1.
Valdes Peninsula
–
The Valdes Peninsula is a peninsula on the Atlantic coast in the Biedma Department in the north east of Chubut Province, Argentina. Around 3,625 km2 in size, it is an important nature reserve which was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1999, the nearest large town is Puerto Madryn. The only town on the peninsula is the settlement of Puerto Pirámides. There are also a number of estancias, where sheep are raised, most of the peninsula is barren land with some salt lakes. The largest of these lakes is at an elevation of about 40 m below sea level, until recently thought to be the lowest elevation in Argentina, Valdes Peninsula has a semi-arid climate. It has a typical of northern Patagonia that is modified with interactions between atmospheric circulation patterns and the adjacent ocean. The peninsula is located between the high pressure belt and the subpolar low pressure zone, resulting in the wind being predominantly from the west. The mean annual temperature is 10.6 °C, ranging from a mean temperature of 8 °C in winter to 18 °C in summer. During winter, temperatures fluctuate between 0 to 15 °C with frosts being common, averaging 12–20 days during the season, temperatures in the summer can fluctuate between 15 to 35 °C. Mean annual precipitation is low, averaging 240 mm although this is variable from year to year. The interior of the peninsula receives slightly lower precipitation than the coastal areas, precipitation is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year though April–June receives the most precipitation. The El Niño Southern Oscillation strongly influences the climate of the peninsula, during an El Niño year, precipitation is higher from November to February. The coastline is inhabited by mammals, like sea lions, elephant seals. Southern right whales can be found in Golfo Nuevo and Golfo San José and these baleen whales come here between May and December, for mating and giving birth, because the water in the gulf is quieter and warmer than in the open sea. Orcas can be found off the coast, in the sea off the peninsula. In this area, they are known to themselves on shore to capture sea lions. The inner part of the peninsula is inhabited by rheas, guanacos, a high diversity and range of birds live in the peninsula as well, at least 181 bird species,66 of which migratory, live in the area, including the Antarctic pigeon. Chile - Argentina 2000, Peninsula Valdez
Valdes Peninsula
–
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Valdes Peninsula
–
Peninsula Valdés, photo taken during
shuttle mission STS-68.
Valdes Peninsula
–
Whale watching
Valdes Peninsula
–
Whale in Valdes Peninsula
2.
Conservation status
–
The conservation status of a group of organisms indicates whether the group still exists and how likely the group is to become extinct in the near future. Various systems of conservation status exist and are in use at international, multi-country, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the best known worldwide conservation status listing and ranking system. Also included are species that have gone extinct since 500 AD, when discussing the IUCN Red List, the official term threatened is a grouping of three categories, critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category, Data deficient – Not enough data to make an assessment of its risk of extinction Not evaluated – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora aims to ensure that trade in specimens of wild animals. Many countries require CITES permits when importing plants and animals listed on CITES, in the European Union, the Birds and Habitats Directives are the legal instruments that evaluate the conservation status within the EU of species and habitats. NatureServe conservation status focuses on Latin America, United States, Canada, and it has been developed by scientists from NatureServe, The Nature Conservancy, and the network of natural heritage programs and data centers. It is increasingly integrated with the IUCN Red List system and its categories for species include, presumed extinct, possibly extinct, critically imperiled, imperiled, vulnerable, apparently secure, and secure. The system also allows ambiguous or uncertain ranks including inexact numeric ranks, NatureServe adds a qualifier for captive or cultivated only, which has a similar meaning to the IUCN Red List extinct in the wild status. The Red Data Book of the Russian Federation is used within the Russian Federation, in Australia, the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 describes lists of threatened species, ecological communities and threatening processes. The categories resemble those of the 1994 IUCN Red List Categories & Criteria, prior to the EPBC Act, a simpler classification system was used by the Endangered Species Protection Act 1992. Some state and territory governments also have their own systems for conservation status, in Belgium, the Flemish Research Institute for Nature and Forest publishes an online set of more than 150 nature indicators in Dutch. In Canada, the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada is a group of experts that assesses and designates which wild species are in danger of disappearing from Canada. Under the Species at Risk Act, it is up to the federal government, in China, the State, provinces and some counties have determined their key protected wildlife species. There is the China red data book, in Finland, a large number of species are protected under the Nature Conservation Act, and through the EU Habitats Directive and EU Birds Directive. In Germany, the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation publishes red lists of endangered species, india has the Wild Life Protection Act,1972, Amended 2003 and the Biological Diversity Act,2002. In Japan, the Ministry of Environment publishes a Threatened Wildlife of Japan Red Data Book, in the Netherlands, the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality publishes a list of threatened species, and conservation is enforced by the Nature Conservation Act 1998. Species are also protected through the Wild Birds and Habitats Directives, in New Zealand, the Department of Conservation publishes the New Zealand Threat Classification System lists
Conservation status
–
by
IUCN Red List category
Conservation status
–
IUCN Red List
Conservation status
–
Conservation biology
3.
Near Threatened
–
The IUCN notes the importance of re-evaluating near-threatened taxa at appropriate intervals. The rationale used for near-threatened taxa usually includes the criteria of vulnerable which are plausible or nearly met, additionally, the 402 conservation-dependent taxa may also be considered near-threatened. Prior to 2001, the IUCN used the version 2.3 Categories and Criteria, with this category system, Near Threatened and Conservation Dependent were both subcategories of the category Lower Risk. IUCN Red List near threatened species, ordered by taxonomic rank, category, IUCN Red List near threatened species, ordered alphabetically
Near Threatened
–
by
IUCN Red List category
Near Threatened
–
The near-threatened
European otter
Near Threatened
–
The
maned wolf is near-threatened largely as the result of habitat loss.
Near Threatened
–
IUCN Red List
4.
IUCN Red List
–
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, founded in 1964, is the worlds most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature is the main authority on the conservation status of species. A series of Regional Red Lists are produced by countries or organizations, the IUCN Red List is set upon precise criteria to evaluate the extinction risk of thousands of species and subspecies. These criteria are relevant to all species and all regions of the world, the aim is to convey the urgency of conservation issues to the public and policy makers, as well as help the international community to try to reduce species extinction. Major species assessors include BirdLife International, the Institute of Zoology, the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, collectively, assessments by these organizations and groups account for nearly half the species on the Red List. The IUCN aims to have the category of every species re-evaluated every five years if possible, the 1964 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants used the older pre-criteria Red List assessment system. Plants listed may not, therefore, appear in the current Red List, IUCN advise that is best to check both the online Red List and the 1997 plants Red List publication. The 2006 Red List, released on 4 May 2006 evaluated 40,168 species as a whole, plus an additional 2,160 subspecies, varieties, aquatic stocks, on 12 September 2007, the World Conservation Union released the 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Russ Mittermeier, chief of Swiss-based IUCNs Primate Specialist Group, stated that 16,306 species are endangered with extinction,188 more than in 2006, the Red List includes the Sumatran orangutan in the Critically Endangered category and the Bornean orangutan in the Endangered category. The study shows at least 1,141 of the 5,487 mammals on Earth are known to be threatened with extinction, and 836 are listed as Data Deficient. The Red List of 2012 was released 19 July 2012 at Rio+20 Earth Summit, nearly 2,000 species were added, the IUCN assessed a total of 63,837 species which revealed 19,817 are threatened with extinction. With 3,947 described as endangered and 5,766 as endangered. At threat are 41% of amphibian species, 33% of reef-building corals, 30% of conifers, 25% of mammals, the IUCN Red List has listed 132 species of plants and animals from India as Critically Endangered. Extinct – No known individuals remaining, extinct in the wild – Known only to survive in captivity, or as a naturalized population outside its historic range. Critically endangered – Extremely high risk of extinction in the wild, Endangered – High risk of extinction in the wild. Vulnerable – High risk of endangerment in the wild, near threatened – Likely to become endangered in the near future. Does not qualify for a more at-risk category, widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category. Data deficient – Not enough data to make an assessment of its risk of extinction, Not evaluated – Has not yet been evaluated against the criteria
IUCN Red List
–
by
IUCN Red List category
IUCN Red List
–
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
IUCN Red List
–
IUCN Red List
IUCN Red List
–
By
region
5.
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Title page of
Systema Naturae, Leiden, 1735
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Evolution of the
vertebrates at class level, width of spindles indicating number of families. Spindle diagrams are typical for
Evolutionary taxonomy
Taxonomy (biology)
–
The same relationship, expressed as a
cladogram typical for
cladistics
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Type specimen for
Nepenthes smilesii, a tropical
pitcher plant.
6.
Animal
–
Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia. The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the group to the choanoflagellates. Animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives and their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs, they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance, most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates, vertebrates have a backbone or spine, and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, the remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs, arthropods, annelids, nematodes, flatworms, cnidarians, ctenophores, the study of animals is called zoology. The word animal comes from the Latin animalis, meaning having breath, the biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges, jellyfish, insects, and humans. Aristotle divided the world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carl Linnaeus, in the first hierarchical classification. In Linnaeuss original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, in 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms, Metazoa and Protozoa. The protozoa were later moved to the kingdom Protista, leaving only the metazoa, thus Metazoa is now considered a synonym of Animalia. Animals have several characteristics that set apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and they are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals. With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges and Placozoa and these include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals
Animal
–
Carl Linnaeus, known as the father of modern
taxonomy
Animal
–
Had'n
Animal
–
The use of
love darts by the land snail
Monachoides vicinus is a form of
sexual selection
Animal
–
A
newt lung cell stained with
fluorescent dyes undergoing the early
anaphase stage of
mitosis
7.
Chordate
–
Chordates are deuterostomes, as during the embryo development stage the anus forms before the mouth. They are also bilaterally symmetric coelomates, in the case of vertebrate chordates, the notochord is usually replaced by a vertebral column during development, and they may have body plans organized via segmentation. There are also additional extinct taxa, the Vertebrata are sometimes considered as a subgroup of the clade Craniata, consisting of chordates with a skull, the Craniata and Tunicata compose the clade Olfactores. Of the more than 65,000 living species of chordates, the worlds largest and fastest animals, the blue whale and peregrine falcon respectively, are chordates, as are humans. Fossil chordates are known from at least as early as the Cambrian explosion, Hemichordata, which includes the acorn worms, has been presented as a fourth chordate subphylum, but it now is usually treated as a separate phylum. The Hemichordata, along with the Echinodermata, form the Ambulacraria, the Chordata and Ambulacraria form the superphylum Deuterostomia, composed of the deuterostomes. Attempts to work out the relationships of the chordates have produced several hypotheses. All of the earliest chordate fossils have found in the Early Cambrian Chengjiang fauna. Because the fossil record of early chordates is poor, only molecular phylogenetics offers a prospect of dating their emergence. However, the use of molecular phylogenetics for dating evolutionary transitions is controversial and it has also proved difficult to produce a detailed classification within the living chordates. Attempts to produce family trees shows that many of the traditional classes are paraphyletic. While this has been known since the 19th century, an insistence on only monophyletic taxa has resulted in vertebrate classification being in a state of flux. Although the name Chordata is attributed to William Bateson, it was already in prevalent use by 1880, ernst Haeckel described a taxon comprising tunicates, cephalochordates, and vertebrates in 1866. Though he used the German vernacular form, it is allowed under the ICZN code because of its subsequent latinization, among the vertebrate sub-group of chordates the notochord develops into the spine, and in wholly aquatic species this helps the animal to swim by flexing its tail. In fish and other vertebrates, this develops into the spinal cord, the pharynx is the part of the throat immediately behind the mouth. In fish, the slits are modified to form gills, a muscular tail that extends backwards behind the anus. This is a groove in the wall of the pharynx. In filter-feeding species it produces mucus to gather food particles, which helps in transporting food to the esophagus and it also stores iodine, and may be a precursor of the vertebrate thyroid gland
Chordate
Chordate
–
Craniate:
Hagfish
Chordate
–
Tunicates: sea squirts
Chordate
–
Cephalochordate:
Lancelet
8.
