1.
Magnus the Good
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Magnus Olafsson, better known as Magnus the Good, was the King of Norway from 1035 and King of Denmark from 1042, ruling over both countries until his death in 1047. He was a son of Olaf II of Norway. He returned to Norway in 1035 and was crowned king at the age of 11, in 1042, he was also crowned king of Denmark. Magnus ruled the two countries until 1047, when he died under unclear circumstances, after his death, his kingdom was split between Harald Hardrada in Norway and Sweyn Estridsson in Denmark. Magnus was a son of King Olaf Haraldsson, by his English concubine Alfhild. Born prematurely, the child was weak and unable to breathe for the first few minutes, Olaf was not present at the childs birth, and his Icelandic skald Sigvatr Þórðarson became his godfather. In a hasty baptism, Sigvatr named Magnus after the greatest king he knew of, also Olafs greatest role model, Karla Magnus, against the odds, Magnus went on to grow strong and healthy, and he became of vital importance to Olaf as his only son. Olaf was dethroned by the Danish king Cnut the Great in 1028 and they travelled over the mountains and through Eidskog during the winter, entered Värmland, and were given shelter by a chieftain called Sigtrygg in Närke. After a few months, they departed Närke, and by March went eastwards towards Sigtuna, the party thereafter sailed through the Baltic Sea and into the Gulf of Finland, eventually landing in Kievan Rus. They made their first stop at Staraya Ladoga to organise the further journey, from there they travelled southwards to Novgorod, where Olaf sought assistance from Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise. Yaroslav, however, did not want to directly involved in the Scandinavian power-struggles. After some time, in early 1030, Olaf learned that the Earl of Lade Håkon Eiriksson, Cnuts regent in Norway, had disappeared at sea, Magnus was left to be fostered by Yaroslav and his wife Ingegerd. In early 1031, a party including Magnuss uncle Harald Sigurdsson arrived to report the news of his fathers death at the Battle of Stiklestad, for the next few years, Magnus was educated in Old Russian and some Greek and was trained as a warrior. After Cnuts death in 1035, the Norwegian noblemen did not want to be under the rule of his son Svein. After receiving the approval of Ingegerd, they returned with Magnus to Sigtuna in early 1035, Astrid immediately became an important supporter of Magnus, and an army was gathered in Sweden, headed by Einar and Kalf, to place Magnus on the Norwegian throne. Magnus was proclaimed king in 1035, at 11 years of age, at first Magnus sought revenge against his fathers enemies, but on Sigvatrs advice he stopped doing so, which is why he became known as good or noble. Another son of Cnut, Harthacnut, was on the throne of Denmark and wanted his country to reunite with Norway, however, the noblemen of both countries brought the two kings together at the Göta älv, the border between their kingdoms. They made peace and agreed that the first of them to die would be succeeded by the other, as part of consolidating his control, Magnus destroyed the Jomsborg, headquarters of the Jomsvikings
2.
Olaf III of Norway
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It can also refer to Olaf Guthfrithson of Dublin and to Olof Skötkonung of Sweden. Also, sometimes Olaf II of Denmark is numbered as III when counting a previous anti-king, for other people of the same name, see Olaf Haraldsson. Olaf Haraldsson, known as Olaf Kyrre, ruled Norway as from 1067 until his death in 1093. He was present at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in England in 1066 where his father, King Harald Hardrada, saw defeat and was killed in action, an event that directly preceded his kingship. During his rule, Olaf made peace with regards to earlier conflicts with the church, strengthened the power of the monarchy. Around 1225, Snorri Sturluson wrote Olav Kyrres saga about King Olaf in the Heimskringla, Olaf was a son of King Harald Hardrada and Tora Torbergsdatter. Olaf joined his father during the invasion of England during 1066, however, he was only 16 years old during the Battle of Stamford Bridge in September 1066. He stayed on a ship and did not participate in the fighting, after the Norwegian defeat, he sailed with the remains of the Norwegian strike force back to Orkney, where they wintered. The return journey to Norway took place in summer 1067, after the death of his father, Olaf shared the kingdom with his brother Magnus II who had become king the previous year. When King Magnus died during 1069, Olaf became the ruler of Norway. During his reign, the nation of Norway experienced an extended period of peace. He renounced any offensive foreign policy, rather he protected Norway as a kingdom through agreements, domestically he laid emphasis on the churchs organization and modernizing the kingdom. The latter resulted in, among other things, the reorganization of the body-guard and of measures under which key cities, especially Bergen, according to the Heimskringla by Snorri Sturluson, Olaf is said to have founded the city of Bergen. The death of Harald Hardrada and the defeat suffered by the Norwegians in 1066 tempted the Danish king, Svend Estridsen. King Svend no longer bound by the ceasefire agreement signed with Harald Hardrada in 1064. However Olaf made peace with King Svend and married the kings daughter Ingerid, later, Olavs half sister Ingegerd of Norway married King Svends son and heir Olaf I of Denmark, who would later become the Danish king. Although there were attacks on England by Danish forces, peace persisted between Denmark and Norway. Olaf also made peace with William the Conqueror of England, King Olaf broke with his fathers line in his relationship to the church
3.
Sigurd the Crusader
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Sigurd I Magnusson, also known as Sigurd the Crusader, was King of Norway from 1103 to 1130. His rule, together with his half-brother Øystein, has been regarded by historians as an age for the medieval Kingdom of Norway. He is otherwise famous for leading the Norwegian Crusade, earning the eponym the Crusader, Sigurd was one of the three sons to King Magnus III, the other two being Øystein and Olaf. They were all sons of the king with different mothers. To avoid feuds or war, the three half-brothers co-ruled the kingdom from 1103, Sigurd would rule alone after Olaf died in 1115 and Øystein in 1123. Before being proclaimed King of Norway, Sigurd was also styled as King of the Isles and he would pass the Earl of Orkney title on to Haakon Paulsson, a son of Paul Thorfinnsson. Many historians have viewed Sigurd and Øysteins rule as an age for the medieval Kingdom of Norway. The country was able to both in wealth and expansion, Sigurds participation in the crusades as well as gained international recognition. In 1098, Sigurd accompanied his father, King Magnus III, on his expedition to the Orkney Islands, Hebrides and he was made Earl of Orkney the same year, following the swift removal of the incumbent Earls of Orkney, Paul and Erlend Thorfinnsson. He was also apparently, made King of the Isles in that year, following the overthrow of their king by his father. Although Magnus was not directly responsible for the death of the previous King of the Isles, he was the ruler of the kingdom. This was the first time the kingdom had been under control by a Norwegian king. It is not certain whether Sigurd returned home with his father to Norway after the 1098 expedition, however, it is known that he was in Orkney when Magnus returned west in 1102 for his next expedition. While there, an alliance was negotiated between Magnus and Muircheartach Ua Briain. He was High King of Ireland, one of the most powerful rulers in Ireland, Sigurd was to marry Muirchertachs daughter Bjaðmunjo, a young Irish princess and for a short period, Queen consort. When King Magnus was ambushed and killed in Ulaid by an Irish army in 1103, upon arriving in Norway, he and his two brothers, Øystein and Olav, were proclaimed kings of Norway and would co-rule the kingdom together for some time. The expeditions conducted by Magnus were somewhat profitable to the Kingdom of Norway, as the islands now under Norway would provide wealth, defences. However the Hebrides and Mann quickly re-asserted their independence after Magnus death, in 1107, Sigurd led the Norwegian Crusade to support the newly established Kingdom of Jerusalem which had been founded after the First Crusade
4.
Eystein I of Norway
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While Sigurd gained fame as the warrior king, Eystein was in contrast portrayed in the sagas as the peace king who stayed home in Norway and improved the country. As Eystein never engaged in warfare, considerably less information is written and known about him than about his brother Sigurd, despite his twenty-year-long reign, Eystein nonetheless gained the affection of his people, and was highly regarded by the saga writers for his deeds. Eystein and Sigurds reign became the longest joint rule in Norwegian history, Eysteins activities were especially centered in Bergen, which became an important international trade hub for fish at the time, helped by his construction projects. His activities in Bergen included moving the seat to a more central location in the city and building a new royal palace, as well as constructing churches. Eystein died of illness in August 1123, and his brother Sigurd thereby became the sole Norwegian king. Eystein was born in 1088 or 1089 as the first son of the future king Magnus Barefoot, born to an otherwise unknown mother who is only recorded to have been of low birth. Upon the death of his father in 1103 during one of his campaigns in Ireland, Sigurd was about a year younger than Eystein, while Olaf was more than ten years younger than him. Sigurd was the son who had accompanied their father Magnus on his campaign in the West. Many accounts concerning Eystein in later sagas are characterized by literary motifs, Snorri Sturluson, the Icelandic author of the early 13th century Heimskringla mastered this literary style particularly well, stylistically and psychologically. His stories includes a so-called mannjevning between Eystein and Sigurd, in which the two boast about their skills and deeds in an attempt to outdo each other. In a similar fashion, Snorri also tells a story about how Eystein managed to cure the melancholy of a friend, on his physical appearance, Snorri wrote that Eystein was the handsomest man that could be seen. He had blue eyes, his hair yellow and curling, his stature not tall. The co-rule between Eystein, Sigurd and Olaf entailed a shared kingship, and the kingdom itself was not divided into fixed borders, during the early years of their reign, Eystein is nonetheless said to have stayed mostly in Western Norway and Trøndelag, while Sigurd was in Viken. In practice, only Eystein and Sigurd ever ruled as kings, as Olaf was considerably younger and died when he was seventeen years old. The kings became very popular because of this, according to some sources, the main motivation for abolishing the taxes was to gain the support of the population for Sigurds planned crusade. In 1107 or 1108, after years of preparations, Sigurd sailed with a fleet on a crusade to the Holy Land. Sigurd arrived back in Norway in 1111, since Sigurd remained king for nineteen years after his crusade with little controversy, historian Claus Krag has considered that the domestic peace probably could be attributed equally to Sigurd. In order to contrast Eystein with Sigurd, Snorri tells a story that Eystein instead subdued Jämtland to the Norwegian crown peacefully through the use of gifts and diplomacy
5.
