1.
Nidaros Cathedral
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Nidaros Cathedral is a Church of Norway cathedral located in the city of Trondheim in Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. Built over the site of Saint Olav, the king of Norway in the 11th century. It is the location for the consecration of the King of Norway. It was built from 1070 to 1300, and designated as the cathedral for the Diocese of Nidaros in 1152, after the Protestant Reformation, it was taken from the Roman Catholics by the Lutheran Church in 1537. It is the northernmost medieval cathedral in the world, Nidaros Cathedral was built beginning in 1070 to memorialize the burial place of Olav II of Norway, the king who was killed in 1030 in the Battle of Stiklestad. He was canonized as Saint Olav a year later by the bishop of Nidaros and it was designated the cathedral of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Nidaros from its establishment in 1152 until its abolition in 1537 under the Reformation. Since the Reformation, it has served as the cathedral of the Lutheran bishops of Trondheim in the Diocese of Nidaros, the architectural style of the cathedral is Romanesque and Gothic. Historically it has been an important destination for pilgrims coming from all of Northern Europe, along with Vår Frue Church, the cathedral is part of the Nidaros og Vår Frue parish in the Nidaros deanery in the Diocese of Nidaros. Work on the cathedral as a memorial to St. Olav started in 1070 and it was finished some time around 1300, nearly 150 years after being established as the cathedral of the diocese. The cathedral was damaged by fires in 1327 and again in 1531. The nave was destroyed and was not rebuilt until the restoration in early 1900s, in 1708, the church burned down completely except for the stone walls. It was struck by lightning in 1719, and was ravaged by fire. Major rebuilding and restoration of the started in 1869, initially led by architect Heinrich Ernst Schirmer. It was officially completed in 2001, maintenance of the cathedral is an ongoing process. The oldest parts of the cathedral consist of the octagon with its surrounding ambulatory and this was the site of the original high altar, with the reliquary casket of Saint Olav, and choir. Design of the octagon may have inspired by the Corona of Canterbury Cathedral. Similarly, the choir shows English influence, and appears to have been modeled after the Angel Choir of Lincoln Cathedral and it is joined to the octagon by a stone screen that fills the entire east side of the choir. Built into the side of the ambulatory is a small well
2.
Paul and Erlend Thorfinnsson
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Paul Thorfinnsson and Erlend Thorfinnsson ruled together as Earls of Orkney. Paul and Erlend Thorfinnsson were the sons of Thorfinn Sigurdsson and Ingibiorg Finnsdottir, through Ingibiorgs father Finn Arnesson and his wife, the family was related to the Norwegian Kings Olav II and Harald II. Their lives and times are recounted in the Orkneyinga Saga, the first mention of the brothers is when they accompanied the Norwegian king Harald Hardrade and Tostig Godwinson on the ill-fated expedition to England in 1066. Paul and Erlend were with Haralds son Olaf Kyrre, guarding the ships, along with Olaf they were allowed to leave by the English king Harold Godwinson. Olaf overwintered on Orkney with them and left on good terms with the Thorfinssons, the saga says that Paul and Erlend were on good terms until their children grew to adulthood, after which the disputes between their sons led to a quarrel and open hostility between the brothers. As the disputes between the descendants of Paul and Erlend loomed large in the affairs of 12th century Orkney, Paul was married to an unnamed daughter of Norwegian earl Hakon Ivarsson. Two sons and four daughters are named, of these, Hakon played the greatest part in events. Erlend married Thora, daughter of one Sumarlidi Ospaksson, and they had two sons and two daughters, while Erlend had a third, illegitimate daughter as well, erlends son Magnus appears in the saga as earl, martyr and saint. The troubles between the earls began with rivalry between Hakon Paulsson and Magnuss brother Erling, both are described as quarrelsome, arrogant men, and talented too. Erlands daughter Gunnhild was married to Kol Kalison and Rognvald Kali Kolsson was their son, Magnus III of Norway took possession of the islands in 1098, deposing Erlend and Paul. Pauls son, Haakon Paulsson, then regent on behalf of the Norwegian prince, the future King Sigurd I of Norway. The overthrow of Erland and Paul is a plot point of Stephen Lawheads novel The Iron Lance. Orkneyinga Saga, The History of the Earls of Orkney, tr, ISBN 0-14-044383-5 Donaldson, Gordon, A Northern Commonwealth, Scotland and Norway. ISBN 0-85411-044-5 Sturluson, Snorri, Heimskringla, History of the Kings of Norway, reprinted University of Texas Press, Austin,1992
3.