Bird
–
Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5 cm bee hummingbird to the 2.75 m ostrich. They rank as the class of tetrapods with the most living species, at ten thousand. As a subgroup of Reptilia, birds are the closest living relatives of crocodilians, while birds, the fossil record indicates that birds are also the last surviving representatives of dinosauria, having evolved from feathered ancestors within the theropod group of saurischian dinosaurs. True birds first appeared during the Cretaceous period, around 100 million years ago, dNA-based evidence finds that birds diversified dramatically around the time of the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event which killed off all other dinosaur lineages. Birds, especially those in the continents, survived this event. Primitive bird-like dinosaurs that lie outside class Aves proper, in the broader group Avialae, have been found dating back to the mid-Jurassic period. Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species, the digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have evolved for swimming. Many species annually migrate great distances, Birds are social, communicating with visual signals, calls, and bird songs, and participating in such social behaviours as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking, and mobbing of predators. The vast majority of species are socially monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years. Other species have breeding systems that are polygynous or, rarely, Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised through sexual reproduction. They are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents, most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Some birds, such as hens, lay eggs even when not fertilised, songbirds, parrots, and other species are popular as pets. Guano is harvested for use as a fertiliser, Birds prominently figure throughout human culture. About 120–130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century, human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry, the first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae. Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use, Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy. Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the dinosaur clade Theropoda, Aves and a sister group, the clade Crocodilia, contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria
Bird
–
Archaeopteryx lithographica is often considered the oldest known true bird.
Bird
Bird
–
Confuciusornis sanctus, a Cretaceous bird from China
Bird
–
The range of the
house sparrow has expanded dramatically due to human activities.
9.
Penguin
–
Penguins are a group of aquatic, flightless birds. They live almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere, with one species. Highly adapted for life in the water, penguins have countershaded dark and white plumage, most penguins feed on krill, fish, squid and other forms of sealife caught while swimming underwater. They spend about half of their lives on land and half in the oceans, although almost all penguin species are native to the Southern Hemisphere, they are not found only in cold climates, such as Antarctica. In fact, only a few species of penguin live so far south, several species are found in the temperate zone, and one species, the Galápagos penguin, lives near the equator. The largest living species is the penguin, on average adults are about 1.1 m tall. The smallest penguin species is the little penguin, also known as the fairy penguin. Among extant penguins, larger penguins inhabit colder regions, while smaller penguins are found in temperate or even tropical climates. Some prehistoric species attained enormous sizes, becoming as tall or as heavy as an adult human, the word penguin first appears in the 16th century as a synonym for great auk. The etymology of the penguin is still debated. The English word is not apparently of French, Breton or Spanish origin, an alternative etymology links the word to Latin pinguis, which means fat or oil. Support for this etymology can be found in the alternative Germanic word for penguin, fettgans or fat-goose, the number of extant penguin species is debated. Depending on which authority is followed, penguin biodiversity varies between 17 and 20 living species, all in the subfamily Spheniscinae. Some sources consider the white-flippered penguin a separate Eudyptula species, while others treat it as a subspecies of the little penguin, similarly, it is still unclear whether the royal penguin is merely a color morph of the macaroni penguin. The status of the penguins is also unclear. Updated after Marples, Acosta Hospitaleche, and Ksepka et al, CADIC P21 Delphinornis – Palaeeudyptinae, basal, new subfamily 1. Marambiornis – Palaeeudyptinae, basal, new subfamily 1, mesetaornis – Palaeeudyptinae, basal, new subfamily 1. Tonniornis Wimanornis Duntroonornis – possibly Spheniscinae Korora Kairuku Platydyptes – possibly not monophyletic, further examination in 1980 resulted in placement as Aves incertae sedis
Penguin
Penguin
–
Adélie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae) feeding young. Like its relatives, a neatly bi-coloured species with a head marking.
Penguin
–
Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus). The closed neck collar denotes this species.
Penguin
–
Closeup of
southern rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome)
10.
Spheniscidae
–
Penguins are a group of aquatic, flightless birds. They live almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere, with one species. Highly adapted for life in the water, penguins have countershaded dark and white plumage, most penguins feed on krill, fish, squid and other forms of sealife caught while swimming underwater. They spend about half of their lives on land and half in the oceans, although almost all penguin species are native to the Southern Hemisphere, they are not found only in cold climates, such as Antarctica. In fact, only a few species of penguin live so far south, several species are found in the temperate zone, and one species, the Galápagos penguin, lives near the equator. The largest living species is the penguin, on average adults are about 1.1 m tall. The smallest penguin species is the little penguin, also known as the fairy penguin. Among extant penguins, larger penguins inhabit colder regions, while smaller penguins are found in temperate or even tropical climates. Some prehistoric species attained enormous sizes, becoming as tall or as heavy as an adult human, the word penguin first appears in the 16th century as a synonym for great auk. The etymology of the penguin is still debated. The English word is not apparently of French, Breton or Spanish origin, an alternative etymology links the word to Latin pinguis, which means fat or oil. Support for this etymology can be found in the alternative Germanic word for penguin, fettgans or fat-goose, the number of extant penguin species is debated. Depending on which authority is followed, penguin biodiversity varies between 17 and 20 living species, all in the subfamily Spheniscinae. Some sources consider the white-flippered penguin a separate Eudyptula species, while others treat it as a subspecies of the little penguin, similarly, it is still unclear whether the royal penguin is merely a color morph of the macaroni penguin. The status of the penguins is also unclear. Updated after Marples, Acosta Hospitaleche, and Ksepka et al, CADIC P21 Delphinornis – Palaeeudyptinae, basal, new subfamily 1. Marambiornis – Palaeeudyptinae, basal, new subfamily 1, mesetaornis – Palaeeudyptinae, basal, new subfamily 1. Tonniornis Wimanornis Duntroonornis – possibly Spheniscinae Korora Kairuku Platydyptes – possibly not monophyletic, further examination in 1980 resulted in placement as Aves incertae sedis
Spheniscidae
Spheniscidae
–
Adélie penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae) feeding young. Like its relatives, a neatly bi-coloured species with a head marking.
Spheniscidae
–
Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus). The closed neck collar denotes this species.
Spheniscidae
–
Closeup of
southern rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes chrysocome)
11.
Spheniscus
–
The banded penguins are the penguins of the Spheniscus genus. There are four living species of known as banded penguins. They are sometimes known as jack-ass penguins due to their loud locator calls sounding similar to a donkey braying. All members of this genus lay their eggs and raise their young in burrows, the banded penguins belong to the genus Spheniscus, which was established by Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760. The word Spheniscus is the diminutive of sphẽn or sphẽnos, meaning wedge, ornithologists believe that the banded penguins originated in South America, even though the oldest penguin fossils from Antarctica belong to the genus. Www. pinguins. info, information about all species of penguins
Spheniscus
–
Spheniscus Temporal range:
Middle Miocene - Recent
Spheniscus
–
Magellanic penguin
Spheniscus
–
Humboldt penguin
Spheniscus
–
Galápagos penguin
12.
Binomial nomenclature
–
Such a name is called a binomial name, a binomen, binominal name or a scientific name, more informally it is also called a Latin name. The first part of the name identifies the genus to which the species belongs, for example, humans belong to the genus Homo and within this genus to the species Homo sapiens. The formal introduction of system of naming species is credited to Carl Linnaeus. But Gaspard Bauhin, in as early as 1623, had introduced in his book Pinax theatri botanici many names of genera that were adopted by Linnaeus. Although the general principles underlying binomial nomenclature are common to these two codes, there are differences, both in the terminology they use and in their precise rules. Similarly, both parts are italicized when a binomial name occurs in normal text, thus the binomial name of the annual phlox is now written as Phlox drummondii. In scientific works, the authority for a name is usually given, at least when it is first mentioned. In zoology Patella vulgata Linnaeus,1758, the original name given by Linnaeus was Fringilla domestica, the parentheses indicate that the species is now considered to belong in a different genus. The ICZN does not require that the name of the person who changed the genus be given, nor the date on which the change was made, in botany Amaranthus retroflexus L. – L. is the standard abbreviation used in botany for Linnaeus. – Linnaeus first named this bluebell species Scilla italica, Rothmaler transferred it to the genus Hyacinthoides, the ICN does not require that the dates of either publication be specified. Prior to the adoption of the binomial system of naming species. Together they formed a system of polynomial nomenclature and these names had two separate functions. First, to designate or label the species, and second, to be a diagnosis or description, such polynomial names may sometimes look like binomials, but are significantly different. For example, Gerards herbal describes various kinds of spiderwort, The first is called Phalangium ramosum, Branched Spiderwort, is aptly termed Phalangium Ephemerum Virginianum, Soon-Fading Spiderwort of Virginia. The Latin phrases are short descriptions, rather than identifying labels, the Bauhins, in particular Caspar Bauhin, took some important steps towards the binomial system, by pruning the Latin descriptions, in many cases to two words. The adoption by biologists of a system of binomial nomenclature is due to Swedish botanist and physician Carl von Linné. It was in his 1753 Species Plantarum that he first began using a one-word trivial name together with a generic name in a system of binomial nomenclature. This trivial name is what is now known as an epithet or specific name
Binomial nomenclature
–
Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), a Swedish botanist, invented the modern system of binomial nomenclature.
13.
Johann Reinhold Forster
–
Johann Reinhold Forster was a Reformed pastor and naturalist of partially Scottish descent who made contributions to the early ornithology of Europe and North America. He is best known as the naturalist on James Cooks second Pacific voyage and they also laid the framework for general concern about the impact that alteration of the physical environment for European economic expansion would have on exotic societies. Forster himself was born in the city of Tczew in Poland and he studied languages and natural history at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium in Berlin, theology at the University of Halle, afterwards serving as a Protestant pastor in Mokry Dwór Pomeranian Voivodship. He married his cousin Elisabeth Nikolai and they had several children including a son, Georg Forster. In 1765 he accepted an offer made to him by the Russian government to inspect and report upon the new colonies founded on the banks of the Volga and he spent three years teaching at the Dissenting Warrington Academy, succeeding Joseph Priestley. Compelled by his violent temper to resign this appointment, Forster then moved with his son to London, in 1771, he published A Catalogue of the Animals of North America, which listed the regions mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, insects, arachnids, and crustaceans. When Joseph Banks withdrew at the last moment as naturalist on Cooks second voyage, Forster, in July 1772 they set sail on the Resolution, returning to England in July 1775. During a stop in Cape Town, Forster engaged Anders Sparrman to act as his assistant, both the Forsters kept detailed diaries of everything they saw on the voyage, and made extensive collections of both natural history specimens and artifacts. On his return Forster published Observations Made during a Voyage round the World, however the income from the book was insufficient to clear his debts, and the bulk of Georgs drawings from the voyage had to be sold to Joseph Banks. During the next few years Forster undertook a variety of writing work and his Descriptiones animalium, completed within a month of returning to England with Cook, was eventually edited by Hinrich Lichtenstein and published in 1844. Forsters Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society on zoology, ornithology, and ichthyology established him as one of the earliest authorities on North American zoology. Gaedike, R. Groll, E. K. & Taeger, A.2012, Bibliography of the literature from the beginning until 1863
Johann Reinhold Forster
–
Johann Reinhold Forster
Johann Reinhold Forster
–
Johann Reinhold Forster and
Georg Forster in
Tahiti, by
John Francis Rigaud (1742–1810), 1780.
14.