Olaf Magnusson of Norway
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Olaf Magnusson was king of Norway 1103–1115. He was king of Norway for twelve years, but unlike his brothers he did not leave an impression on the nation. Since he was very young, his older brothers acted as regents for his part of the kingdom. In 1107, King Sigurd was to lead a Norwegian crusade in support of the newly established crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, during this period, King Øystein served as regent for his brother, using his energy and willpower to create a strong and stable country. In 1115, Olaf fell ill and died when he was only 17 years old and he was succeeded by his co-ruler brothers. He was always counted as Olaf IV until 1957, and counting him was dropped from the official Norwegian list of monarchs
6.
Kingdom of Dublin
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Vikings invaded the territory around Dublin in the 9th century, establishing the Norse Kingdom of Dublin, the earliest and longest-lasting Norse kingdom in Ireland. Its territory corresponded to most of present-day County Dublin, the Norse referred to the kingdom as Dyflin, which is derived from Irish Dubh Linn, meaning black pool. The first reference to the Vikings comes from the Annals of Ulster and it is from this date onward that historians get references to ship fortresses or longphorts being established in Ireland. It may be safe to assume that the Vikings first over-wintered in 840–841 CE, the actual location of the longphort of Dublin is still a hotly debated issue. Norse rulers of Dublin were often co-kings, and occasionally also Kings of Jórvík in what is now Yorkshire, under their rule, Dublin became the biggest slave port in Western Europe. Over time, the settlers in Dublin became increasingly Gaelicized and they began to exhibit a great deal of Gaelic and Norse cultural syncretism, and are often referred to as Norse-Gaels. The extent of the varied, but in peaceful times it extended roughly as far as Wicklow in the south, Glen Ding near Blessington, Leixlip west of Dublin. The Fingal area north of Dublin was named after the Norse who lived there, in 988, Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill led the initial Gaelic conquest of Dublin. In the mid-11th century, the Kingdom of Leinster began exerting influence over Dublin, though the last king of Dublin was killed by the Norman conquerors of Dublin in 1171, the population of the city retained their distinctiveness for some generations. ^ Disputed * Speculative Uí Ímair Irish nobility Norse-Gaels The Pale Downham, Clare, Viking Kings of Britain and Ireland, forte, Angelo, Oram, Richard, & Pedersen, Frederik, Viking Empires. Hudson, Benjamin T. Viking Pirates and Christian Princes, Dynasty, Religion, larsen, Anne-Christine, The Vikings in Ireland. Todd, James Henthorn, Cogadh Gaedhel re Gallaibh, The War of the Gaedhil with the Gaill, woolf, Alex, Age of Sea-Kings, 900–1300, in Donald Omand, The Argyll Book
7.
Norway
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The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
8.
River Quoile
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The Quoile is a river in County Down, Northern Ireland. The river begins its life as the Ballynahinch River which flows from west of the town of Ballynahinch to Annacloy where it is known as the Annacloy River and this then becomes the Quoile proper, which flows through Downpatrick and the Quoile Pondage before finally emptying into Strangford Lough. The name comes from the narrowest point of the estuary at Finnebrogue, harris, in 1744, mistakenly writes that the name of the bridge should be Coyne not Coyle because he overlooked the origin. In October 1991, during dredging operations in the river, a piece of oak, following dendrochronological dating it was found to have a Neolithic date of 2739 BC. On the north bank of the river,0.75 miles north-west of Downpatrick, the pre-Norman Celtic monastic settlement here, known as Inis Cumhscraigh, was in existence by the year 800. In 1002 it was plundered by the Vikings led by Sitric, King of the Danes, the Vikings plundered the settlement again in 1149. The Cistercian Inch Abbey monastery, founded by John de Courcy in 1180, is located near to the river in the area of the Early Christian earthwork enclosure. Quoile Castle is situated 1.5 miles from Downpatrick, just off the road from Downpatrick to Strangford. It is a 16th-century Tower house which was inhabited into the 18th century, the Quoile Pondage National Nature Reserve is situated just outside Downpatrick on either side of the Quoile River. It was created in 1957 by the construction of a barrier to prevent flooding in the Downpatrick area. Soon after the barrier was built, plants and trees colonised the former seashore, facilities at the reserve include the Quoile Countryside Centre with displays on the wildlife and history of the area. There are also features of historical interest within the reserve including Quoile Quay situated close to the Centre. List of rivers of Northern Ireland
9.
Ulster
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Ulster is a province in the north of the island of Ireland. In ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a rí ruirech, the definition of the province was fluid from early to medieval times. It took a shape in the reign of King James I of England when all the counties of Ireland were eventually shired. This process of evolving conquest had been under way since the Norman invasion of Ireland, particularly as advanced by the Cambro-Norman magnates Hugh de Lacy, Ulster was a central topic role in the parliamentary debates that eventually resulted in the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Under the terms of the Act, Ireland was divided into two territories, Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland, with the passing through the province. While these six counties and two boroughs were all in the province of Ulster, three other counties of the province – Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan – were assigned to the Irish Free State. Ulster has no function for local government purposes in either country. However, for the purposes of ISO-3166-2, Ulster is used to refer to the three counties of Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan only, which are given country sub-division code IE-U. It has also suggested to have derived from Uladh plus the Norse suffix ster. The Irish name, Cúige Uladh, means the province of the Ulaid, the Ulaidh were a group of tribes who dwelt in the region. Ulaidh has historically been anglicised as Ulagh or Ullagh and Latinised as Ulidia or Ultonia, the latter two have yielded the terms Ulidian and Ultonian. Words that have used in English are Ullish and Ulsterman/Ulsterwoman. Northern Ireland is often referred to as Ulster, despite including only six of Ulsters nine counties and this usage is most common amongst people in Northern Ireland who are unionist, although it is also used by the media throughout the United Kingdom. Most Irish nationalists object to the use of Ulster in this context, Ulster has a population of just over 2 million people and an area of 21,552 square kilometres. About 62% of the area of Ulster is in the UK while the remaining 38% is in the Republic of Ireland. Ulsters biggest city, Belfast, has an population of over half a million inhabitants, making it the second-largest city on the island of Ireland. Three Ulster counties – Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan – form part of the Republic of Ireland, about half of Ulsters population lives in counties Antrim and Down. 8% to 42. 7%. While the traditional counties continue to demarcate areas of government in the Republic of Ireland
10.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
11.
Downpatrick
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Downpatrick is a medium-sized town about 33 km south of Belfast in County Down, Northern Ireland. It has been an important site since ancient times and its cathedral is said to be the burial place of Saint Patrick. Today it is the county town of Down and the joint headquarters of Newry, Mourne and it had a population of 10,822 at the 2011 Census. As the largest town in the Lecale area, Downpatrick is a commercial, recreational and administrative centre for the locality and serves as a hub for the nearby towns and villages. Within a 30 minutes drive from Belfast, the location serves as a town for a large number of people. The town has a number of primary and post-primary schools educating students from all over the east Down area, unfortunately is very behind area not so much shopping there and very bad transportation and weak services as well in this area. Its lowest point lies within the surrounding the north east of the town. Downpatrick is approximately 22 miles from Belfast and has a bus service to the city. An early Bronze Age site was excavated in Downpatrick on the Meadowlands housing estate, one measured over 4 metres in diameter and contained a hearth in the centre, while the other round house was over seven metres across. Some archaeological evidence indicates a Neolithic settlement at the Cathedral Hill site and it then had an undefended settlement at least on the south west of the hill top. Downpatrick or Duno is one of Irelands most ancient and historic towns and it takes its name from a dún, which once stood on the hill that dominates the town and on which Down Cathedral was later built. Ptolemy, about the year AD130, includes it as Dunum in his list of towns of Ireland. The Gaelic name of the town was Rath Celtair, named after the warrior of Ulster called Celtchar, who resided there. He is mentioned in the Ulster Cycle and, in particular, Saint Patrick was reputedly buried here in 461 on Cathedral Hill, together with Saint Brigit and Saint Columba. Down Cathedral was later constructed on this spot and his grave is still a place of pilgrimage on St Patricks Day. The Saint Patrick Visitor Centre in Downpatrick is purpose-built to tell the story of St Patrick, from the seventh century the dominant power in Ulster were the Dál Fiatach so much so that the title Rí Uladh could simultaneously mean King of Ulster and King of the Dál Fiatach. County Down was the ancient centre of the Dál Fiatach lands, in 1137, St. Malachy after resigning as Archbishop of Armagh, separating the two dioceses and appointing another as Bishop of Connor, became the Bishop of Down. He administered the diocese of Dún dá leth glas from Bangor and he repaired and enlarged Down Cathedral
12.
Margaret Fredkulla
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Margaret Fredkulla was a Swedish princess who became successively queen of Norway and Denmark by marriage to kings Magnus III of Norway and Niels of Denmark. She was also de facto regent of Denmark and she is known as Margareta Fredkulla in Sweden, Margret Fredskolla in Norway and Margrete Fredkulla in Denmark. An English exonym is Margaret Colleen-of-Peace, Margaret was born a royal princess as one of four children of King Inge the Elder of Sweden and Queen Helena. The exact year of birth and place of birth is not recorded, in 1101, she was married to King Magnus of Norway. The marriage had been arranged as a part of the treaty between Sweden and Norway. She was often referred to as Margaret Fredkulla and she brought with her large fiefs and areas in Sweden as her dowry, probably in Västergötland. In 1103, she was made widow after two years of marriage, and soon left Norway and her departure from Norway was seen as an insult by the Norwegians who expected her to stay, and she was accused of having stolen the holy relics of Saint Olav. In 1105, she married King Niels of Denmark, Niels was made king in 1104, but he was described as a passive monarch who lacked the capacity to rule and who left the affairs of the state to his queen. With his blessing, Margaret governed Denmark and she is described as a wise ruler, and the relationship between Denmark and her birth country Sweden was very peaceful during her time as queen. It was said that, Styrelsen beroede for størstedelen paa den ædle dronning Margrete, saa at fremmede sagde and she minted her own coins, something unique for a queen consort of this time. The Danish coins printed during this period bears the inscription, Margareta-Nicalas and her father, king Inge the Elder, died in 1110, and was succeeded on the Swedish throne by his nephews. It is known that Margaret shared her inheritance with her niece Ingrid in Norway, in 1114, Margaret was sent a letter by Theobald of Étampes thanking her for a liberality to the Church of Caen. Issue Queen Margaret had two children with King Niels, Inge Nielsen Magnus I of Sweden After her death in 1130, Margarets lands in Sweden became a base for her son, Magnus when he claimed the throne of Sweden through her. When Margarets first cousin King Inge the Younger died, Magnus claimed the throne as the eldest grandson of King Inge the Elder, harrison, Dick Gud vill det – Nordiska korsfarare under medeltiden Nanna Damsholt Kvindebilledet i dansk højmiddelalder Margareta Fredkulla
13.
