks without refrigeration as long as it was boiled for a few minutes every two days. In this manner, this sea fish could reach many places in interior Thailand, like the Chiang Mai area in the far north and even remote places in Isan, fresh pla thu is commonly used to make soups such as tom yam pla thu. This fish is so popular in Thai culture that the Samut Songkhram F. C. has a pla thu in its emblem. The Siamese are experts in modes of drying and salting fish of all kinds, and large quantities are exported annually to Java, Sumatra, Malacca, and China. The entrails of this mackerel are one of the ingredients of tai pla sauce. This type of mackerel is very important in the cuisine of other regions of Southeast Asia, such as Cambodia, the Philippines. Rastrelliger brachysoma FAO, Species Fact Sheet, problems with the Development of Fisheries in Thailand A video of pla thu being fried Chu chi pla thu sod - Picture
Data deficient[13]
Least concern[20]
Near threatened[45]
Vulnerable[47]
.
"Mackerel". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
"
.png)