South America
–
South America is a continent located in the western hemisphere, mostly in the southern hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the northern hemisphere. It may also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas, which is the used in nations that speak Romance languages. The reference to South America instead of other regions has increased in the last decades due to changing geopolitical dynamics. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean, North America and it includes twelve sovereign states, a part of France, and a non-sovereign area. In addition to this, the ABC islands of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Trinidad and Tobago, South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers. Its population as of 2005 has been estimated at more than 371,090,000, South America ranks fourth in area and fifth in population. Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with more than half of the population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela. In recent decades Brazil has also concentrated half of the regions GDP and has become a first regional power, most of the population lives near the continents western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, the continents cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves. Given a long history of colonialism, the majority of South Americans speak Portuguese or Spanish. South America occupies the portion of the Americas. The continent is delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border. Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate, South Americas major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies and this is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export. South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on earth, South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuña, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a proportion of the Earths species. Brazil is the largest country in South America, encompassing around half of the land area
South America
–
A composite relief image of South America.
South America
–
South America
South America
–
Cuernos del Paine in Chile (left) and
Morro do Chapéu in Brazil (right) serve to illustrate the diversity of landscapes in South America. Click to enlarge.
South America
15.
Argentina
–
Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
Argentina
–
The
Cave of the Hands in
Santa Cruz province, with indigenous artwork dating from 13,000–9,000 years ago
Argentina
Argentina
–
The surrender of Beresford to
Santiago de Liniers during the
British invasions of the Río de la Plata
Argentina
–
Portrait of General
José de San Martin,
Libertador of Argentina,
Chile and
Peru
16.
Chile
–
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
Chile
–
The
Mapuche people were the original inhabitants of southern and central Chile.
Chile
–
Flag
Chile
–
Pedro de Valdivia
Chile
–
Bernardo O'Higgins, The Supreme Director of Chile.
17.
Falkland Islands
–
The Falkland Islands are an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean on the Patagonian Shelf. The principal islands are about 300 miles east of South Americas southern Patagonian coast, the archipelago, with an area of 4,700 square miles, comprises East Falkland, West Falkland and 776 smaller islands. As a British overseas territory, the Falklands have internal self-governance, the islands capital is Stanley on East Falkland. Controversy exists over the Falklands discovery and subsequent colonisation by Europeans, at various times, the islands have had French, British, Spanish, and Argentine settlements. Britain reasserted its rule in 1833, although Argentina maintains its claim to the islands, in April 1982, Argentine forces temporarily occupied the islands. British administration was restored two months later at the end of the Falklands War, most Falklanders favour the archipelago remaining a UK overseas territory, but its sovereignty status is part of an ongoing dispute between Argentina and the United Kingdom. The population primarily consists of native-born Falkland Islanders, the majority of British descent, other ethnicities include French, Gibraltarian and Scandinavian. Immigration from the United Kingdom, the South Atlantic island of Saint Helena, under the British Nationality Act 1983, Falkland Islanders are British citizens. The islands lie on the boundary of the oceanic and tundra climate zones. They are home to bird populations, although many no longer breed on the main islands because of competition from introduced species. Major economic activities include fishing, tourism and sheep farming, with an emphasis on high-quality wool exports, oil exploration, licensed by the Falkland Islands Government, remains controversial as a result of maritime disputes with Argentina. The Falkland Islands take their name from the Falkland Sound, a strait separating the two main islands. The name Falkland was applied to the channel by John Strong, Strong named the strait in honour of Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount of Falkland, the Treasurer of the Navy who sponsored their journey. The name Falklands was not applied to the islands until 1765, the term Falklands is a standard abbreviation used to refer to the islands. The Spanish name for the archipelago, Islas Malvinas, derives from the French Îles Malouines — the name given to the islands by French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville in 1764, Bougainville, who founded the islands first settlement, named the area after the port of Saint-Malo. The port, located in the Brittany region of western France, was in turn named after St. Malo, in Spanish, the territory was designated as Islas Malvinas. The nomenclature used by the United Nations for statistical processing purposes is Falkland Islands, although Fuegians from Patagonia may have visited the Falkland Islands in prehistoric times, the islands were uninhabited at the time of their discovery by Europeans. Claims of discovery date back to the 16th century, but no consensus exists on whether these early explorers discovered the Falklands or other islands in the South Atlantic, whether or not the settlements were aware of each others existence is debated by historians
Falkland Islands
–
Naval confrontation during the 1914
Battle of the Falkland Islands; painting by
William Lionel Wyllie
Falkland Islands
–
Flag
Falkland Islands
–
Government House in
Stanley is the Governor's
official residence.
Falkland Islands
–
Colony of
southern rockhopper penguins on
Saunders Island
18.
Bird migration
–
Bird migration is the regular seasonal movement, often north and south along a flyway, between breeding and wintering grounds. Migration carries high costs in predation and mortality, including from hunting by humans and it occurs mainly in the northern hemisphere, where birds are funnelled on to specific routes by natural barriers such as the Mediterranean Sea or the Caribbean Sea. More recently, Johannes Leche began recording dates of arrivals of spring migrants in Finland in 1749, threats to migratory birds have grown with habitat destruction especially of stopover and wintering sites, as well as structures such as power lines and wind farms. The Arctic tern holds the long-distance migration record for birds, travelling between Arctic breeding grounds and the Antarctic each year, shorter migrations are common, including altitudinal migrations on mountains such as the Andes and Himalayas. The timing of migration seems to be controlled primarily by changes in day length, migrating birds navigate using celestial cues from the sun and stars, the earths magnetic field, and probably also mental maps. Records of bird migration were made as much as 3,000 years ago by the Ancient Greek writers Hesiod, Homer, Herodotus and Aristotle. The Bible also notes migrations, as in the Book of Job, the author of Jeremiah wrote, Even the stork in the heavens knows its seasons, and the turtle dove, the swift and the crane keep the time of their arrival. Aristotle noted that cranes traveled from the steppes of Scythia to marshes at the headwaters of the Nile, pliny the Elder, in his Historia Naturalis, repeats Aristotles observations. Aristotle however suggested that swallows and other birds hibernated and this belief persisted as late as 1878, when Elliott Coues listed the titles of no less than 182 papers dealing with the hibernation of swallows. It was not until the end of the century that migration as an explanation for the winter disappearance of birds from northern climes was accepted. Bewick then describes an experiment which succeeded in keeping alive in Britain for several years. He concludes, These experiments have since been confirmed by. Migration is the seasonal movement, often north and south. Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability, habitat, sometimes, journeys are not termed true migration because they are irregular or in only one direction. Migration is marked by its annual seasonality, non-migratory birds are said to be resident or sedentary. Approximately 1800 of the worlds 10,000 bird species are long-distance migrants, many bird populations migrate long distances along a flyway. The most common pattern involves flying north in the spring to breed in the temperate or Arctic summer, of course, in the southern hemisphere the directions are reversed, but there is less land area in the far south to support long-distance migration. The primary motivation for migration appears to be food, for example, also, the longer days of the northern summer provide extended time for breeding birds to feed their young
Bird migration
–
A flock of
barnacle geese during autumn migration
Bird migration
–
Examples of long distance bird migration routes.
Bird migration
–
Minoan fresco of
swallows in springtime at
Akrotiri, c. 1500 BC
Bird migration
–
Flocks of birds assembling before migration southwards (probably
common starling)
19.
Brazil
–
Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
Brazil
–
Megaliths in the
Solstice Archaeological Park, in
Amapá, erected between 500 and 2000 years ago, probably to carry out
astronomical observations.
Brazil
–
Flag
Brazil
–
Representation of the landing of
Pedro Álvares Cabral in
Porto Seguro, 1500.
Brazil
–
Painting showing the arrest of
Tiradentes; he was sentenced to death for his involvement in the best known
movement for independence in Colonial Brazil.
20.
Rio de Janeiro
–
Rio de Janeiro, or simply Rio, is the second-most populous municipality in Brazil and the sixth-most populous in the Americas. The metropolis is anchor to the Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area, Rio de Janeiro is the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazils third-most populous state. Part of the city has designated as a World Heritage Site, named Rio de Janeiro. Founded in 1565 by the Portuguese, the city was initially the seat of the Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro, later, in 1763, it became the capital of the State of Brazil, a state of the Portuguese Empire. Rio stayed the capital of the pluricontinental Lusitanian monarchy until 1822 and this is one of the few instances in history that the capital of a colonising country officially shifted to a city in one of its colonies. Rio de Janeiro has the second largest municipal GDP in the country, the home of many universities and institutes, it is the second-largest center of research and development in Brazil, accounting for 17% of national scientific output according to 2005 data. The Maracanã Stadium held the finals of the 1950 and 2014 FIFA World Cups, the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, the city is divided into 33 administrative regions. Europeans first encountered Guanabara Bay on 1 January 1502, by a Portuguese expedition under explorer Gaspar de Lemos captain of a ship in Pedro Álvares Cabrals fleet, allegedly the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci participated as observer at the invitation of King Manuel I in the same expedition. The region of Rio was inhabited by the Tupi, Puri, Botocudo, in 1555, one of the islands of Guanabara Bay, now called Villegagnon Island, was occupied by 500 French colonists under the French admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegaignon. Consequently, Villegagnon built Fort Coligny on the island when attempting to establish the France Antarctique colony, Rio de Janeiro was the name of Guanabara Bay. Until early in the 18th century, the city was threatened or invaded by several, mostly French, pirates and buccaneers, such as Jean-François Duclerc, on 27 January 1763, the colonial administration in Portuguese America was moved from Salvador to Rio de Janeiro. The kingdoms capital was transferred to the city, which, thus, as there was no physical space or urban structure to accommodate hundreds of noblemen who arrived suddenly, many inhabitants were simply evicted from their homes. The first printed newspaper in Brazil, the Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, from the colonial period until the first independent decades, Rio de Janeiro was a city of slaves. There was an influx of African slaves to Rio de Janeiro, in 1819. In 1840, the number of slaves reached 220,000 people, the Port of Rio de Janeiro was the largest port of slaves in America. As a political center of the country, Rio concentrated the political-partisan life of the Empire and it was the main stage of the abolitionist and republican movements in the last half of the 19th century. Rio continued as the capital of Brazil after 1889, when the monarchy was replaced by a republic, until the early years of the 20th century, the city was largely limited to the neighbourhood now known as the historic city centre, on the mouth of Guanabara Bay. Expansion of the city to the north and south was facilitated by the consolidation and electrification of Rios streetcar transit system after 1905, though many thought that it was just campaign rhetoric, Kubitschek managed to have Brasília built, at great cost, by 1960
Rio de Janeiro
–
From the top, left to right:
Christ the Redeemer, Botafogo's cove,
Rio Downtown,
Rio–Niterói bridge,
Maracanã Stadium, and panoramic view of
Barra da Tijuca from
Pedra da Gávea
Rio de Janeiro
–
Founding of Rio de Janeiro in 1565.
Rio de Janeiro
–
View of Rio de Janeiro from the church of the monastery of
São Bento, c. 1825.
Rio de Janeiro
–
Botafogo Bay in 1869.
21.