Harald Gille
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Harald Gille was king of Norway from 1130 until his death. His byname Gille is probably from Middle Irish Gilla Críst servant of Christ, Harald was born ca.1102 in Ireland or the Hebrides, more likely the former. According to the sagas, he became familiar with Norway through an acquaintance with Norwegian merchants including Rögnvald Kali Kolsson, who would later become Earl of Orkney. Around 1127, Harald went to Norway and declared he was a son of the former king, Magnus Barefoot. In fact this is not implausible because other descendants of Magnus are reported in Irish sources, Harald consequently claimed to be a half-brother of the reigning king, Sigurd the Crusader. Harald appears to have submitted successfully to the ordeal by fire, the alleged relationship was acknowledged by Sigurd on condition that Harald did not claim any share in the government of the kingdom during his lifetime or that of his son Magnus. Living on friendly terms with the king, Harald kept this agreement until Sigurd’s death in 1130, Harald was in Tønsberg when he heard of King Sigurds death. He called together a meeting at the Haugating, at this Thing, Harald was chosen king over half the country. King Magnus was obliged to divide the kingdom with Harald into two parts, the kingdom accordingly was so divided that each of them should have the half part of the kingdom which King Sigurd had possessed. They ruled the country for some time in peace, after four years of uneasy peace, Magnus began to openly prepare for war on Harald. On August 9,1134, he defeated Harald in a decisive Battle at Färlev in Bohuslän, subsequently Magnus disbanded his army and traveled to Bergen to spend the winter there. Harald then returned to Norway with a new army and meeting little opposition, since Magnus had few men, the city fell easily to Haralds army on January 7,1135. His eyes were put out, and he was thrown into prison, Harald now ruled the country until 1136, when he was murdered by Sigurd Slembe, another alleged illegitimate son of Magnus Barefoot. Harald was married to Ingrid Ragnvaldsdotter, daughter of Ragnvald Ingesson, Harald had a son, Inge I of Norway, with her. According to the sagas, Harald had previously married to Bjaðǫk, mother of his son. Among Haralds concubines was Tora Guttorm, the daughter of Guttorm Gråbarde and he also had a son, Magnus Haraldsson of Norway, who died in 1145 at 10 years of age. All four sons were kings of Norway, approximately from his accession to the throne, the civil wars period of Norwegian history started, that lasted from 1130 to 1217. During this period there were several interlocked conflicts of varying scale, the background for these conflicts were the unclear Norwegian succession laws, social conditions and the struggle between Church and King
14.
Sigurd Slembe
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Sigurd Magnusson Slembe was a Norwegian pretender to the throne. He was the subject of Sigurd Slembe, the drama written by the Norwegian playwright Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in 1863. Sigurd is commonly believed to have been born around 1100 in southern Norway and was said to have raised by the priest Adalbrikt. His mother was apparently Thora Saxesdatter, Sigurd himself was consecrated to be a deacon. In Old Norse, his nickname slembi could be translated to mean noisy, Sigurd appeared before King Harald Gille claiming that he was an illegitimate son of the late King Magnus III of Norway. He demanded his putative half-brother King Harald Gille, whose origin actually was quite similar, Sigurd married Audhild Torleiv, the daughter of Thorleif Maddadsson. Sigurd had himself proclaimed king in 1135, but his claim was not recognized by King Harald Gille, in 1136, Sigurd arranged for Harald Gille to be killed in his sleep. As soon as Harald was dead, Sigurd had the previous King Magnus IV of Norway, his putative nephew and this was apparently in the hope of increased support and in order to secure his own position. Magnus had previously been imprisoned, blinded and mutilated by Harald, as Magnus was rather incapacitated, Sigurd claimed royal power in Magnus name. However, Sigurd was convicted and outlawed for regicide, Sigurd Slembe and Magnus continued to find little support in Norway. King Eric II of Denmark supported them for an unsuccessful campaign, Magnus was killed in the battle, while Sigurd was captured and betrayed. Sigurd met his end in a manner, tortured to death. His arms and calves were first crushed with axe-hammers, after which the skin on his head was cleaved, his back was flayed and he was thereafter hanged, decapitated and thrown into a scree of rocks. The main sources for Sigurd and his era are the kings sagas Heimskringla, Fagrskinna and they in turn base their accounts on the now lost Hryggjarstykki, whose author, Eiríkr Oddsson, either witnessed the events himself, or spoke to people who had. During the civil war period of Norwegian history, there were several interlocked conflicts of varying scale, the background for these conflicts were the unclear Norwegian succession laws, social conditions and the struggle between church and king. There were then two main parties, firstly known by varying names or no names at all, but finally condensed into parties of Bagler and Birkebeiner. The rallying point regularly was a son, who was set up as the head figure of the party in question. Civil war era in Norway Bagge, Sverre Society and Politics in Snorri Sturlusons Heimskringla
15.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
16.
Hardrada dynasty
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The Hardrada dynasty was a powerful royal house or dynasty which ruled, at various times in history, Kingdom of Norway, Kingdom of Mann and the Isles, Earldom of Orkney. The royal house was founded, albeit unknowingly, by Harald Sigurdsson when he was king of Norway. His descendants would expand the influence, wealth and power of the dynasty after his death at Stamford Bridge September 25,1066. It is very unlikely that the rulers referred to their dynasty as the House of Hardrada. The younger saga writers claimed that Harald Hardrada descended from Norways first king Harald Fairhair and it replaced the Saint Olaf dynasty, and was again replaced by the Gille branch, whose founder Harald Gille claimed to be a descendant of the Hardrada line. Sometimes this line is considered a part of the House of Hardrada, the line was briefly restored under Magnus Erlingsson, a cognatic descendant of the dynasty, but was replaced again by the House of Sverre in 1184. The rulers within the house or dynasty would often have a rival king to oppose the legitimate kings right to rule the realm
17.
Old Norse
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Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century, Old Norse was divided into three dialects, Old West Norse, Old East Norse and Old Gutnish. Old West and East Norse formed a continuum, with no clear geographical boundary between them. For example, Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway, although Old Norwegian is classified as Old West Norse, most speakers spoke Old East Norse in what is present day Denmark and Sweden. Old Gutnish, the more obscure dialectal branch, is included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations. It developed its own features and shared in changes to both other branches. The 12th century Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language, another term used, used especially commonly with reference to West Norse, was norrœnt mál. In some instances the term Old Norse refers specifically to Old West Norse, the Old East Norse dialect was spoken in Denmark, Sweden, settlements in Kievan Rus, eastern England, and Danish settlements in Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in Gotland and in settlements in the East. In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spoken European language, in Kievan Rus, it survived the longest in Veliky Novgorod, probably lasting into the 13th century there. Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse, but over the centuries it has heavily influenced by East Norse. Old Norse also had an influence on English dialects and Lowland Scots and it also influenced the development of the Norman language, and through it and to a smaller extent, that of modern French. Various other languages, which are not closely related, have heavily influenced by Norse, particularly the Norman dialects, Scottish Gaelic. The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi, of the modern languages, Icelandic is the closest to Old Norse. Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse phonemic writing system, contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse, which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the phonemes, has changed at least as much as in the other North Germanic languages. Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, although Swedish, Danish and the Norwegian languages have diverged the most, they still retain asymmetric mutual intelligibility. Speakers of modern Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages, the languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders
18.
Norwegian language
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Norwegian is a North Germanic language spoken mainly in Norway, where it is the official language. Along with Swedish and Danish, Norwegian forms a continuum of more or less mutually intelligible local and regional variants. These Scandinavian languages, together with Faroese and Icelandic as well as extinct languages. Faroese and Icelandic are hardly mutually intelligible with Norwegian in their spoken form because continental Scandinavian has diverged from them, as established by law and governmental policy, the two official forms of written Norwegian are Bokmål and Nynorsk. The official Norwegian Language Council is responsible for regulating the two forms, and recommends the terms Norwegian Bokmål and Norwegian Nynorsk in English. Two other written forms without official status also exist, one and it is regulated by the unofficial Norwegian Academy, which translates the name as Standard Norwegian. Nynorsk and Bokmål provide standards for how to write Norwegian, no standard of spoken Norwegian is officially sanctioned, and most Norwegians speak their own dialects in all circumstances. Thus, unlike in other countries, the use of any Norwegian dialect. Outside Eastern Norway, this variation is not used. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Danish was the written language of Norway. As a result, the development of modern written Norwegian has been subject to strong controversy related to nationalism, rural versus urban discourse, historically, Bokmål is a Norwegianised variety of Danish, while Nynorsk is a language form based on Norwegian dialects and puristic opposition to Danish. The unofficial form known as Riksmål is considered more conservative than Bokmål, Norwegians are educated in both Bokmål and Nynorsk. A2005 poll indicates that 86. 3% use primarily Bokmål as their written language,5. 5% use both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and 7. 5% use primarily Nynorsk. Thus, 13% are frequently writing Nynorsk, though the majority speak dialects that resemble Nynorsk more closely than Bokmål. Broadly speaking, Nynorsk writing is widespread in western Norway, though not in major urban areas, examples are Setesdal, the western part of Telemark county and several municipalities in Hallingdal, Valdres, and Gudbrandsdalen. It is little used elsewhere, but 30–40 years ago, it also had strongholds in rural parts of Trøndelag. Today, not only is Nynorsk the official language of four of the 19 Norwegian counties, NRK, the Norwegian broadcasting corporation, broadcasts in both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and all governmental agencies are required to support both written languages. Bokmål is used in 92% of all publications, and Nynorsk in 8%
19.
Kings of Norway
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The list of Norwegian monarchs begins in 872, the traditional dating of the Battle of Hafrsfjord, after which victorious King Harald Fairhair merged several petty kingdoms into that of his father. Named after the geographical region, Haralds realm was later to be known as the Kingdom of Norway. During interregna, Norway has been ruled by variously titled regents, during the civil war era, several pretenders fought each other. Some rulers from this era are not traditionally considered lawful kings and are omitted from lists of monarchs. Between 1387 and 1905, Norway was part of various unions. Kings of Norway used many additional titles between 1450 and 1905, such as King of the Wends, King of the Goths, Duke of Schleswig, Duke of Holstein, Prince of Rügen, and Count of Oldenburg. They called themselves Konge til Norge, rather than Konge af Norge, indicating that the country was their personal possession, the last king to claim godly reign was Haakon VII, who died in 1957. The Kings title today is formally Norges Konge, indicating that he belongs to the country, after Haralds death, Eric ruled as overking of his brothers, who also held status as kings and had control over certain regions. Harald Greycloak also ruled as overking of his brothers, all dates for the kings of the Fairhair dynasty are approximate and/or just scholarly estimates. Slight differences might therefore occur between different sources, the following table uses the dates given in Norsk biografisk leksikon/Store norske leksikon. The Danish king Harald Bluetooth had himself hailed as king of Norway after the Battle of Fitjar, besides gaining direct control of Viken in south-eastern Norway, he let Harald Greycloak rule the rest of Norway as king, nominally under himself. Harald Bluetooth later switched his support to Harald Greycloaks rival, Haakon Sigurdsson, Earl of Lade, Haakon thereafter ruled Norway, at first nominally under Harald. All dates are estimates and subject to interpretations, Haakon is generally held as the ruler of Norway from 970 to 995. After the Battle of Svolder, the Danes recaptured Norway under Sweyn Forkbeard, Eric is generally held as the de facto ruler of Norway from 1000 to 1015, together with his brother Sweyn, a lesser known figure, with whom he shared his power. In 1905, Carl of Denmark was elected King of Norway, with him the House of Oldenburg was again sitting on the throne of Norway. The Early Kings of Norway, Also an Essay on the Portraits of John Knox, notes Official site of the Norwegian Royal House Aftenposten, The Royals
20.
British Isles
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The British Isles are a group of islands off the north-western coast of continental Europe that consist of the islands of Great Britain, Ireland and over six thousand smaller isles. Situated in the North Atlantic, the islands have an area of approximately 315,159 km2. Two sovereign states are located on the islands, Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the oldest rocks in the group are in the north west of Scotland, Ireland and North Wales and are 2,700 million years old. During the Silurian period the north-western regions collided with the south-east, the topography of the islands is modest in scale by global standards. Ben Nevis rises to an elevation of only 1,344 metres, and Lough Neagh, the climate is temperate marine, with mild winters and warm summers. The North Atlantic Drift brings significant moisture and raises temperatures 11 °C above the average for the latitude. This led to a landscape which was dominated by temperate rainforest. The region was re-inhabited after the last glacial period of Quaternary glaciation, Ireland, which became an island by 12,000 BC, was not inhabited until after 8000 BC. Great Britain became an island by 5600 BC, Hiberni, Pictish and Britons tribes, all speaking Insular Celtic, inhabited the islands at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. Much of Brittonic-controlled Britain was conquered by the Roman Empire from AD43, the first Anglo-Saxons arrived as Roman power waned in the 5th century and eventually dominated the bulk of what is now England. Viking invasions began in the 9th century, followed by permanent settlements. Most of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom after the Irish War of Independence, the term British Isles is controversial in Ireland, where there are objections to its usage due to the association of the word British with Ireland. The Government of Ireland does not recognise or use the term, as a result, Britain and Ireland is used as an alternative description, and Atlantic Archipelago has had limited use among a minority in academia, while British Isles is still commonly employed. Within them, they are sometimes referred to as these islands. The earliest known references to the islands as a group appeared in the writings of sea-farers from the ancient Greek colony of Massalia. The original records have been lost, however, later writings, e. g. Avienuss Ora maritima, in the 1st century BC, Diodorus Siculus has Prettanikē nēsos, the British Island, and Prettanoi, the Britons. Strabo used Βρεττανική, and Marcian of Heraclea, in his Periplus maris exteri, historians today, though not in absolute agreement, largely agree that these Greek and Latin names were probably drawn from native Celtic-language names for the archipelago. Along these lines, the inhabitants of the islands were called the Πρεττανοί, the shift from the P of Pretannia to the B of Britannia by the Romans occurred during the time of Julius Caesar
21.
Kingdom of the Isles
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The Kingdom of the Isles comprised the Hebrides, the islands of the Firth of Clyde and the Isle of Man from the 9th to the 13th centuries AD. The islands were known to the Norse as the Suðreyjar, or Southern Isles as distinct from the Norðreyjar or Northern Isles of Orkney, the historical record is incomplete, and the kingdom was not a continuous entity throughout the entire period. The islands concerned are sometimes referred to as the Kingdom of Mann, at times the rulers were independent of external control, although for much of the period they had overlords in Norway, Ireland, England, Scotland or Orkney. At times there also appear to have competing claims for all or parts of the territory. The islands involved have a land area of over 8,300 square kilometres. Hostility between the Kings of the Isles and the rulers of Ireland, and intervention by the crown of Norway were recurring themes and this came to an end with the emergence of Somerled, on whose death in 1164 the kingdom was split in two. Just over a century later the islands part of the Kingdom of Scotland. The principal islands under consideration are as follows, The Isle of Man, located in the Irish Sea equidistant from modern England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, the islands of the Firth of Clyde some 140 kilometres to the north, the largest of which are Bute and Arran. The southern Inner Hebrides to the west and north of the Kintyre peninsula, including Islay, Jura, Mull, the Inner Hebrides to the north of Ardnamurchan, made up of the Small Isles, Skye, Raasay and their outliers. The Outer Hebrides, aka the Long Island to the west, Anglesey in modern Wales may also have been part of the insular Viking world from an early stage. Orkney is some 180 kilometres east-northeast of the Outer Hebrides, Shetland is a further 80 kilometres further northeast, the total distance from the southern tip of the Isle of Man to the Butt of Lewis, the northern extremity of the Outer Hebrides, is approximately 515 kilometres. The presence of the monastery on Iona led to part of Scotland being relatively well documented from the mid-6th to the mid-9th centuries. However, from 849 on, when Columbas relics were removed in the face of Viking incursions, written evidence from sources all. The sources for information about the Hebrides and indeed much of northern Scotland from the 8th to the 11th century are thus almost exclusively Irish, English or Norse. The main Norse text is the Orkneyinga Saga, which should be treated with care as it was based on oral traditions, the archaeological record for this period is relatively scant, particularly in comparison to the numerous Neolithic and Iron Age finds in the area. Scholarly interpretations of the period have led to widely divergent reconstructions of Viking Age Scotland and Barrett has identified four competing theories, none of which he regards as proven. It is clear that the king, as used by. This is different from the way the word was used in the emerging Kingdom of Scotland at the time
22.
Coronations in Norway
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Coronations in Norway were held from 1164 to 1906, mostly in the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim. Although a crowning ceremony was formerly mandated by the nations constitution, the new ceremony retains some of the religious elements of earlier rites, while eliminating other features now considered to be undemocratic. The first coronation in Norway—and in all of Scandinavia—took place in Bergen in 1163 or 1164 and these rites continued in the Old Cathedral there until the capital was moved to Oslo under Haakon V of Norway. While some crownings were held in Oslo thereafter, most took place at Nidaros Cathedral, in Trondheim. Sometimes this led to competing claims, King Sverre, for example, was hailed as king at Øyrating in 1177, ultimately, the coronation rite replaced the konungstekja ceremonies altogether until the resurrection of the latter in the modern benediction service. In the late 14th century, Norway, Sweden and Denmark were united in the Kalmar Union, during this era, monarchs were crowned in all three countries consecutively. After the federation was dissolved, Norway remained unified with Denmark under the Danish king until 1814, throughout the Danish Union, the king of Denmark-Norway only went through one ceremony, in Denmark, in which he placed the crown upon his own head and was anointed. The current constitution of Norway originally required the monarch to be crowned in Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim, once Charles III had ascended the throne, this rite resumed in accordance with the new constitution. While the Norwegian ritual closely followed the Swedish rite, the anointing of the king on the forehead, in September 1818, Charles III John was crowned in the first Norwegian coronation since 1660, providing a set of regalia for this purpose. His son Oscar had a Swedish coronet set upon his head and his wife, Désirée Clary, was in France at this time. Regalia for the queen was commissioned in 1830 for Desirées intended coronation in Norway, when Oscar and his wife, Josephine of Leuchtenberg, became king and queen, they were crowned in Sweden. The next coronation was that of Charles IV and Louise of the Netherlands in 1860 and this was the first coronation of a Norwegian queen in several centuries. Oscar II and Sophia of Nassau were crowned in 1873, the Swedish union was abolished in 1905, at which time Norway elected Prince Carl of Denmark, who took the name Haakon VII, as its new king. Haakon and his wife, Maud of Wales, were crowned at Trondheim on 22 June 1906, however, since many Norwegian statesmen had come to regard coronation rites as undemocratic and archaic, this provision was repealed in 1908. Currently a new monarch is required to take a formal accession oath in the Council of State, and then at the Parliament. Although coronations are not expressly banned under current Norwegian legislation, none have been held since 1906, instead, the two sovereigns who followed Haakon VII have chosen to create a benediction ceremony to mark the beginning of their reigns. The crown jewels are displayed, but not bestowed, during this ceremony, from 1818 to 1906, the Norwegian coronation ritual commenced with the king and queen making a procession to the Nidaros Cathedral preceded by the Norwegian Regalia. Once there, they were greeted by the Bishops of Trondheim, Kristiania and Bergen and their attendant clergy with the words, The Lord bless your going out and your coming in now, entering the cathedral, the monarchs seated themselves upon two canopied thrones in the choir
23.