African penguin
–
The African penguin, also known as the jackass penguin and black-footed penguin is a species of penguin, confined to southern African waters. It is also known as the jackass penguin for its donkey-like bray. Like all extant penguins it is flightless, with a streamlined body, adults weigh on average 2. 2–3.5 kg and are 60–70 cm tall. The pink gland above their eyes helps them to cope with changing temperatures, when the temperature gets hotter, the body of the African penguin sends more blood to these glands to be cooled by the air surrounding it. This then causes the gland to turn a shade of pink. The African penguin is a diver and feeds primarily on fish. Once extremely numerous, the African penguin is declining due to a combination of threats and is classified as endangered and it is a charismatic species and is popular with tourists. The African penguin is a penguin, placed in the genus Spheniscus. All are similar in shape, colour and behaviour, the African penguin is a member of the class Aves, and the order Sphenisciformes. It belongs to the penguin family Spheniscidae and it is classified as Spheniscus demersus. The genus to which the African penguin belongs to, Spheniscus, derives from the Ancient Greek word sphen and this refers to their streamlined body shape. Its species name, demersus, is a Latin word for plunging, African penguins grow to 60–70 cm tall and weigh between 2. 2–3.5 kg. They have a stripe and black spots on the chest. They have pink glands above their eyes, which are used for thermoregulation, the hotter the penguin gets, the more blood is sent to these glands so it may be cooled by the surrounding air, thus making the glands more pink. This species exhibits sexual dimorphism, the males are larger than the females and have larger beaks. Juveniles do not possess the bold, delineated markings of the adult but instead have dark upperparts that vary from greyish-blue to brown, the beak is more pointed than that of the Humboldt. African penguins look similar and are thought to be related to the Humboldt, Magellanic, African penguins have a very recognisable appearance with a thick band of black that is in the shape of an upside-down horseshoe. They have black feet and unique black spots that vary in size, Magellanic penguins share a similar characteristic that often confuses the two, the similarity is a double bar on the throat and chest
African penguin
–
African penguin
African penguin
–
African penguin diving
African penguin
–
With chicks,
Boulders Beach,
South Africa
African penguin
–
Egg, collection of
Museum Wiesbaden
22.
Humboldt penguin
–
The Humboldt penguin is a South American penguin that breeds in coastal Chile and Peru. Its nearest relatives are the African penguin, the Magellanic penguin, the penguin is named after the cold water current it swims in, which is itself named after Alexander von Humboldt, an explorer. The species is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN, Humboldt penguins are medium-sized penguins, growing to 56–70 cm long and a weight of 3. 6-5.9 kg. They have a head with a white border that runs from behind the eye, around the black ear-coverts and chin. They have blackish-grey upperparts and whitish underparts, with a black breast-band that extends down the flanks to the thigh and they have a fleshy-pink base to the bill. Juveniles have dark heads and no breast-band and they have spines on their tongue which they use to hold their prey. Humboldt penguins nest on islands and rocky coasts, burrowing holes in guano, in South America the Humboldt penguin is found only along the Pacific coast, and the range of the Humboldt penguin overlaps that of the Magellanic penguin on the central Chilean coast. It is vagrant in Ecuador and Colombia, due to a declining population caused in part by over-fishing, climate change, and ocean acidification, the current status of the Humboldt penguin is threatened. Historically it was the victim of guano over-exploitation, penguins are also declining in numbers due to habitat destruction including by invasive species. The current population is estimated at between 3,300 and 12,000, in August 2010 the Humboldt penguin of Chile and Peru, was granted protection under the U. S. In 2009 at a zoo in Bremerhaven, Germany, two adult male Humboldt penguins adopted an egg that had abandoned by its biological parents. After the egg hatched, the two penguins raised, protected, cared for, and fed the chick in the manner that heterosexual penguin couples raise their own offspring. One of the 135 Humboldt penguins from Tokyo Sea Life Park thrived in Tokyo Bay for 82 days after apparently scaling the 13 foot high wall, the penguin, known only by its number, was recaptured by the zoo keepers in late May 2012. BirdLife species factsheet Humboldt penguins at Marwell
Humboldt penguin
–
Humboldt penguin
Humboldt penguin
–
Upper body
Humboldt penguin
–
St Louis Zoo
Humboldt penguin
–
A pair "kissing" at
Cotswold Wildlife Park
23.
Ferdinand Magellan
–
Commanding a fleet of five vessels, he headed south through the Atlantic Ocean to Patagonia, passing through the Strait of Magellan into a body of water he named the peaceful sea. Despite a series of storms and mutinies, the reached the Spice Islands in 1521. Magellan did not complete the voyage, as he was killed during the Battle of Mactan in the Philippines in 1521. Magellan had already reached the Malay Archipelago in Southeast Asia on previous voyages traveling east, by visiting this area again but now travelling west, Magellan achieved a nearly complete personal circumnavigation of the globe for the first time in history. The Magellanic penguin is named after him, as he was the first European to note it. Magellan was born in northern Portugal in around 1480, either at Vila Nova de Gaia, near Porto, in Douro Litoral Province, or at Sabrosa, near Vila Real, in Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro Province. He was the son of Rodrigo de Magalhães, Alcaide-Mor of Aveiro and wife Alda de Mesquita and brother of Leonor or Genebra de Magalhães, in March 1505 at the age of 25, Magellan enlisted in the fleet of 22 ships sent to host D. Francisco de Almeida as the first viceroy of Portuguese India, although his name does not appear in the chronicles, it is known that he remained there eight years, in Goa, Cochin and Quilon. He participated in battles, including the battle of Cannanore in 1506. In 1509 he fought in the battle of Diu and he later sailed under Diogo Lopes de Sequeira in the first Portuguese embassy to Malacca, with Francisco Serrão, his friend and possibly cousin. In September, after arriving at Malacca, the expedition fell victim to an ending in retreat. Magellan had a role, warning Sequeira and saving Francisco Serrão. In 1511, under the new governor Afonso de Albuquerque, Magellan, after the conquest their ways parted, Magellan was promoted, with a rich plunder and, in the company of a Malay he had indentured and baptized Enrique of Malacca, he returned to Portugal in 1512. Serrão departed in the first expedition sent to find the Spice Islands in the Moluccas and he married a woman from Amboina and became a military advisor to the Sultan of Ternate, Bayan Sirrullah. His letters to Magellan would prove decisive, giving information about the spice-producing territories, after taking a leave without permission, Magellan fell out of favour. Serving in Morocco, he was wounded, resulting in a permanent limp and he was accused of trading illegally with the Moors. The accusations were proved false, but he received no offers of employment after 15 May 1514. Later on in 1515, he got an employment offer as a member on a Portuguese ship
Ferdinand Magellan
–
Ferdinand Magellan
Ferdinand Magellan
–
The Nao Victoria Replica in the
Nao Victoria Museum,
Punta Arenas,
Chile
Ferdinand Magellan
–
The
Strait of Magellan cuts through the southern tip of South America connecting the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean.
Ferdinand Magellan
–
Monument in
Lapu-Lapu City,
Cebu in the
Philippines.
24.
Berlin Zoo
–
The Berlin Zooological Garden is the eldest and best known zoo in Germany. Opened in 1744 it covers 35 hectares and is located in Berlins Tiergarten, with about 1,380 different species and 48,662 animals the zoo presents one of the most comprehensive collection of species in the world. The zoo and its aquarium had more than 3 million visitors in 2013 and it is considered to be the most visited zoo in Europe and one of the most popular worldwide. Regular animal feedings are among its most famous attractions, globally known animals like Knut, the polar bear, and Bao Bao, the giant panda have contributed to the zoos public image. The zoo collaborates with universities, research institutes, and other zoos around the world. It maintains and promotes European breeding programmes, helps safeguard several endangered species, opened on 1 August 1844, the Zoologischer Garten Berlin was the first zoo in Germany. The first animals were donated by Frederick William IV, King of Prussia, from the menagerie, following the zoos destruction, it and the associated Aquarium was reconstructed on the most modern principles so as to display the animals in as close to their natural environment as feasible. The success achieved in breeding animals, including rare species, demonstrates the efficacy of these new methods. In 1948, the Berlin Zoo got rid of Jewish board members and forced Jewish shareholders to sell their dcuks at a loss, the zoo has now commissioned a historian to identify these past shareholders and track down their descendants, according to a report by AFP. The Berlin Zoo is the most visited zoo in Europe, with about 3 million visitors per year all over the world. It is open all year long and can easily be reached by public transportation, the Berlin Zoologischer Garten railway station is one of Berlins most important stations. Several modes of such as U-Bahn, S-Bahn and buses are interlinked here. Visitors can either enter the zoo through the exotically designed Elephant Gate beside the aquarium on Budapester Straße or through the Lion Gate on Hardenbergplatz, the zoo maintains studbooks for black and Indian rhinoceroses and gaurs. The populations of deer and pigs are part of several captive breeding projects. Berlin Zoo supports conservationists in other countries and as a partner of the Stiftung Artenschutz, most of the animals are housed in enclosures designed to recreate their natural habitat. The zoo houses four types of great ape, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, the carnivore house displays all big rats and many rare small predators, such as ring-tailed mongooses and narrow-striped mongooses from North Africa. In the basement, visitors are invited to a view into the world of nocturnal animals, the bird house presents a walk-through aviary and offers a broad variety of forms, including several regularly breeding species of hornbills and many parrots. Numerous big aviaries show waders, herons and many other species, the Berlin Zoo is one of the few zoos to exhibit tuatara and Luzon tarictic hornbills
Berlin Zoo
–
The Elephant Gate: one of two zoo entrances
Berlin Zoo
–
View of Berlin Zoo from
Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church
Berlin Zoo
–
The aquarium has one of the largest collections of aquatic life in Europe.
Berlin Zoo
–
Knut and his keeper
Thomas Dörflein
25.
Cuttlefish
–
Cuttlefish are marine animals of the order Sepiida. They belong to the class Cephalopoda, which also includes squid, octopuses, cuttlefish have a unique internal shell, the cuttlebone. Despite their name, cuttlefish are not fish but molluscs, cuttlefish have large, W-shaped pupils, eight arms, and two tentacles furnished with denticulated suckers, with which they secure their prey. They generally range in size from 15 to 25 cm, with the largest species, Sepia apama, reaching 50 cm in mantle length, cuttlefish eat small molluscs, crabs, shrimp, fish, octopus, worms, and other cuttlefish. Their predators include dolphins, sharks, fish, seals, seabirds, the average life expectancy of a cuttlefish is about one to two years. Recent studies indicate cuttlefish are among the most intelligent invertebrates, cuttlefish also have one of the largest brain-to-body size ratios of all invertebrates. The cuttle in cuttlefish comes from the Old English name for the species, cudele, which may be cognate with the Old Norse koddi, the Greco-Roman world valued the cuttlefish as a source of the unique brown pigment the creature releases from its siphon when it is alarmed. The word for it in both Greek and Latin, sepia, now refers to a pigment in English. The family Sepiidae, which contains all cuttlefish, inhabit tropical/temperate ocean waters and they are mostly shallow-water animals, although they are known to go to depths of about 600 m. By the time the family evolved, ostensibly in the Old World, the common cuttlefish, is found in the Mediterranean, and North and Baltic Seas, although it has been suggested populations occur as far south as South Africa. They are found in sublittoral depths, between the low line and the edge of the continental shelf, to about 180 m. The cuttlefish is listed under the Red List category of Least Concern by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, ocean acidification, however, caused largely by higher levels of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere, is cited as a potential threat. Cuttlefish possess a structure called the cuttlebone, which is porous and is made of aragonite. The pores provide it with buoyancy, which the cuttlefish regulates by changing the ratio in the chambered cuttlebone via the ventral siphuncle. Each species cuttlebone has a shape, size, and pattern of ridges or texture. The cuttlebone is unique to cuttlefish, and is one of the features that distinguish them from their squid relatives, cuttlefish, like other cephalopods, have sophisticated eyes. The organogenesis and the structure of the cephalopod eye fundamentally differ from those of vertebrates such as humans. Superficial similarities between cephalopod and vertebrate eyes are thought to be examples of convergent evolution, the cuttlefish pupil is a smoothly curving W-shape
Cuttlefish
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Cuttlefish
Cuttlefish
Cuttlefish
–
Top and bottom view of a cuttlebone, the buoyancy organ and internal shell of a cuttlefish
Cuttlefish
–
The characteristic W-shape of the cuttlefish eye
26.