Magnus II of Norway
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Magnus Haraldsson was King of Norway from 1066 to 1069, jointly with his brother Olaf Kyrre from 1067. He was not included in official Norwegian regnal lists until modern times, a son of King Harald Hardrada, Magnus was in 1058 appointed nominal leader of an expedition into the Irish Sea while still only a child. He later accompanied his father in Haralds campaign against Denmark in 1062, Magnus briefly ruled Norway alone thereafter, until his younger brother Olaf returned from England in 1067. Magnus co-ruled with Olaf following his brothers return to Norway, and his kingship has been downplayed in later history in part due to this. Magnus had only one child, Haakon Toresfostre who was king briefly after Olaf, but who died young. Magnus was born in 1048 or 1049 and he was the first of two sons of King Harald Hardrada, by his consort Tora Torbergsdatter. There are no known skaldic poems written about Magnus, and he only briefly in the Norse sagas. The author of Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum describes him in passing as a most handsome man, while not mentioned anywhere in the sagas, Magnus appears in contemporary British sources around the year 1058 as the leader of a Norwegian expedition in the Irish Sea. The expedition also appears to have supported a branch of the Norse-Gaelic dynasty of Ivar that opposed Irish king Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó, Magnus commanded a fleet that, in addition to Norway, recruited men from Orkney, the Hebrides, and Dublin. His forces were active in Wales and perhaps in England. Magnuss campaign may have part of his fathers plans for an invasion of England. At the same time, the rise in power of Godwin, Earl of Wessex and his sons, in particular Harold Godwinson, had also started representing a threat to Haralds claim. The exact year that Thorfinn Sigurdsson, Earl of Orkney died is not recorded anywhere, thus, it may be that his death provoked Magnuss expedition, and that the expedition was the occasion on which Paul and Erlend Thorfinnsson, Thorfinns successors as earls, submitted to Harald. Woolf has also proposed that Magnus may have played part in the war in Scotland in 1057–1058. Magnus accompanied his father in Haralds campaign against Denmark in 1062, on his way to Denmark, Haralds fleet clashed with the fleet of Danish king Sweyn Estridsson in a major naval battle at Niså that resulted in Norwegian victory. In 1066, after concluding peace with Sweyn Estridsson, Harald set out on his campaign of conquering England from Harold Godwinson, before departing, he appointed Magnus as regent and king of Norway in his absence, and had his younger son Olaf accompany him on the expedition. After initial success in the Battle of Fulford, Harald was defeated and killed by Harold Godwinson in the Battle of Stamford Bridge, Olaf survived and returned to Norway with the remaining troops in early 1067, and was proclaimed king and co-ruler with his brother Magnus. Despite of this division, there are no signs of hostility between the brothers, and their relationship appears to have been peaceful, having reigned for less than three years, Magnus became ill and died in Nidaros on 28 April 1069
24.
Irish Sea
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The Irish Sea, separates the islands of Ireland and Great Britain. It is connected to the Celtic Sea in the south by St Georges Channel, anglesey is the largest island within the Irish Sea, followed by the Isle of Man. The sea is occasionally, but rarely, referred to as the Manx Sea, the sea is of significant economic importance to regional trade, shipping and transport, fishing, and power generation in the form of wind power and nuclear power plants. Annual traffic between Great Britain and Ireland amounts to over 12 million passengers and 17 million tonnes of traded goods, the Irish Sea has undergone a series of dramatic changes over the last 20,000 years as the last glacial period ended and was replaced by warmer conditions. At the height of the glaciation the central part of the sea was probably a long freshwater lake. As the ice retreated 10,000 years ago the lake reconnected to the sea, becoming brackish, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Irish Sea as follows, On the North. The Southern limit of the Scottish Seas, a line joining St. Davids Head to Carnsore Point. It is connected to the North Atlantic at both its northern and southern ends, to the north, the connection is through the North Channel between Scotland and Northern Ireland and the Malin Sea. The southern end is linked to the Atlantic through the St Georges Channel between south eastern Ireland and Pembrokeshire in Wales, and the Celtic Sea. The Irish Sea is composed of a channel about 300 km long and 30–50 km wide on its western side. The western channels depth ranges from 80 metres up to 275 m in the Beauforts Dyke in the North Channel, the main embayments – Cardigan Bay in the south and the waters to the east of the Isle of Man – are less than 50 m deep. The Sea has a water volume of 2,430 km3, 80% of which is to the west of the Isle of Man. The largest sandbanks are the Bahama and King William Banks to the east and north of the Isle of Man, the Irish Sea, at its greatest width, is 200 km and narrows to 75 km. Unlike Great Britain, Ireland has no tunnel or bridge connection to continental Europe, thus the vast majority of heavy goods trade is done by sea. The Port of Liverpool handles 32 million tonnes of cargo and 734 thousand passengers a year, Holyhead port handles most of the passenger traffic from Dublin and Dún Laoghaire ports, as well as 3.3 million tonnes of freight. Ports in the Republic handle 3,600,000 travellers crossing the sea each year and this has been steadily dropping for a number of years, probably as a result of low cost airlines. There is also a connection between Liverpool and Belfast via the Isle of Man or direct from Birkenhead, the worlds largest car ferry, Ulysses, is operated by Irish Ferries on the Dublin Port–Holyhead route, Stena Line also operates between Britain and Ireland. The Port of Barrow-in-Furness, despite being one of Britains largest shipbuilding centres, a ferry crossing used to run between Swansea and Cork, but given the geographical limits defined above, this route crosses the Celtic Sea rather than the Irish Sea
25.
Orkney
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Orkney /ˈɔːrkni/, also known as the Orkney Islands, is an archipelago in the Northern Isles of Scotland, situated off the north coast of Great Britain. Orkney is 16 kilometres north of the coast of Caithness and comprises approximately 70 islands, the largest island Mainland is often referred to as the Mainland. It has an area of 523 square kilometres, making it the sixth-largest Scottish island, the largest settlement and administrative centre is Kirkwall. A form of the dates to the pre-Roman era and the islands have been inhabited for at least 8500 years, originally occupied by Mesolithic and Neolithic tribes. Orkney was invaded and forcibly annexed by Norway in 875 and settled by the Norse, the Scottish Parliament then re-annexed the earldom to the Scottish Crown in 1472, following the failed payment of a dowry for James IIIs bride Margaret of Denmark. Orkney contains some of the oldest and best-preserved Neolithic sites in Europe, Orkney is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland, a constituency of the Scottish Parliament, a lieutenancy area, and a historic county. The local council is Orkney Islands Council, one of only three Councils in Scotland with a majority of elected members who are independents. In addition to the Mainland, most of the islands are in two groups, the North and South Isles, all of which have a geological base of Old Red Sandstone. The climate is mild and the soils are fertile, most of the land being farmed. Agriculture is the most important sector of the economy, the significant wind and marine energy resources are of growing importance, and the island generates more than its total yearly electricity demand using renewables. The local people are known as Orcadians and have a distinctive Orcadian dialect of Scots, there is an abundance of marine and avian wildlife. Pytheas of Massilia visited Britain – probably sometime between 322 and 285 BC – and described it as triangular in shape, with a northern tip called Orcas and this may have referred to Dunnet Head, from which Orkney is visible. Speakers of Old Irish referred to the islands as Insi Orc island of the pigs, the archipelago is known as Ynysoedd Erch in modern Welsh and Arcaibh in modern Scottish Gaelic, the -aibh representing a fossilized prepositional case ending. The Anglo-Saxon monk Bede refers to the islands as Orcades insulae in his seminal work Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Norwegian settlers arriving from the ninth century reinterpreted orc as the Old Norse orkn seal. The plural suffix -jar was later removed in English leaving the modern name Orkney, according to the Historia Norwegiæ, Orkney was named after an earl called Orkan. The Norse knew Mainland Orkney as Megenland Mainland or as Hrossey Horse Island, the island is sometimes referred to as Pomona, a name that stems from a sixteenth-century mistranslation by George Buchanan, which has rarely been used locally. A charred hazelnut shell, recovered in 2007 during excavations in Tankerness on the Mainland has been dated to 6820–6660 BC indicating the presence of Mesolithic nomadic tribes
26.
Hebrides
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The Hebrides comprise a widespread and diverse archipelago off the west coast of mainland Scotland. There are two groups, the Inner and Outer Hebrides. This diversity is reflected in the given to the islands. The Hebrides are the source of much of Scottish Gaelic literature, today the economy of the islands is dependent on crofting, fishing, tourism, the oil industry, and renewable energy. The Hebrides have lower biodiversity than mainland Britain, but there is a significant presence of seals, the Hebrides have a diverse geology ranging in age from Precambrian strata that are amongst the oldest rocks in Europe to Paleogene igneous intrusions. The Hebrides can be divided into two groups, separated from one another by the Minch to the north and the Sea of the Hebrides to the south. The Inner Hebrides lie closer to mainland Scotland and include Islay, Jura, Skye, Mull, Raasay, Staffa, there are 36 inhabited islands in this group. The Outer Hebrides are a chain of more than 100 islands, there are 15 inhabited islands in this archipelago. The main islands include Barra, Benbecula, Berneray, Harris, Lewis, North Uist, South Uist, in total, the islands have an area of approximately 7,200 square kilometres and a population of 44,759. A complication is that there are descriptions of the scope of the Hebrides. The Collins Encyclopedia of Scotland describes the Inner Hebrides as lying east of the Minch, there are various islands that lie in the sea lochs such as Eilean Bàn and Eilean Donan that might not ordinarily be described as Hebridean, but no formal definitions exist. In the past, the Outer Hebrides were often referred to as the Long Isle, today, they are also known as the Western Isles, although this phrase can also be used to refer to the Hebrides in general. The Hebrides have a temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerly latitude. In the Outer Hebrides the average temperature for the year is 6 °C in January and 14 °C in summer, the average annual rainfall in Lewis is 1,100 millimetres and sunshine hours range from 1,100 –1,200 per annum. The summer days are long, and May to August is the driest period. The Hebrides were settled during the Mesolithic era around 6500 BC or earlier, after the conditions improved enough to sustain human settlement. Occupation at a site on Rùm is dated to 8590 ±95 uncorrected radiocarbon years BP, there are many examples of structures from the Neolithic period, the finest example being the standing stones at Callanish, dating to the 3rd millennium BC. Cladh Hallan, a Bronze Age settlement on South Uist is the site in the UK where prehistoric mummies have been found
27.