Squid
–
Squid are cephalopods of the order Teuthida, which comprises around 304 species. Like all other cephalopods, squid have a head, bilateral symmetry, a mantle. Squid, like cuttlefish, have eight arms arranged in pairs, squid are strong swimmers and certain species can fly for short distances out of the water. Squid are members of the class Cephalopoda, subclass Coleoidea, order Teuthida, Teuthida is the largest cephalopod order with around 300 species classified into 29 families. The order Teuthida is a member of the superorder Decapodiformes, two other orders of decapodiform cephalopods are also called squid, although they are taxonomically distinct from Teuthida and differ recognizably in their gross anatomical features. They are the bobtail squid of order Sepiolida and the rams horn squid of the monotypic order Spirulida, the vampire squid, however, is more closely related to the octopuses than to any squid. Class Cephalopoda Subclass Nautiloidea, nautilus Subclass Coleoidea, squid, octopus, what before may have been the foot of the ancestor is modified into a complex set of tentacles and highly developed sense organs, including advanced eyes similar to those of vertebrates. The ancestral shell has been lost, with only an internal gladius, or pen, the pen is a feather-shaped internal structure that supports the squids mantle and serves as a site for muscle attachment. It is made of a chitin-like material, the main body mass is enclosed in the mantle, which has a swimming fin along each side. These fins, unlike in other organisms, are not the main source of locomotion in most species. The skin is covered in chromatophores, which enable the squid to change color to suit its surroundings, the underside is also almost always lighter than the topside, to provide camouflage from both prey and predator. Under the body are openings to the cavity, which contains the gills and openings to the excretory. At the front of the mantle cavity lies the siphon, which the squid uses for locomotion via precise jet propulsion, in this form of locomotion, water is sucked into the mantle cavity and expelled out of the siphon in a fast, strong jet. The direction of the siphon can be changed, to suit the direction of travel, inside the mantle cavity, beyond the siphon, lies the visceral mass, which is covered by a thin, membranous epidermis. Under this are all the internal organs. The giant axon, which may be up to 1 mm in diameter in some species, innervates the mantle. As cephalopods, squid exhibit relatively high intelligence among invertebrates, for example, groups of Humboldt squid hunt cooperatively, using active communication. In females, the ink sac is hidden from view by a pair of white nidamental glands, also, red-spotted accessory nidamental glands are present
Squid
Squid
Squid
–
Bathyteuthis abyssicola
Squid
–
Grimalditeuthis bonplandi
27.
Krill
–
Krill are small crustaceans of the order Euphausiacea, and are found in all the worlds oceans. The name krill comes from the Norwegian word krill, meaning small fry of fish, which is also often attributed to species of fish. In the Southern Ocean, one species, the Antarctic krill, Euphausia superba, makes up an estimated biomass of around 379,000,000 tonnes, making it among the species with the largest total biomass. Of this, over half is eaten by whales, seals, penguins, squid and fish each year, most krill species display large daily vertical migrations, thus providing food for predators near the surface at night and in deeper waters during the day. Krill are fished commercially in the Southern Ocean and in the waters around Japan, the total global harvest amounts to 150, 000–200,000 tonnes annually, most of this from the Scotia Sea. Most of the catch is used for aquaculture and aquarium feeds, as bait in sport fishing. In Japan, Philippines and Russia, krill are used for human consumption and are known as okiami in Japan. They are eaten as camarones in Spain, in the Philippines, it is known as alamang and it is used to make a salty paste called bagoong. Krill are also the prey of baleen whales, including the blue whale. Krill belong to the arthropod subphylum, the Crustacea. The most familiar and largest group of crustaceans, the class Malacostraca, the order Euphausiacea comprises two families. The more abundant Euphausiidae contains ten different genera with a total of 85 species, of these, the genus Euphausia is the largest, with 31 species. The lesser known family, the Bentheuphausiidae, has one species, Bentheuphausia amblyops. It is considered the most primitive extant krill species, well-known species of the Euphausiidae of commercial krill fisheries include Antarctic krill, Pacific krill and Northern krill. There have been many theories of the location of the order Euphausiacea, later, William Thomas Calman ranked the Mysidacea in the superorder Peracarida and euphausiids in the superorder Eucarida, although even up to the 1930s the order Schizopoda was advocated. It was later proposed that order Euphausiacea should be grouped with the Penaeidae in the Decapoda based on developmental similarities, as noted by Robert Gurney. The reason for debate is that krill share some morphological features of decapods. Molecular studies have not unambiguously grouped them, possibly due to the paucity of key rare species such as Bentheuphausia amblyops in krill, one study supports the monophyly of Eucarida, another groups Euphausiacea with Mysida, while yet another groups Euphausiacea with Hoplocarida
Krill
–
Euphausiacea
Krill
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A krill swarm
Krill
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Krill anatomy explained, using
Euphausia superba as a model
Krill
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The
gills of krill are externally visible.
28.
Crustacean
–
Crustaceans form a large, diverse arthropod taxon which includes such familiar animals as crabs, lobsters, crayfish, shrimp, krill, woodlice and barnacles. In other words, some crustaceans are more related to insects. The 67,000 described species range in size from Stygotantulus stocki at 0.1 mm, to the Japanese spider crab with a leg span of up to 3.8 m, like other arthropods, crustaceans have an exoskeleton, which they moult to grow. Most crustaceans are free-living aquatic animals, but some are terrestrial, some are parasitic, the group has an extensive fossil record, reaching back to the Cambrian, and includes living fossils such as Triops cancriformis, which has existed apparently unchanged since the Triassic period. More than 10 million tons of crustaceans are produced by fishery or farming for human consumption, krill and copepods are not as widely fished, but may be the animals with the greatest biomass on the planet, and form a vital part of the food chain. The scientific study of crustaceans is known as carcinology, and a scientist who works in carcinology is a carcinologist, the body of a crustacean is composed of segments, which are grouped into three regions, the cephalon or head, the thorax, and the pleon or abdomen. The head and thorax may be fused together to form a cephalothorax, the crustacean body is protected by the hard exoskeleton, which must be moulted for the animal to grow. The shell around each somite can be divided into a dorsal tergum, ventral sternum, various parts of the exoskeleton may be fused together. The abdomen bears pleopods, and ends in a telson, which bears the anus, the number and variety of appendages in different crustaceans may be partly responsible for the groups success. It is unclear whether the condition is a derived state which evolved in crustaceans. Trilobites, for instance, also possessed biramous appendages, the main body cavity is an open circulatory system, where blood is pumped into the haemocoel by a heart located near the dorsum. Malacostraca have haemocyanin as the pigment, while copepods, ostracods, barnacles. The alimentary canal consists of a tube that often has a gizzard-like gastric mill for grinding food and a pair of digestive glands that absorb food. Structures that function as kidneys are located near the antennae, a brain exists in the form of ganglia close to the antennae, and a collection of major ganglia is found below the gut. In many decapods, the first pair of pleopods are specialised in the male for sperm transfer, many terrestrial crustaceans mate seasonally and return to the sea to release the eggs. Others, such as woodlice, lay their eggs on land, in most decapods, the females retain the eggs until they hatch into free-swimming larvae. Marine crustaceans are as ubiquitous in the oceans as insects are on land, some branchiurans are able to withstand rapid changes of salinity and will also switch hosts from marine to non-marine species. Krill are the layer and the most important part of the food chain in Antarctic animal communities
Crustacean
Crustacean
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A shed
carapace of a
lady crab, part of the hard
exoskeleton
Crustacean
–
Body structure of a typical crustacean – krill
Crustacean
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Eggs of
Potamon fluviatile, a freshwater crab
29.
Supraorbital gland
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The supraorbital gland is a type of lateral nasal gland found in some species of marine birds, particularly penguins, which removes sodium chloride from the bloodstream. The glands function is similar to that of the kidneys, though it is more efficient at removing salt. Contrary to popular belief, the gland does not directly convert saltwater to freshwater, the term supraorbital refers to the area just above the eye socket. Living in saltwater environments would naturally pose a problem for penguins because the ingestion of saltwater would be detrimental to a penguins health. Although penguins do not directly drink water, it is taken in when they engulf prey, as a result, saltwater enters their system and must be effectively excreted. The supraorbital gland has thus enabled the survival in such environments due to its water-filtering capability. The gland is located just above the eyes and surrounds a capillary bed in the head and this capillary bed constantly strains out the salt in the saltwater that a penguin takes in. Since the byproduct of the gland has roughly five times as much salt as would normally be found in the animals fluids, the penguin excretes the salt byproduct as a brine through its bill. Often, the fluid out, and this gives the appearance of a runny nose. However, the fluid may also be sneezed out, in the absence of saltwater, caused by captivity, the supraorbital gland will lie dormant as it has no other purpose. Having a dormant supraorbital gland does not negatively affect the health of a penguin, osmoregulation Preorbital gland Salt gland nasal gland. Archived from the original on September 18,2006
Supraorbital gland
–
Magellanic penguin
30.
Galapagos penguin
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The Galápagos penguin is a penguin endemic to the Galápagos Islands. It is the penguin that lives north of the equator in the wild. It can survive due to the cool temperatures resulting from the Humboldt Current, the Galápagos penguin is one of the banded penguins, the other species of which live mostly on the coasts of Africa and mainland South America. The average Galápagos penguin is 49 centimetres long and 2.5 kilograms in weight and it is the second smallest species of penguin after the little penguin. Galápagos penguins have a head with a white border running from behind the eye, around the black ear-coverts and chin. They have black-grey upperparts and whitish underparts, with two black bands across the breast, the band extending down the flanks to the thigh. Juveniles differ in having a dark head, greyer on side and chin. The female penguins are smaller than the males, the Galápagos penguin is found primarily on Fernandina Island and the west coast of Isabela Island, but small populations are scattered on other islands in the Galápagos archipelago. While ninety percent of the Galápagos penguins live among the islands of Fernandina and Isabela, they also occur on Santiago, Bartolomé, northern Santa Cruz. The northern tip of Isabela crosses the equator, meaning that some Galápagos penguins live the northern hemisphere, the penguins stay in the archipelago. They stay by the Cromwell Current during the day since it is cooler and they eat small schooling fish, mainly mullet, sardines, and sometimes crustaceans. They search for food only during the day and normally within a few kilometers of their breeding site and they depend on the cold nutrient-rich currents to bring them food. The temperature on the Galapagos Islands stays between 15 and 28 °C and they usually breed when the sea surface temperature is below 24 °C which results in more food for them. The strong sun is the problem for the penguins. Their primary means of cooling off is going into the water and they use two methods of thermoregulation in warmer weather on land. One is by stretching out their flippers and hunching forward to keep the sun shining on their feet. They also pant, using evaporation to cool the throat and airways, Galápagos penguins protect their eggs and chicks from the hot sun by keeping them in deep crevices in the rocks. The species is endangered, with a population size of around 1,500 individuals in 2004
Galapagos penguin
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Galapagos penguin
Galapagos penguin
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Penguin on land
Galapagos penguin
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A juvenile before it has banding markings
31.
Cyanea (jellyfish)
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Cyanea is a cosmopolitan genus of stinging jellyfish, primarily found in northern waters of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The same genus name has given to a genus of plants of the Hawaiian lobelioids. The taxonomy of Cyanea species is not fully agreed upon, some zoologists have suggested that all species within the genus should be treated as one. However, in the North Sea at least, the lions mane jellyfish, Cyanea may be a species complex of recently diverged species
Cyanea (jellyfish)
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Cyanea
32.
Yellow-eyed penguin
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The yellow-eyed penguin or hoiho is a penguin native to New Zealand. Previously thought closely related to the penguin, molecular research has shown it more closely related to penguins of the genus Eudyptes. Like most other penguins, it is mainly piscivorous, the species breeds around the South Island of New Zealand, as well as Stewart Island, Auckland Islands, and Campbell Islands. Colonies on the Otago Peninsula are a popular tourist venue, where visitors may closely observe penguins from hides, trenches, the yellow-eyed penguin is the sole extant species in the genus Megadyptes. Previously thought closely related to the penguin, new molecular research has shown it more closely related to penguins of the genus Eudyptes. Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA evidence suggests it split from the ancestors of Eudyptes around 15 million years ago, the yellow-eyed penguin was described by Jacques Bernard Hombron and Honoré Jacquinot in 1841. This is a penguin, measuring 62–79 cm long. Weights vary through the year being greatest,5.5 to 8 kg, just before moulting and least,3 to 6 kg, the males are larger than the females. It has a yellow head and paler yellow iris with black feather shafts. The chin and throat are brownish-black, there is a band of bright yellow running from its eyes around the back of the head. The juvenile has a head with no band and their eyes have a grey iris. The yellow-eyed penguin may be lived, with some individuals reaching 20 years of age. Males are generally longer lived than females, leading to a sex ratio of 2,1 around the age of 10–12 years. This penguin usually nests in forest or scrub, among native flax and lupin, on slopes or gullies, or the shore itself and these areas are generally sited in small bays or on headland areas of larger bays. It is found in New Zealand, on the south-east coast of the South Island most notably on Otago Peninsula, Foveaux Strait, Stewart Island, and sub-Antarctic islands of Auckland and Campbell Islands. It expanded its range from the islands to the main islands of New Zealand after the extinction of the Waitaha penguin several hundred years ago. This species of penguin is endangered, with a population of 4000. It is considered one of the worlds rarest penguin species, the main threats include habitat degradation and introduced predators
Yellow-eyed penguin
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Yellow-eyed penguin
Yellow-eyed penguin
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Molting yellow-eyed penguin at
Oamaru, New Zealand
Yellow-eyed penguin
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Juvenile in
The Catlins,
New Zealand
Yellow-eyed penguin
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Calling at
Curio Bay,
New Zealand
33.
Little penguin
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The little penguin is the smallest species of penguin. It grows to an average of 33 cm in height and 43 cm in length and it is found on the coastlines of southern Australia and New Zealand, with possible records from Chile. In Australia, they are called fairy penguins because of their small size. In New Zealand, they are commonly known as little blue penguins or blue penguins owing to their slate-blue plumage. They are also known by their Māori name, kororā, the little penguin was first described by German naturalist Johann Reinhold Forster in 1781. Several subspecies are known, but a precise classification of these is still a matter of dispute, the holotypes of the subspecies E. m. variabilis and Eudyptula minor chathamensis are in the collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa. The white-flippered penguin is sometimes considered a subspecies, sometimes a distinct species, like those of all penguins, the little penguins wings have developed into flippers used for swimming. The little penguin typically grows to between 30 and 33 cm tall and usually weighs about 1.5 kg on average, the head and upper parts are blue in colour, with slate-grey ear coverts fading to white underneath, from the chin to the belly. Their flippers are blue in colour, the dark grey-black beak is 3–4 cm long, the irises pale silvery- or bluish-grey or hazel, and the feet pink above with black soles and webbing. An immature individual will have a bill and lighter upperparts. Like most seabirds, they have a long lifespan, the average for the species is 6.5 years, but flipper ringing experiments show in very exceptional cases up to 25 years in captivity. The little penguin breeds along the coastline of New Zealand, the Chatham Islands. Australian colonies exist in New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, Little penguins have also been reported from Chile and South Africa, but it is unclear whether these birds were vagrants. As new colonies continue to be discovered, rough estimates of the population are around 350. Overall, little penguin populations in New Zealand have been decreasing, some colonies have gone extinct and others continue to be at risk. Some new colonies have been established in urban areas, the species is not considered endangered in New Zealand, with the exception of the white-flippered subspecies found only on Banks Peninsula and nearby Motunau Island. Since the 1960s, the population has declined by 60-70%. Australian little penguin colonies primarily exist on islands, where they are protected from feral terrestrial predators
Little penguin
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Little penguin
Little penguin
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Little penguin at the Melbourne Zoo
Little penguin
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Little penguin at night at the
St Kilda breakwater
Little penguin
–
Chick in nest burrow
34.
Punta Tombo
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It is a short distance north of Camarones. The 2.1 km2 Punta Tombo Provincial Reserve has been protected since 1979, according to a provincial decree, Punta Tombo is part of the new marine national park at Golfo San Jorge. The 3 km long,600 m wide peninsula is covered with sand, clay, in late September, with the arrival of spring, thousands of Magellanic penguins migrate to Punta Tombo from southern Brazil to nest. They stay at the site until April, incubating their eggs, raising their chicks, couples stand in front of their nests, protecting the eggs from birds and other predators, and occasionally one adult goes to the sea for food. Other important nearby colonies are Bahía Camarones and Cabo Dos Bahías, a variety of other wildlife can be encountered in the area, including seabirds, rheas and guanacos. In the 19th Century, British mariners knew Punta Tombo as Tombas, Punta Ninfas Península Valdés Citations References Clayton, Jane M. Ships employed in the South Sea Whale Fishery from Britain, 1775-1815, An alphabetical list of ships. ISBN 978-1908616524 Puntatombo. com Destinations Patagonia. com. ar Punta Tombo, images
Punta Tombo
–
Penguins at Punta Tombo, Chubut.
Punta Tombo
–
A pair of Magellanic penguins protecting their nesting burrow
35.
Cape Virgenes
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Cape Virgenes is the southeastern tip of continental Argentina. Ferdinand Magellan reached it on 21 October 1520 and discovered a strait, as 21 October was the feast day of Saint Ursula and the Eleven Thousand Virgins, he named the cape in their honor. The Cape is located in Santa Cruz Province, Patagonia, Argentina, the Cape Virgenes Argentine Lighthouse has been operating since 1904. In 1884, gold was found there sparking the Tierra del Fuego Gold Rush, recently, rises in the number of southern right whales visiting the area have been confirmed
Cape Virgenes
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Magellanic penguins by their burrow in Cape Virgenes
Cape Virgenes
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Capes in the Americas
Cape Virgenes
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Lighthouse (Cape Virgenes)
Cape Virgenes
–
Sunset on Cape Virgenes
36.
Tierra del Fuego
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Tierra del Fuego is an archipelago off the southernmost tip of the South American mainland, across the Strait of Magellan. The archipelago consists of the island, Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, with an area of 48,100 km2. Tierra del Fuego is divided between Chile and Argentina, with the controlling the eastern half of the main island. The southernmost extent of the archipelago is at about latitude 55 S, the earliest known human settlement in Tierra del Fuego dates to around 8,000 B. C. Europeans first explored the islands during Ferdinand Magellans expedition of 1520, Tierra del Fuego, today, petroleum extraction dominates economic activity in the north of Tierra del Fuego, while tourism, manufacturing, and Antarctic logistics are important in the south. The earliest human settlement occurred around 8,000 B. C, the Yaghan were some of the earliest known humans to settle in Tierra del Fuego. Archeological sites with characteristics of their culture have found at locations such as Navarino Island. The name Tierra del Fuego derives from the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, sailing for the Spanish Crown and he believed he was seeing the many fires of the Yaghan, which were visible from the sea, and that the Indians were waiting in the forests to ambush his armada. In 1525 Francisco de Hoces was the first to speculate that Tierra del Fuego was one or more islands rather than part of what was then called Terra Australis, francis Drake in 1578 and a Dutch VOC expedition in 1616 learned more about the geography. The latter expedition named Cape Horn, on his first voyage with the HMS Beagle in 1830, Robert FitzRoy picked up four native Fuegians, including Jemmy Button and brought them to England. The surviving three were taken to London to meet the King and Queen and were, for a time and they returned to Tierra del Fuego in the Beagle with FitzRoy and Charles Darwin, who made extensive notes about his visit to the islands. During the second half of the 19th century, the archipelago began to come under Chilean, both countries sought to claim the whole archipelago based on de jure Spanish colonial titles. Salesian Catholic missions were established in Río Grande and Dawson Island, anglican missions were established by British colonists at Keppel Island in the Falklands in 1855 and in 1870 at Ushuaia on the main island, which continued to operate through the 19th century. Thomas Bridges learned the language and compiled a 30, 000-word Yaghan grammar and it was published in the 20th century and considered an important ethnological work. An 1879 Chilean expedition led by Ramón Serrano Montaner reported large amounts of gold in the streams. This prompted massive immigration to the island between 1883 and 1909. Numerous Argentines, Chileans and Croatians settled in the main island, julius Popper, a Romanian explorer, was one of the most successful entrepreneurs in the region. Granted rights by the Argentine government to exploit any gold deposits he found in Tierra del Fuego, despite the missionaries efforts, many natives died
Tierra del Fuego
–
Tierra del Fuego archipelago in the bottom half of the image
Tierra del Fuego
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Selknam men hunting
Tierra del Fuego
–
View of
Puerto Williams
Tierra del Fuego
–
The city of
Ushuaia
37.
Patagonia
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Patagonia is a sparsely populated region located at the southern end of South America, shared by Argentina and Chile. The region comprises the section of the Andes mountains as well as the deserts, steppes. Patagonia has two coasts, a western one towards the Pacific Ocean and an eastern one towards the Atlantic Ocean, the Colorado and Barrancas rivers, which run from the Andes to the Atlantic, are commonly considered the northern limit of Argentine Patagonia. The archipelago of Tierra del Fuego is sometimes included as part of Patagonia, most geographers and historians locate the northern limit of Chilean Patagonia at Reloncaví Estuary. The name Patagonia comes from the word used by Magellan in 1520 to describe the native people that his expedition thought to be giants. It is now believed that the people he called the Patagons were Tehuelches, the hypothesis was accepted and published in the New Review of Spanish Philology in the 2011 article. In the hollows of the plains are ponds or lakes of fresh and brackish water, towards the Andes, the shingle gives place to porphyry, granite, and basalt lavas, animal life becomes more abundant and vegetation more luxuriant. It is characteristic of the flora of the western coast, and consist principally of southern beech and conifers. Among the depressions by which the plateau is intersected transversely, the ones are the Gualichu, south of the Río Negro, the Maquinchao and Valcheta, the Senguerr. There, erosion which is caused principally by the sudden melting, best in evidence where in contact with folded Cretaceous rocks which are uplifted by the Cenozoic granite. It generally separates the plateau from the first lofty hills, the ridges generally called the pre-Cordillera, to the west of these, a similar longitudinal depression extends all along the foot of the snowy Andean Cordillera. This latter depression contains the richest and most fertile land of Patagonia, Lake basins along the Cordillera were also excavated by ice-streams, including Lake Argentino and Lake Fagnano, as well as coastal bays such as Bahía Inútil. There have been discrepancies among geologists on the origin of the Patagonian landmass, víctor Ramos has proposed that the Patagonian landmass originated as an allochtonous terrane that separated from Antarctica and docked in South America 250 to 270 Ma in the Permian era. A2014 study by Robert John Pankhurst and coworkers reject any idea of a far-travelled Patagonia claiming it is likely of parautochtonous origin, the Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits have revealed a most interesting vertebrate fauna. The Patagonian Myolania belongs to the Upper Chalk, having been associated with remains of Dinosauria. In the Cenozoic marine formation, a number of cetaceans has been discovered. At a state level, Patagonia lies inside two countries, Chile and Argentina, both countries have organised their Patagonian territories into non-equivalent administrative subdivisions, Provinces and departments in Argentina, and regions, provinces and communes in Chile. Being a unitary state Chiles first level administrative divisions—the regions—enjoy far less autonomy than Argentine provinces, Argentine provinces have elected governors and parliaments, while Chilean regions have government-appointed intendants
Patagonia
–
Patagonia
Patagonia
–
Map of Patagonia according to the most accepted extent (see text).
Patagonia
–
Black-browed albatross, near
Ushuaia
Patagonia
–
Cueva de las Manos site in Santa Cruz, Argentina
38.