Isle of Man
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The Isle of Man, also known simply as Mann, is a self-governing crown dependency in the Irish Sea between England and Northern Ireland. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who holds the title of Lord of Mann, the Lord of Mann is represented by a Lieutenant Governor. Foreign relations and defence are the responsibility of the British Government, the island has been inhabited since before 6500 BC. Gaelic cultural influence began in the 5th century and the Manx language, in 627, Edwin of Northumbria conquered the Isle of Man along with most of Mercia. In the 9th century, Norsemen established the Kingdom of the Isles, magnus III, King of Norway, was also known as King of Mann and the Isles between 1099 and 1103. In 1266, the became part of Scotland under the Treaty of Perth. After a period of alternating rule by the kings of Scotland and England, the short form often used in English, Mann, is derived from the Manx Mannin, though sometimes the name is written as Man. The earliest recorded Manx form of the name is Manu or Mana, the Old Irish form of the name is Manau or Mano. Old Welsh records named it as Manaw, also reflected in Manaw Gododdin, the name for an ancient district in north Britain along the lower Firth of Forth. The oldest known reference to the calls it Mona, in Latin, in the 1st century CE, Pliny the Elder records it as Monapia or Monabia. Later Latin references have Mevania or Mænavia, and Eubonia or Eumonia by Irish writers and it is found in the Sagas of Icelanders as Mön. The name is cognate with the Welsh name of the island of Anglesey, Ynys Môn, usually derived from a Celtic word for mountain. The name was at least secondarily associated with that of Manannán mac Lir in Irish mythology, later, a Manannán is recorded as the first king of Mann in a Manx poem. The island was cut off from the islands around 8000 BC. The first residents were hunter gatherers and fishermen, examples of their tools are kept at the Manx Museum. There were also the local Ronaldsway and Bann cultures, during the Bronze Age, burial mounds became smaller. Bodies were put in stone-lined graves with ornamental containers, the Bronze Age burial mounds created long-lasting markers around the countryside. The ancient Romans knew of the island and called it Insula Manavia although it is whether they conquered the island
28.
Northern Isles
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The Northern Isles is an archipelago comprising a chain of islands off the north coast of mainland Scotland. The climate is cool and temperate and much influenced by the surrounding seas, there are two main island groups, Shetland and Orkney. Both have a renewable energy industry. They also share a common Pictish and Norse history, the islands played a significant naval role during the world wars of the 20th century. Tourism is important to both archipelagos, with their distinctive prehistoric ruins playing a key part in their attraction, and there are regular ferry, the Scandinavian influence remains strong, especially in relation to local folklore, and both island chains have strong, although distinct, local cultures. The place names of the islands are dominated by their Norse heritage, the phrase Northern Isles generally refers to the main islands of the Orkney and Shetland archipelagos. Stroma, which lies between mainland Scotland and Orkney, is part of Caithness, and so falls under Highland council area for government purposes. It is, however, clearly one of the isles of Scotland. Fair Isle and Foula are outliers of Shetland, but would normally be considered as part of Shetland, similarly, Sule Skerry and Sule Stack, although distant from the main group, are part of Orkney and technically amongst the Northern Isles. However, the small islands that lie off the north coast of Scotland are in Highland. Orkney is situated 16 kilometres north of the coast of mainland Scotland, the largest island, known as the Mainland has an area of 523.25 square kilometres, making it the sixth largest Scottish island. The total population in 2001 was 19,245 and the largest town is Kirkwall, Shetland is around 170 kilometres north of mainland Scotland, covers an area of 1,468 square kilometres and has a coastline 2,702 kilometres long. Lerwick, the capital and largest settlement, has a population of around 7,500, Orkney has 20 inhabited islands and Shetland a total of 16. The superficial rock of Orkney is almost entirely Old Red Sandstone, Middle Devonian basaltic volcanic rocks are found on western Hoy, on Deerness in eastern Mainland and on Shapinsay. Correlation between the Hoy volcanics and the two exposures has been proposed, but differences in chemistry means this remains uncertain. Lamprophyre dykes of Late Permian age are found throughout Orkney, glacial striation and the presence of chalk and flint erratics that originated from the bed of the North Sea demonstrate the influence of ice action on the geomorphology of the islands. Boulder clay is abundant and moraines cover substantial areas. The geology of Shetland is quite different and it is extremely complex, with numerous faults and fold axes
29.
Galloway
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Galloway is a region in southwestern Scotland comprising the former counties of Wigtownshire and Kirkcudbrightshire. A native or inhabitant of Galloway is called a Gallovidian or a Galwegian, the place name Galloway is derived from the Gaelic i nGall Gaidhealaib. The Gall Gaidheil, literally meaning Stranger-Gaidheil, originally referred to a population of mixed Scandinavian and Gaelic ethnicity that inhabited Galloway in the Middle Ages. Galloway is bounded by sea to the west and south, the Galloway Hills to the north, and the River Nith to the east, the definition has, however, fluctuated greatly in size over history. A hardy breed of black, hornless cattle named Galloway cattle is native to the region, Galloway comprises that part of Scotland southwards from the Southern Upland watershed and westward from the River Nith. Traditionally it has described as stretching from the braes of Glenapp to the Nith. Generally however the landscape is rugged and much of the soil is shallow, the generally south slope and southern coast make for mild and wet climate, and there is a great deal of good pasture. The northern part of Galloway is exceedingly rugged and forms the largest remaining wilderness in Britain south of the Highlands and this area is known as the Galloway Hills. Historically Galloway has been famous both for horses and for cattle rearing, and milk and beef production are still major industries. There is also substantial timber production and some fisheries, the combination of hills and high rainfall make Galloway ideal for hydroelectric power production, and the Galloway Hydro Power scheme was begun in 1929. Since then, electricity generation has been a significant industry, more recently wind turbines have been installed at a number of locations on the watershed, and a large offshore wind-power plant is planned, increasing Galloways green energy production. The 2nd century geographer Ptolemy produced a map of Britain in his Geography, in which he describes the landmarks, rerigoniums exact position is uncertain except that it was on Loch Ryan, close to modern day Stranraer, it is possible that it is the modern settlement of Dunragit. The Romans named the inhabitants of Galloway the Novantae, the county is rich in prehistoric monuments and relics, amongst the most notable of which are the Drumtroddan Standing Stones, the Torhousekie Stone Circle, both in Wigtownshire and Cairnholy. There is also evidence of one of the earliest pit-fall traps in Europe which was discovered near Glenluce, Galloway probably remained a Brythonic dominated region until the late 7th century when it was taken over by the English kingdom of Bernicia. English dominance was supplanted by Norse-Gaelic peoples between the 9th and the 11th century, if it had not been for Fergus of Galloway who established himself in Galloway, the region would rapidly have been absorbed by Scotland. This did not happen because Fergus, his sons, grandsons and great-grandson Alan, during a period of Scottish allegiance a Galloway contingent followed David, King of Scots in his invasion of England and led the attack in his defeat at the Battle of the Standard. He had three daughters and an illegitimate son Thomas, the Community of Galloway wanted Thomas as their king. Alexander III of Scotland supported the daughters and invaded Galloway, the Community of Galloway was defeated, and Galloway divided up between Alans daughters, thus bringing Galloways independent existence to an end
30.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
31.
Anglesey
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Anglesey or Ynys Môn is an island off the north-west coast of Wales. With an area of 276 square miles, Anglesey is by far the largest island of Wales, Anglesey is also the largest island in the Irish Sea by area, and the second most populous island in the Irish Sea. The population at the 2011 census was 69,751, two bridges span the Menai Strait, connecting the island to the mainland, the Menai Suspension Bridge, designed by Thomas Telford in 1826, and the Britannia Bridge. A historic county of Wales and later administrated as part of Gwynedd, Anglesey today makes up the Isle of Anglesey County along with Holy Island and other smaller islands. The majority of Angleseys inhabitants are Welsh speakers and Ynys Môn, Anglesey is derived from Old Norse, originally either Ǫngullsey Hook Island or Ǫnglisey Ǫnglis Island. No record of any such Ǫngli survives, but the name was used by Viking raiders as early as the 10th century and was later adopted by the Normans during their invasions of Gwynedd. All of these derive from the proposed Proto-Indo-European root *ank-. It was also spelled as Anglesea. Ynys Môn, the islands Welsh name, was first recorded as Latin Mona by various Roman sources and it was likewise known to the Saxons as Monez. The Brittonic original was in the past taken to have meant Island of the Cow and this view is linguistically untenable, however, according to modern scientific philology. The etymology thus currently remains a mystery, poetic names for Anglesey include the Old Welsh Ynys Dywyll for its former groves and Ynys y Cedairn for its royal courts, Gerald of Wales Môn Mam Cymru for its productivity, and Y fêl Ynys. Numerous megalithic monuments and menhirs are present on Anglesey, testifying to the presence of humans in prehistory, Plas Newydd is near one of 28 cromlechs that remain on uplands overlooking the sea. The Welsh Triads claim that Anglesey was once part of the mainland, historically, Anglesey has long been associated with the druids. News of Boudicas revolt reached him just after his victory, causing him to withdraw his army before consolidating his conquest, the island was finally brought into the Roman Empire by Gnaeus Julius Agricola, the Roman governor of Britain, in AD78. During the Roman occupation, the area was notable for the mining of copper, the foundations of Caer Gybi as well as a fort at Holyhead are Roman, and the present road from Holyhead to Llanfairpwllgwyngyll was originally a Roman road. The island was grouped by Ptolemy with Ireland rather than with Britain, British Iron Age and Roman sites have been excavated and coins and ornaments discovered, especially by the 19th century antiquarian, William Owen Stanley. Following the Roman departure from Britain in the early 5th century, pirates from Ireland colonised Anglesey, in response to this, Cunedda ap Edern, a Gododdin warlord from Scotland, came to the area and began to drive the Irish out. This was continued by his son Einion Yrth ap Cunedda and grandson Cadwallon Lawhir ap Einion, as an island, Anglesey was in a good defensive position, and so Aberffraw became the site of the court, or Llys, of the Kingdom of Gwynedd
32.