Threatened species
–
Threatened species are any species which are vulnerable to endangerment in the near future. Species that are threatened are sometimes characterised by the population dynamics measure of critical depensation and this quantitative metric is one method of evaluating the degree of endangerment. Species which have not been evaluated, or do not have sufficient data also are not considered threatened by the IUCN, Threatened species are also referred to as a red-listed species, as they are listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Subspecies, populations and stocks may also be classified as threatened and it is the less protected of the two protected categories. The Bay checkerspot butterfly is an example of a threatened subspecies protected under the ESA, for example, the trumpeter swan is threatened in the state of Minnesota, while large populations still remain in Canada and Alaska. The EPBC Act also recognises and protects threatened ecosystems such as plant communities, some species, such as Lewins rail, are not listed as threatened species under the EPBC Act, but they may be recognised as threatened by individual states or territories. Biodiversity Action Plan IUCN Red List Illegal logging Rare species Red and blue-listed Slash-and-burn Threatened fauna of Australia Sharrock, S. and Jones, conserving Europes threatened plants Botanic Gardens Conservation International
Threatened species
–
by
IUCN Red List category
Threatened species
–
IUCN Red List
Threatened species
–
By
region
Threatened species
39.
Oil spill
–
An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially marine areas, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is applied to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters. Cleanup and recovery from an oil spill is difficult and depends upon factors, including the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water. Spills may take weeks, months or even years to clean up, oil spills can have disastrous consequences for society, economically, environmentally, and socially. The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons, but volume is a limited barometer of damage or impact. Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land and these can kill seabirds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms they coat. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if an earth dam can be rapidly bulldozed around the spill site before most of the oil escapes. An oil spill represents an immediate fire hazard, the Kuwaiti oil fires produced air pollution that caused respiratory distress. The Deepwater Horizon explosion killed eleven oil rig workers, the fire resulting from the Lac-Mégantic derailment killed 47 and destroyed half of the towns centre. Spilled oil can contaminate drinking water supplies. For example, in 2013 two different oil spills contaminated water supplies for 300,000 in Miri, Malaysia,80,000 people in Coca, in 2000, springs were contaminated by an oil spill in Clark County, Kentucky. Contamination can have an impact on tourism and marine resource extraction industries. For example, the Deepwater Horizon oil spill impacted beach tourism and fishing along the Gulf Coast, in general, sрilled oil can affect animals and plants in twо ways, dirесt from the oil and from the respоnsе or cleаnup process. There is no relationship between the amount of oil in the aquatic environment and the likely impact on biodiversity. A smaller spill at the wrong time/wrong season and in an environment may prove much more harmful than a larger spill at another time of the year in another or even the same environment. Animals who rely on scent to find their babies or mothers cannot due to the scent of the oil. This causes a baby to be rejected and abandoned, leaving the babies to starve, oil can impair a birds ability to fly, preventing it from foraging or escaping from predators. As they preen, birds may ingest the oil coating their feathers, irritating the digestive tract, altering liver function, together with their diminished foraging capacity, this can rapidly result in dehydration and metabolic imbalance
Oil spill
–
Help after an oil spill
Oil spill
–
Oil slick from the
Montara oil spill in the Timor Sea, September 2009
Oil spill
–
A
surf scoter covered in oil as a result of the
2007 San Francisco Bay oil spill.
Oil spill
–
A bird covered in oil from the
Black Sea oil spill.
40.
Sea lion
–
Sea lions are sea mammals characterized by external ear flaps, long foreflippers, the ability to walk on all fours, and short, thick hair, big chest and belly. Together with the fur seals, they comprise the family Otariidae, eared seals and their range extends from the subarctic to tropical waters of the global ocean in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, with the notable exception of the northern Atlantic Ocean. They have a lifespan of 20–30 years. A male California sea lion weighs on average about 300 kg and is about 8 ft long, the largest sea lion is Stellers sea lion, which can weigh 1,000 kg and grow to a length of 10 ft. Sea lions consume large quantities of food at a time and are known to eat about 5–8% of their weight at a single feeding. Together with the fur seals, they constitute the family Otariidae, until recently, sea lions were grouped under a single subfamily called Otariinae, whereas fur seals were grouped in the subfamily Arcocephalinae. This division was based on the most prominent common feature shared by the fur seals and absent in the sea lions, namely the dense underfur characteristic of the former. Recent genetic evidence, however, strongly suggests Callorhinus, the genus of the fur seal, is more closely related to some sea lion species than to the other fur seal genus, Arctocephalus. Therefore, the fur seal/sea lion subfamily distinction has been eliminated from many taxonomies, Sea lions are related to the walrus and the seal. Nonetheless, all fur seals have certain features in common, the fur, generally smaller sizes, farther and longer foraging trips, smaller and more abundant prey items, and greater sexual dimorphism. All sea lions have certain features in common, in particular their coarse, short fur, greater bulk, for these reasons, the distinction remains useful. The family Otariidae contains the 14 extant species of fur seals and this is consistent with the fossil record which suggests that this genus diverged from the line leading to the remaining fur seals and sea lions about 6 million years ago. The phylogenetic relationships within the family and the distances among some taxa highlight inconsistencies in the current taxonomic classification of the family. Arctocephalus is characterized by ancestral character states such as dense underfur and it was from this basal line that both the sea lions and the remaining fur seal genus, Callorhinus, are thought to have diverged. Physiology dictates thermoregulation, osmoregulation, reproduction, metabolic rate, and many other aspects on sea lion ecology including but not limited to their ability to dive to great depths. The sea lions bodies control heart rate, gas exchange, digestion rate, the high pressures associated with deep dives cause gases such as nitrogen to build up in tissues which are then released upon surfacing, possibly causing death. One of the sea lions deal with the extreme pressures is by limiting the amount of gas exchange that occurs when diving. The sea lion allows the alveoli to be compressed by the water pressure thus forcing the surface air into cartilage lined airway just before the gas exchange surface
Sea lion
–
Sea lion Temporal range: Late
Oligocene -
Holocene
Sea lion
–
Steller sea lions haul out on a rock off the coast of
Raspberry Island (Alaska).
Sea lion
–
Sea lions entertaining a crowd in
Central Park Zoo.
Sea lion
–
Galápagos sea lions on a park bench in
Puerto Baquerizo Moreno.
41.
Giant petrel
–
Giant petrels form a genus, Macronectes, from the family Procellariidae, which consists of two species. They are the largest birds of this family, Giant petrels are aggressive predators and scavengers, inspiring another common name, the stinker. South Sea whalers used to call them gluttons, the giant petrels are two large seabirds from the genus Macronectes. The southern giant petrel is slightly larger than the northern giant petrel, the northern giant petrel is 3 to 5 kg,150 to 210 cm across the wings and 80 to 95 cm. They superficially resemble the albatross, and are the only procellarids who can equal them in size. They can be separated from the albatrosses by their bill, the two nostrils are joined together on the top of the bill, unlike on albatross where they are separated. They are also the members of the Procellariidae family to have strong legs to walk on land. They are also darker and more mottled brown and have a more hunch-backed look. The bills of Procellariiformes are also unique in that they are split into seven and 9 horny plates. The petrels have a bill called the maxillary unguis which can hold slippery food. They produce an oil made up of wax esters and triglycerides which is stored in the proventriculus. This can be sprayed out of their mouths as a defence against predators and as a rich food source for chicks. Finally, they have a salt gland situated above the passage and helps desalinate their bodies. It excretes a high saline solution from their noses and they are hard to tell from each other, possessing similar long pale orange bills and uniform mottled grey plumage. The billtip of M. halli is reddish-pink and that of M. giganteus is pale green, appearing slightly darker and lighter than the rest of the bill, respectively. The underside of older M. halli is paler and more uniform than M. giganteus, additionally, adult M. halli typically appear pale-eyed, while adult M. giganteus of the normal morph typically appear dark-eyed. Classic examples of northern giant are identifiable at some range, unfortunately, young birds of both species are all dark and very hard to distinguish unless bill tip colour can be seen. Some relatively young northern giant petrels can appear to be paler on the head, suggesting southern giant, Macronectes comes from the Greek words makros meaning long and nēktēs meaning swimmer
Giant petrel
–
Giant petrel
Giant petrel
–
Giant petrel feeding on a seal carcass in
South Georgia
Giant petrel
–
Giant petrel with chick in
Antarctica
Giant petrel
–
Giant petrel which just killed a
king penguin chick
42.
Leopard seals
–
The leopard seal, also referred to as the sea leopard, is the second largest species of seal in the Antarctic. Along with all of the earless seals, it belongs to the family Phocidae. The name hydrurga means water worker and leptonyx is the Greek for small clawed, the leopard seal is large and muscular, with a dark grey back and light grey on its stomach. Its throat is whitish with the spots that give the seal its common name. Females are slightly larger than the males, the overall length of this seal is 2. 4–3.5 m and weight is from 200 to 600 kilograms. They are about the length as the northern walrus. Its front teeth are sharp like those of other carnivores, but its molars lock together in a way allows them to sieve krill from the water. The leopard seal lives in the waters surrounding the Antarctic continent. Where most seals remain restricted within the ice throughout the year, some move further north in the austral winter to subantarctic islands. This trait of vocalizing underwater for long periods however has made available to acoustic surveys. Leopard seals are solitary and widely distributed throughout the pack ice, higher densities of leopard seals are seen in the Western Antarctic than in other regions. Leopard seals are very vocal underwater during the austral summer, the male seals produce loud calls for many hours each day. While singing the seal hangs upside down and rocks from side to side under the water and their back is bent, the neck and cranial thoracic region is inflated and as they call their chest pulses. Adult male leopard seals have only a few stylized calls, some are like bird or cricket-like trills yet others are low haunting moans, the leopard seals have age-related differences in their calling patterns, just like birds. Where the younger male seals have many different types of variable calls - the adult male seals have only a few, each male seal produces individually distinctive songs. They arrange their few call types into individually distinctive sequences, the acoustic behavior of the leopard seal is believed to be linked to their breeding behaviour. The females give birth to a single pup during the summer on the floating ice floes of the Antarctic pack ice. She protects her pup until it is able to fend for itself, the leopard seal is bold, powerful and curious
Leopard seals
Leopard seals
–
The skull of the leopard seal
Leopard seals
–
A leopard seal growling
Leopard seals
–
Leopard seal feeding on
emperor penguin.
43.
Warrah
–
The Falkland Islands wolf, also known as the warrah and occasionally as the Falkland Islands dog, Falkland Islands fox, or Antarctic wolf, was the only native land mammal of the Falkland Islands. This endemic canid became extinct in 1876, the first known canid to have become extinct in historical times and it was the only modern species in the genus Dusicyon. Traditionally it had been supposed that the most closely related genus was Lycalopex, including the Culpeo, the Falkland Islands wolf existed on both West and East Falkland, but Charles Darwin was uncertain if they were differentiated varieties. Its fur had a colour and the tip of the tail was white. It has sometimes said that it may have lived in burrows. The first recorded sighting was by Capt, captain Strong took one of the animals on his ship, but during the voyage back to Europe the creature became frightened by the firing of the ships cannon and jumped overboard. Louis Antoine de Bougainville, who established the first settlement in the Falkland Islands termed it a loup-renard, when Charles Darwin visited the islands in 1833 he found the species present in both West and East Falkland and tame. However, at the time of his visit the animal was very rare on East Falkland. By 1865, it was no longer found on the part of East Falkland. He predicted that the animal would join the dodo among the extinct within a few years. It was hunted for its fur, and the settlers, regarding the wolf as a threat to their sheep. I ran up as they were fighting and came to the poor dogs assistance who had met his match, and a rifle ball soon settled the business. A live wolf was taken to London Zoo, England in 1868, another Antarctic wolf arrived in 1870. Only a dozen or so museum specimens exist today, in 1880, after the animal became extinct, Thomas Huxley classified it as related to the coyote. In 1914, Oldfield Thomas moved it to the genus Dusicyon, with the culpeo and he later wrote that such facts seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species. A recent DNA analysis, and a study of brain anatomy suggest that the closest living relative of the Falkland Islands wolf is the South American maned wolf. Their most recent common ancestor was estimated to have lived some 6 million years ago and was close to the most recent common ancestor of all South American canids, however, no fossil from North America can be assigned to the Falkland Islands wolf or its immediate ancestors. Dusicyon avus, known from fossils from southern South America as recent as 1600 years ago, was a close relative of the Falkland Islands wolf
Warrah
–
Falkland Islands wolf
Warrah
–
Illustration of "Dusicyon australis" from
Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle
Warrah
–
Engraving of "Antarctic wolf",
The Illustrated London News (1873).