Kingdom of Gwynedd
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The Principality or Kingdom of Gwynedd was one of several successor states to the Roman Empire that emerged in sub-Roman Britain in the 5th century during the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain. Based in northwest Wales, the rulers of Gwynedd repeatedly rose to preeminence and were acclaimed as King of the Britons before losing their power in civil wars or invasions and that realm lasted until the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1283. The sons of their leader, Cunedda, were said to have possessed the land between the rivers Dee and Teifi, the modern preserved county of Gwynedd and principal area of Gwynedd are both somewhat smaller. The 5th-century Cantiorix Inscription now in Penmachno church seems to be the earliest record of the name and it is in memory of a man named Cantiorix and the Latin inscription is Cantiorix hic iacit/Venedotis cives fuit/consobrinos Magli magistrati, Cantiorix lies here. He was a citizen of Gwynedd and a cousin of Maglos the magistrate, the use of terms such as citizen and magistrate maybe cited as evidence that Romano-British culture and institutions continued in Gwynedd long after the legions had withdrawn. As early as the 2nd century, there may have been an Irish presence in the region as Ptolemy marks the Llŷn Peninsula as the Promontory of the Gangani which is also a name he recorded in Ireland, the region became known as Venedotia in Latin. The name was attributed to a specific Irish colony on Anglesey. According to traditional pedigrees, Cuneddas grandfather was Padarn Beisrudd, Paternus of the red cloak, nennius recounts how Cunedda brought order to North Wales and after his death Gwynedd was divided among his sons, Dynod was awarded Dunoding, another son Ceredig received Ceredigion, and so forth. According to Professor John Davies, here is a determinedly Brythonic, nevertheless, there was generally quick abandonment of Roman political, social, and ecclesiastical practices and institutions within Gwynedd and elsewhere in Wales. These early petty kings or princelings adopted the title rhi in Welsh, later replaced by brenin, genealogical lists compiled around 960 bear out that a number of these early rulers claimed degrees of association with the old Roman order, but do not appear in the official royal lineages. It may be assumed that the stronger kings annexed the territories of their weaker neighbors, other evidence supports Nenniuss claim that a leader came to north Wales and brought the region a measure of stability, although an Irish Gaelic element remained until the mid-5th century. During that peace he established a mighty kingdom, after Cadwallon, Gwynedd appears to have held a pre-eminent position amongst the petty Cambrian states in the post-Roman period. The great-grandson of Cunedda, Maelgwn Hir Maelgwn the Tall, was one of the most famous leaders in Welsh history, there are several legends about his life concerning miracles performed either by him or in his presence. Maelgwn was curiously described as the dragon of the island by Gildas which was possibly a title, Maelgwn eventually died in 547 from the plague leaving a succession crisis in his wake. His son in law, Elidyr Mwynfawr of the Kingdom of Strathclyde, claimed the throne and invaded Gwynedd to displace Maelgwns son, Elidyr was killed in the attempt but his death was then avenged by his relatives who ravaged the coast of Arfon. Rhun counter-attacked and exacted the same penalty on the lands of his foes in what is now central Scotland, Rhun returned to Gwynedd and the rest of his reign was far less eventful. He was succeeded by his son, Beli ap Rhun in c, on the accession of Belis son Iago ap Beli in c. 599, the situation in Britain had deteriorated significantly, most of the area today called northern England and been overrun by the invading Angles of Deira and Bernicia who were in the process of forming the Kingdom of Northumbria
33.
Dalsland
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Dalsland is a Swedish traditional province, or landskap, situated in Götaland in southern Sweden. Lying to the west of Lake Vänern, it is bordered by Värmland to the north, Västergötland to the southeast, Bohuslän to the west, the province has a low population density of around 14 inhabitants/km² and just one town of significant size, Åmål. The uninhabited areas are characterized by forests in the northwestern uplands and lakes in the east, giving rise to the epithet, commonly used for Dalsland. The Latinized name Dalia, which was used to name Dalsland in older prints. The traditional provinces of Sweden serve no administrative or political purposes, Dalsland formed the northern part of the administrative county Älvsborg County until 1998 when the present Västra Götaland County was formed. A very small part of the province, Dalboredden, is in Värmland County, Dalsland was granted its arms at the time of the funeral of Gustav Vasa in 1560. In the 16th century Dalsland had the status of a County and was represented with an Earls coronet, on January 18,1884 the Privy Council gave all provinces the right of use to a Dukal coronet for their coat of arms. Blazon, Argent an Ox passant armed and hoofed Or, Dalsland was originally called Dal, Valley, originally referring only to the flat southeastern part. The name Dal is still in part used locally, about all Dalsland, the name Dalsland, valley land, might have been given by central authorities, to distinguish from Dalarna. No other part of Sweden has its area covered with as many lakes as Dalsland does, of its total area, around 450 km² is water, but a part of lake Vänern is also belonging to the province. From the shores of Vänern, one can sail through the river systems up to the mythical lake Stora Le, Stora Le has a length of 66km, whereof 37km are within Dalsland, and the remaining part within the Värmland province, with a bay into Norway. The terrain consists of 1/4 agricultural lands and 2/3 forested lands, the provinces southern part are suitable for agriculture, but there is a shortage of man-power to cultivate it. Tresticklan is a park in Dalsland. There are also nature reserves. The Dalsland Canal was completed in 1868 and has 28 locks in its length of 254 km, municipalities are local districts of administration, with elected councils. Dalsland was historically divided into one chartered city and five hundreds, the hundreds were provincial sub-divisions from the Middle Ages, but were discontinued in the early 20th century. Its hundreds were, Nordal Hundred, Sundal Hundred, Tössbo Hundred, Valbo Hundred and they correspond approximately to todays municipalities, Nordal → Mellerud, Sundal → part of Vänersborg, Tössbo+Åmål → Åmål, Valbo → Färgelanda and Vedbo → Bengtsfors+Dals-Ed. The original name of Dalsland was Dal – Dalsland was not used until the 19th century, the area has around 5,000 localized ancient remains
34.
Sweden
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Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
35.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
36.
Eric I of Denmark
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Eric I, also known as Eric the Good, was King of Denmark following his brother Olaf I Hunger in 1095. He was a son of Sweyn II, Eric was born in the town of Slangerup in North Zealand. During the rule of his half-brother Canute IV he was a supporter of the king. Eric remained at the farm instead of accompanying Canute IV to St Albans priory in Odense where Canute IV was killed. Eric talked his way off the farm and fled to Zealand then fled to Scania which was part of Denmark at the time, Olaf I Hunger was elected King of Denmark, but his reign was short. At last Eric was elected as a king at the several landsting assemblies in 1095, Eric was well liked by the people and the famines that had plagued Denmark during Olaf Hungers reign ceased. For many it seemed a sign from God that Eric was the king for Denmark. Medieval chroniclers, such as Saxo Grammaticus, and myths portrayed Eric a “strapping fellow” appealing to the common people and he could keep his place when four men tried their best to move him. Eric was a speaker, people went out of their way to hear him. After a ting assembly concluded, he went about the neighborhood greeting men, women and children at their homesteads and he had a reputation as a loud man who liked parties and who led a rather dissipated private life. Though a presumed supporter of a centralized royal power, he seems to have behaved like a diplomat avoiding any clash with the magnates. He had a reputation for being ruthless to robbers and pirates, on a visit to the Pope in Rome he obtained canonization for his late brother, Canute IV, and an archbishopric for Denmark, instead of being under the Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen. Bishop Asser then became the first Archbishop of Lund, King Eric announced at the Viborg assembly that he had decided to go on pilgrimage to the Holy Land. The cause, according to Danmarks Riges Krønike, was the murder of four of his own men while drunk at a feast in his own hall, despite the pleadings of his subjects, he would not be deterred. Eric appointed his son, Harald Kesja, and Bishop Asser as regents, Eric and Boedil and a large company traveled through Russia to Constantinople where he was a guest of the emperor. While there, he became ill, but took ship for Cyprus anyway and he died at Paphos, Cyprus in July 1103. The queen had him buried there and he was the first king to go on pilgrimage after Jerusalem was conquered during the First Crusade. Queen Boedil also became ill, but made it to Jerusalem where she died and she was buried at the foot of the Mount of Olives in the Valley of Josaphat
37.
Inge the Elder
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Inge the Elder was a King of Sweden. In English literature he has also been called Ingold, while the sources do not allow us to paint a full picture of his term of kingship, he is known to have led a turbulent but at length successful reign of more than two decades. He stands out as a devoted Christian who founded the first abbey in Sweden, Inge was the son of the former King Stenkil and a Swedish princess. Inge shared the rule of the kingdom with his elder brother Halsten Stenkilsson. According to the contemporary chronicler Adam of Bremen and the writer of his scholion, then an Anund Gårdske was summoned from Kievan Rus, but rejected due to his refusal to administer the blóts at the Temple at Uppsala. A hypothesis suggests that Anund and Inge were the same person, all that can be said is that a Håkan the Red ruled in c.1075 and that Inge was enthroned under unknown circumstances shortly before 1080. Whether this difference reflects a change in territory is not certain since the two letters concern the spreading of Christianity in Sweden and the paying of tithe to the Pope. In perhaps the early 1080s, Inge was forced to abdicate by the Swedes over his disrespect for old traditions, King Blot-Sweyn was thus elected king. The Hervarar saga describes the rise of Sweyn, the abdication and how Inge was exiled in Västergötland, Steinkel had a son called Ingi, Ingi was King of Sweden for a long time, and was popular and a good Christian. He tried to put an end to heathen sacrifices in Sweden and commanded all the people to accept Christianity, King Ingi married a woman called Mær who had a brother called Svein. King Ingi liked Svein better than any man, and Svein became thereby the greatest man in Sweden. Then King Ingi spoke up and said that he would not abandon the faith, whereupon the Swedes raised a shout and pelted him with stones. They drove King Ingi away, and he went into Vestergötland, Svein the Sacrificer was King of Sweden for three years. However, Inge returned after three winters to kill Blot-Sweyn and reclaim the throne, King Ingi set off with his retinue and some of his followers and he then rode eastwards by Småland and into Östergötland and then into Sweden. He rode both day and night, and came upon Svein suddenly in the early morning and they caught him in his house and set it on fire and burned the band of men who were within. There was a baron called Thjof who was burnt inside and he had been previously in the retinue of Svein the Sacrificer. Svein himself left the house, but was slain immediately, thus Ingi once more received the Kingdom of Sweden, and he reestablished Christianity and ruled the Kingdom till the end of his life, when he died in his bed. King Ingi was a thorough Christian man, and all wizards were loathsome to him, so it came about that the freemen chose them another king, Sweyn, the queen’s brother, who still held to his sacrifices to idols, and was called Sacrifice-Sweyn
38.