44.
Buenos Aires
–
Buenos Aires is the capital and most populous city of Argentina. The city is located on the shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata. The city of Buenos Aires is neither part of Buenos Aires Province nor the Provinces capital, rather, in 1880, after decades of political infighting, Buenos Aires was federalized and removed from Buenos Aires Province. The city limits were enlarged to include the towns of Belgrano and Flores, the 1994 constitutional amendment granted the city autonomy, hence its formal name, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Its citizens first elected a chief of government in 1996, previously, Buenos Aires is considered an alpha city by the study GaWC5. Buenos Aires quality of life was ranked 81st in the world and one of the best in Latin America in 2012 and it is the most visited city in South America, and the second-most visited city of Latin America. Buenos Aires is a top tourist destination, and is known for its preserved Spanish/European-style architecture, Buenos Aires held the 1st Pan American Games in 1951 as well as hosting two venues in the 1978 FIFA World Cup. Buenos Aires will host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics and the 2018 G20 summit, Buenos Aires is a multicultural city, being home to multiple ethnic and religious groups. Several languages are spoken in the city in addition to Spanish, contributing to its culture, the hill was known to them as Buen Ayre, as it was free of the foul smell prevalent in the old city, which is adjacent to swampland. During the siege of Cagliari, the Aragonese built a sanctuary to the Virgin Mary on top of the hill, in 1335, King Alfonso the Gentle donated the church to the Mercedarians, who built an abbey that stands to this day. In the years after that, a story circulated, claiming that a statue of the Virgin Mary was retrieved from the sea after it miraculously helped to calm a storm in the Mediterranean Sea, the statue was placed in the abbey. Spanish sailors, especially Andalusians, venerated this image and frequently invoked the Fair Winds to aid them in their navigation, a sanctuary to the Virgin of Buen Ayre would be later erected in Seville. Pedro de Mendoza called the city Holy Mary of the Fair Winds, mendoza’s settlement soon came under attack by indigenous people, and was abandoned in 1541. For many years, the name was attributed to a Sancho del Campo, a second settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who sailed down the Paraná River from Asunción. Garay preserved the name chosen by Mendoza, calling the city Ciudad de la Santísima Trinidad y Puerto de Santa María del Buen Aire. The short form Buenos Aires became the common usage during the 17th century, the usual abbreviation for Buenos Aires in Spanish is Bs. As. It is common as well to refer to it as B. A. or BA /ˌbiːˈeɪ/ bee-AY), while BA is used more by expats residing in the city, the locals more often use the abbreviation Baires, in one word. Seaman Juan Díaz de Solís, navigating in the name of Spain, was the first European to reach the Río de la Plata in 1516 and his expedition was cut short when he was killed during an attack by the native Charrúa tribe in what is now Uruguay
Buenos Aires
–
From the top, left to right:
Central Business District skyline, the
Palace of the Argentine National Congress,
Puente de la Mujer, Tango dancers in
San Telmo,
Casa Rosada, the
Metropolitan Cathedral,
Cabildo, the
Obelisco,
Teatro Colón,
La Recoleta Cemetery, the
Planetario within
Parque Tres de Febrero, and
Caminito.
Buenos Aires
–
Aldus verthoont hem de stadt Buenos Ayrros geleegen in Rio de la Plata, painting by a Dutch sailor who anchored at the port around 1628.
Buenos Aires
–
Santiago de Liniers, 1st Count of Buenos Aires.
Buenos Aires
–
Depiction of
Juan de Garay and the second founding of Buenos Aires, 1580
45.
Chubut Province
–
Chubut is a province in southern Argentina, situated between the 42nd parallel south, the 46th parallel south, the Andes range to the west, and the Atlantic ocean to the east. The provinces name derives from the Tehuelche word chupat, meaning transparent, the largest city is Comodoro Rivadavia in the south of the province, it has 180,000 inhabitants. Other important cities are Puerto Madryn, Trelew, Esquel and Sarmiento, Gaiman is a cultural and demographic centre of the region known as Y Wladfa in which Welsh-Argentines are concentrated. Of the 25,000 Welsh speakers in Argentina,5,000 live in the Chubut region, particularly in the early Welsh settlements of Gaiman, Trelew, before the Spaniards arrived in the Americas, nomadic indigenous Tehuelche peoples had inhabited the Patagonia region for thousands of years. They lived as hunter-gatherers and covered territory in seasonal cycles as they followed game, in the 17th and 18th centuries, Spanish missionaries came to the area, and founded the San José Fort on Península Valdés. The indigenous people destroyed it. In 1865, Welsh people came to Chubut in the Mimosa ship, the region was disputed between Chile and Argentina until 1881. Chile renounced its claim in order to prevent Argentina from entering into the War of the Pacific, in which it was fighting against Peru. As part of the Conquista del Desierto, Argentina organized the National Territory of Chubut in 1884, after the last indigenous cacique, Inyacal, surrendered to government forces. At the beginning of the 20th century, after the Boer War, some Boer people settled in the town of Sarmiento, in 1944, the southern part of Chubut and northern part of Santa Cruz were designated the Comodoro Rivadavia military zone. The zone was dissolved in 1955, and Chubut was declared a province, studies in the 1950s revealed mineral wealth in the province, which the government has tried to develop. Population shifts of the late 20th century, especially from Buenos Aires, raised the population steadily from 190,000, the government has encouraged people to resettle here. Most of the inhabitants are in the main cities and they have also settled along the Chubut River. Most areas have a density of less than 1 inhabitant per square kilometer. Chubuts economy, for a time one of the most prosperous in Argentina, is one of the countrys least diversified. Nearly one-quarter of its 2006 output, estimated at US$4.652 billion, is generated by mining and this sectors contribution helped give Chubut the nations fourth-highest per capita output in 2011, US$25,250. Petroleum refining is the economic activity of the province, it generates 13% of Argentine oil production. Chubut produces 21% of the fish catch
Chubut Province
–
Coat of arms
Chubut Province
–
Argentine Geological Society founder Dr. Victorio Angelelli (2nd from right), ca. 1950, whose study of Chubut's mineral wealth identified resources for economic development.
Chubut Province
–
Rada Tilly, on the
Atlantic Ocean.
Chubut Province
–
Southern right whale in
Península Valdés, its preferred sanctuary.
46.
Marine protected area
–
Marine protected areas are protected areas of seas, oceans, estuaries or large lakes. MPAs restrict human activity for a purpose, typically to protect natural or cultural resources. Such marine resources are protected by local, state, territorial, native, regional, national, or international authorities and differ substantially among and between nations. This variation includes different limitations on development, fishing practices, fishing seasons and catch limits, moorings and bans on removing or disrupting marine life. In some situations, MPAs also provide revenue for countries, potentially equal to the income that they would have if they were to grant companies permissions to fish.55 million km2 in the Ross Sea. MPA is a term for protected areas that includes some area of marine landscape and/or biodiversity. Several types of compliant MPA can be distinguished, A totally marine area with no significant terrestrial parts, an area containing both marine and terrestrial components, which can vary between two extremes, those that are predominantly maritime with little land, or that is mostly terrestrial. Marine ecosystems that contain land and intertidal components only, for example, a mangrove forest would contain no open sea or ocean marine environment, but its river-like marine ecosystem nevertheless complies with the definition. IUCN offered seven categories of protected area, based on management objectives, related protected area categories include the following, World Heritage Site – an area exhibiting extensive natural or cultural history. Maritime areas are represented, however, with only 46 out of over 800 sites. Man and the Biosphere – UNESCO program that promotes a relationship between humans and the biosphere. Under article 4, biosphere reserves must encompass a mosaic of ecological systems, in structure they are similar to Multiple-use MPAs, with a core area ringed by different degrees of protection. Ramsar site – must meet criteria for the definition of Wetland to become part of a global system. These sites do not necessarily receive protection, but are indexed by importance for later recommendation to an agency that could designate it a protected area. While area refers to a single location, terms such as network, system. At the 2004 Convention on Biological Diversity, the agreed to use network on a global level. The network is a mechanism to establish regional and local systems, no take zones, are areas designated in a number of the worlds MPAs, where all forms of exploitation are prohibited and severely limits human activities. These no take zones can cover an entire MPA, or specific portions, for example, the 1,150,000 square kilometres Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument, the worlds largest MPA, is a 100% no take zone
Marine protected area
–
Milford Sound,
New Zealand is a strict
marine reserve (Category Ia)
Mitre Peak, the mountain at left, rises 1,692 m (5,551 ft) above the sea.
Marine protected area
–
The
Chagos Archipelago was declared the world's largest marine reserve in April 2010 with an area of 250,000 square miles until March 2015 when It was declared illegal by the Permanent Court of Arbitration.
Marine protected area
–
Asinara, Italy is listed by WDPA as both a marine reserve and a national marine park, and as such could be labelled 'multiple-use'
Marine protected area
–
Bunaken Marine Park, Indonesia is officially listed as both a marine reserve and a national marine park.
47.
International Standard Serial Number
–
An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
International Standard Serial Number
–
ISSN encoded in an EAN-13 barcode with sequence variant 0 and issue number 5
48.
PubMed Identifier
–
PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
PubMed Identifier
–
PubMed
49.
Order (biology)
–
In biological classification, the order is a taxonomic rank used in the classification of organisms and recognized by the nomenclature codes. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, family, genus, an immediately higher rank, superorder, may be added directly above order, while suborder would be a lower rank. A taxonomic unit, a taxon, in that rank, in that case the plural is orders. Example, The Juglans and Hickory trees belong to the family Juglandaceae, what does and does not belong to each order is determined by a taxonomist, as is whether a particular order should be recognized at all. Often there is no agreement, with different taxonomists each taking a different position. There are no rules that a taxonomist needs to follow in describing or recognizing an order. Some taxa are accepted almost universally, while others are recognised only rarely, for some groups of organisms, consistent suffixes are used to denote that the rank is an order. The Latin suffix -formes meaning having the form of is used for the name of orders of birds and fishes. The suffix -ales is for the name of orders of plants, fungi, for some clades covered by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, a number of additional classifications are sometimes used, although not all of these are officially recognised. In their 1997 classification of mammals, McKenna and Bell used two levels between superorder and order, grandorder and mirorder. Michael Novacek inserted them at the same position, michael Benton inserted them between superorder and magnorder instead. This position was adopted by Systema Naturae 2000 and others, in botany, the ranks of subclass and suborder are secondary ranks pre-defined as respectively above and below the rank of order. Any number of further ranks can be used as long as they are clearly defined, the superorder rank is commonly used, with the ending -anae that was initiated by Armen Takhtajans publications from 1966 onwards. Carl Linnaeus was the first to apply it consistently to the division of all three kingdoms of nature in his Systema Naturae, for plants, Linnaeus orders in the Systema Naturae and the Species Plantarum were strictly artificial, introduced to subdivide the artificial classes into more comprehensible smaller groups. In French botanical publications, from Michel Adansons Familles naturelles des plantes and until the end of the 19th century, some of the plant families still retain the names of Linnaean natural orders or even the names of pre-Linnaean natural groups recognised by Linnaeus as orders in his natural classification. Such names are known as family names. In zoology, the Linnaean orders were used more consistently and that is, the orders in the zoology part of the Systema Naturae refer to natural groups. Some of his names are still in use
Order (biology)
–
Title page of the 1758 edition of Linnaeus's Systema Naturæ.
.jpg)
. PMID 24489663. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0085602.