Munster
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Munster is one of the provinces of Ireland situated in the south of Ireland. In early Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a king of over-kings Irish, following the Norman invasion of Ireland, the ancient kingdoms were shired into counties for administrative and judicial purposes. In later centuries, local government legislation has seen further sub-division of the historic counties, Munster has no official function for local government purposes. For the purposes of the ISO, the province is listed as one of the provincial sub-divisions of the State, geographically, Munster covers a total area of 24,675 km2 and has a population of 1,246,088 with the most populated city being Cork. Other significant urban centres in the province include Limerick and Waterford, in the early centuries AD, Munster was the domain of the Iverni peoples and the Clanna Dedad familial line, led by Cú Roí and to whom the king Conaire Mór also belonged. In the 5th century, Saint Patrick spent several years in the area and founded Christian churches, during the Early Middle Ages, most of the area was part of the Kingdom of Munster, ruled by the Eóganachta dynasty. Prior to this, the area was ruled by the Dáirine and Corcu Loígde overlords from the early 7th century onwards, later rulers from the Eóganachta who would dominate a greater part of Ireland were Cathal mac Finguine and Feidlimid mac Cremthanin. Notable regional kingdoms and lordships of Early Medieval Munster were Iarmuman, Osraige, Uí Liatháin, Uí Fidgenti, Éile, Múscraige, Ciarraige Luachra, Corcu Duibne, Corcu Baiscinn, around this period Ossory broke away from Munster. The 10th century saw the rise of the Dalcassian clan, who had earlier annexed Thomond and their leaders were the ancestors of the OBrien dynasty and spawned Brian Boru, perhaps the most noted High King of Ireland, and several of whose descendants were also High Kings. By 1118 Munster had fractured into the Kingdom of Thomond under the OBriens, the Kingdom of Desmond under the MacCarthy dynasty, the three crowns of the flag of Munster represent these three late kingdoms. The OBrien of Thomond and MacCarthy of Desmond surrendered and regranted sovereignty to the Tudors in 1543 and 1565, the impactful Desmond Rebellions, led by the FitzGeralds, soon followed. By the mid-19th century much of the area was hit hard in the Great Famine, the province was affected by events in the Irish War of Independence in the early 20th century, and there was a brief Munster Republic during the Irish Civil War. The Irish leaders Michael Collins and earlier Daniel OConnell came from families of the old Gaelic Munster gentry, noted for its traditions in Irish folk music, and with many ancient castles and monasteries in the province, Munster is a tourist destination. During the fifth century, St. Patrick spent seven years founding churches and ordaining priests in Munster, but a fifth century bishop named Ailbe is the patron saint of Munster. In Irish mythology, a number of goddesses are associated with the province including Anann, Áine, Grian, Clíodhna, Aimend, Mór Muman, Bébinn, Aibell. Each is historically associated with certain septs of the nobility, the druid-god of Munster is Mug Ruith. The province has long had trading and cultural links with continental Europe, the tribe of Corcu Loígde had a trading fleet active along the French Atlantic coast, as far south as Gascony, importing wine to Munster. The Eóganachta had ecclesiastical ties with Germany, which show in the architecture of their capital at the Rock of Cashel
39.
Ulaid
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Ulaid or Ulaidh ) was an over-kingdom in north-eastern Ireland during the Middle Ages, made up of a confederation of dynastic groups. Alternative names include Ulidia, which is the Latin form of Ulaid, as well as in Chóicid, the king of Ulaid was called the rí Ulad or rí in Chóicid. Ulaid also refers to a people of early Ireland, and it is them that the province derives its name. Some of the dynasties within the over-kingdom claimed descent from the Ulaid, in historical documents, the term Ulaid was used to refer to the population-group, of which the Dál Fiatach was the ruling dynasty. As such the title Rí Ulad held two meanings, over-king of Ulaid, and king of the Ulaid, as in the Dál Fiatach, the Ulaid feature prominently in the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. According to legend, the ancient territory of Ulaid spanned the whole of the province of Ulster, excluding County Cavan. Its southern border was said to stretch from the River Drowes in the west to the River Boyne in the east, Ulaid ceased to exist after its conquest in the late 12th century by the Anglo-Norman knight John de Courcy, and was replaced with the Earldom of Ulster. An individual from Ulaid was known in Irish as an Ultach, Ulaid was also known as Cóiced Ulad, the Fifth of Ulster, and was one of the legendary five provinces of Ireland. The Ulaid are likely the mentioned in Ptolemys 2nd century Geographia. This may be a corruption of Ούλουτοι, the name is likely derived from the Gaelic ul, meaning beard. The late 7th-century writer, Muirchú, spells Ulaid as Ulothi in his work the Life of Patrick, Ulaid has historically been anglicised as Ulagh or Ullagh and Latinized as Ulidia or Ultonia. The latter two have yielded the terms Ulidian and Ultonian, the Irish word for someone from Ulaid is Ultach, which in Latin became Ultonii and Ultoniensis. It may also derive from Uladh plus the Norse suffix -ster, the Ulaid are also referred to as being of the Clanna Rudraige, a late form of group-name. According to historical tradition, the dynasties of the Ulaid where either of the Ulaid population-group or the Cruthin. Medieval Irish genealogists traced the descent of the Ulaid from the legendary High King of Ireland, the Cruthin on the other hand is the Irish term for the Picts, and are stated as initially being the most powerful and numerous of the two groupings. The terms Ulaid and Cruthin in early sources referred to the Dál Fiatach and Dál nAraidi respectively, T. F. ORahilly notably believed the Ulaid were an actual branch of the Érainn. Also claimed as being related to the Ulaid are the Dáirine, another name for the Érainn royalty, there is uncertainty however over the actual ancestry of the people and dynasties within the medieval over-kingdom of Ulaid. The Dál Riata and Dál Fiatach however professed to be of Érainn descent, despite this the term Ulaid still referred to the Dál Fiatach until the Anglo-Norman conquest of the over-kingdom in the late 12th century
40.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
41.
Vikings
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The term is also commonly extended in modern English and other vernaculars to the inhabitants of Viking home communities during what has become known as the Viking Age. Facilitated by advanced seafaring skills, and characterised by the longship, Viking activities at times also extended into the Mediterranean littoral, North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia. A romanticized picture of Vikings as noble savages began to emerge in the 18th century, current popular representations of the Vikings are typically based on cultural clichés and stereotypes, complicating modern appreciation of the Viking legacy. One etymology derives víking from the feminine vík, meaning creek, inlet, various theories have been offered that the word viking may be derived from the name of the historical Norwegian district of Viken, meaning a person from Viken. According to this theory, the word simply described persons from this area, however, there are a few major problems with this theory. People from the Viken area were not called Viking in Old Norse manuscripts, in addition, that explanation could only explain the masculine and ignore the feminine, which is a serious problem because the masculine is easily derived from the feminine but hardly vice versa. The form also occurs as a name on some Swedish rune stones. There is little indication of any negative connotation in the term before the end of the Viking Age and this is found in the Proto-Nordic verb *wikan, ‘to turn’, similar to Old Icelandic víkja ‘to move, to turn’, with well-attested nautical usages. In that case, the idea behind it seems to be that the rower moves aside for the rested rower on the thwart when he relieves him. A víkingr would then originally have been a participant on a sea journey characterized by the shifting of rowers, in that case, the word Viking was not originally connected to Scandinavian seafarers but assumed this meaning when the Scandinavians begun to dominate the seas. In Old English, the word wicing appears first in the Anglo-Saxon poem, Widsith, in Old English, and in the history of the archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen written by Adam of Bremen in about 1070, the term generally referred to Scandinavian pirates or raiders. As in the Old Norse usages, the term is not employed as a name for any people or culture in general, the word does not occur in any preserved Middle English texts. The Vikings were known as Ascomanni ashmen by the Germans for the ash wood of their boats, Lochlannach by the Gaels, the modern day name for Sweden in several neighbouring countries is possibly derived from rōþs-, Ruotsi in Finnish and Rootsi in Estonian. The Slavs and the Byzantines also called them Varangians, Scandinavian bodyguards of the Byzantine emperors were known as the Varangian Guard. The Franks normally called them Northmen or Danes, while for the English they were known as Danes or heathen. It is used in distinction from Anglo-Saxon, similar terms exist for other areas, such as Hiberno-Norse for Ireland and Scotland. The period from the earliest recorded raids in the 790s until the Norman conquest of England in 1066 is commonly known as the Viking Age of Scandinavian history, Vikings used the Norwegian Sea and Baltic Sea for sea routes to the south. The Normans were descended from Vikings who were given feudal overlordship of areas in northern France—the Duchy of Normandy—in the 10th century, in that respect, descendants of the Vikings continued to have an influence in northern Europe
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Saga
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They were written in the Old Norse language, mainly in Iceland. The tales are usually realistic, except legendary sagas, sagas of saints, sagas of bishops and they are sometimes romanticised and fantastic, but always dealing with human beings one can understand. The term saga originates from the Norse saga, and refers to what is said, statement or story, tale and it is cognate with the English word saw, and the German Sage. Icelandic sagas are based on traditions and much research has focused on what is real. The accuracy of the sagas is often hotly disputed, most of the manuscripts in which the sagas are preserved were taken to Denmark and Sweden in the 17th century, but later returned to Iceland. Classic sagas were composed in the 13th century, scholars once believed that these sagas were transmitted orally from generation to generation until scribes wrote them down in the 13th century. However, most scholars now believe the sagas were conscious artistic creations, however, this clothing is not contemporary with the events of the saga as it is a closer match to the clothing worn in the 12th century. There are plenty of tales of kings, everyday people and larger than life characters, the sagas describe a part of the history of some of the Nordic countries. The British Isles, northern France and North America are also mentioned and it was only recently that the tales of the voyages to North America were authenticated. Most sagas of Icelanders take place in the period 930–1030, which is called söguöld in Icelandic history, the sagas of kings, bishops, contemporary sagas have their own time frame. Norse sagas are generally classified as, the Kings sagas, sagas of Icelanders, Short tales of Icelanders, Contemporary sagas, Legendary sagas, Chivalric sagas, Saints sagas, Kings sagas are of the lives of Scandinavian kings. They were composed in the 12th to 14th centuries, family Sagas, are stories of real events, passed in oral form till they eventually were recorded, mostly in the 13th century. These are the highest form of the classical Icelandic saga writing, some well-known examples include Njáls saga, Laxdæla saga and Grettis saga. The material of the Short tales of Icelanders sagas is similar to Íslendinga sögur, the narratives of the Contemporary Sagas are set in 12th- and 13th-century Iceland, and were written soon after the events they describe. Most are preserved in the compilation Sturlunga saga, though some, Legendary Sagas blend remote history with myth or legend. The aim is on a narrative and entertainment. Scandinavias pagan past was a proud and heroic history for the Icelanders, Chivalric sagas are translations of Latin pseudo-historical works and French chansons de geste as well as native creations in the same style. While sagas are generally anonymous, a literary movement in the 14th century involves sagas, mostly on religious topics, with identifiable authors