Earl of Orkney
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The Earl of Orkney was originally a Norse jarl ruling Orkney, Shetland and parts of Caithness and Sutherland. The Earls were periodically subject to the kings of Norway for the Northern Isles, the Earls status as a Norwegian vassal was formalised in 1195. In 1232, a Scottish dynasty descended from the Mormaers of Angus replaced the family descended from the Mormaers of Atholl. This family was in turn replaced by the descendants of the Mormaers of Strathearn and later still by the Sinclair family, rognvald Eysteinsson, Earl of Møre fl. 865–890 is sometimes credited with being the founder of the earldom, by implication the Orkneyinga saga identifies him as such for he is given dominion over Orkney and Shetland by King Harald Finehair, although there is no concrete suggestion he ever held the title. The Heimskringla states that his brother Sigurd was the first to hold the title. Sigurds son Guthorm ruled for a year and died childless, rognvalds son Hallad then inherited the title. However, unable to constrain Danish raids on Orkney, he gave up the earldom and returned to Norway, Torf-Einarr then succeeded in defeating the Danes and founded a dynasty which retained control of the islands for centuries after his death. Smyth concludes that the role of the brothers Eysteinsson lacks historical credibility, dates are largely conjectural, at least until his death recorded in 1014. One of the sources for the lives and times of these earls is the Orkneyinga saga. One of the key events of the saga is the martyrdom of Earl Magnus Erlendsson, later Saint Magnus, c. The last quarter of the saga is taken up with a tale of Earl Rögnvald Kali Kolsson. After the murder of Earl Jon Haraldsson some sixty years later, Magnus and he may have been a descendent of Earl Rögnvald Kali Kolsson, although this has never been corroborated, and was a descendent of Earl Harald Maddadson on his mothers side. However, the line of specifically Norse earls is said to have come to an end when Earl Magnus II was granted his title by Haakon IV of Norway c. In 1236, Magnus, son of Gille Brigte, Mormaer of Angus, was granted the Earldom of Orkney by King Haakon Haakonsson, Magnus, son of Gille Brigte, c. 1236–1239 Gille Brigte, son of Magnus, 1239–, Gille Brigte, son of Gille Brigte, perhaps the same as the previous Gille Brigte. –1256 Magnus, son of Gille Brigte, 1256–1273 Magnus Magnusson, 1273–1284 Jón Magnússon, 1284–c. 1300–1321 Some time after Magnus Jonssons death, around 1331, the Earldom was granted to Maol Íosa, Mormaer of Strathearn, Maol Íosa ruled Orkney and Caithness from 1331 to 1350. He left several daughters, but no sons, Orkney passed to his son-in-law, the Swedish councillor Erengisle Suneson
4.
Flag of Orkney
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The Flag of Orkney was the winner of a public flag consultation in February and March 2007. In the flag consultation the people of Orkney were asked for their design from a short list of 5. The chosen design was that of Duncan Tullock of Birsay, which polled 53% of the 200 votes cast by the public, the colours red and yellow are from the Scottish and Norwegian royal coats of arms, which both use yellow and red, with a lion rampant. The flag symbolises the islands Scottish and Norwegian heritage, the blue is taken from the flag of Scotland and also represents the sea and the maritime heritage of the islands. The previous unofficial flag of Orkney was created in the mid-1990s and attributed to St Magnus, St Magnus was Earl of Orkney from 1108 to 1117. However, there is nothing to him to the red cross on yellow. This flag has no status, having been declined recognition by the Lord Lyon. Historically, the red cross on yellow is associated with the flag of the Kalmar Union, Nordic Cross Flag Royal Standard of Scotland Royal Standard of Norway Flag of Norway Flag of Åland List of Scottish flags
5.
Thorfinn the Mighty
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Thorfinn Sigurdsson, also known as Thorfinn the Mighty, was an 11th-century Earl of Orkney. He was the youngest of five sons of Earl Sigurd Hlodvirsson and he ruled alone as earl for about a third of the time that he held the title and jointly with one or more of his brothers or with his nephew Rögnvald Brusason for the remainder. Thorfinn married Ingibiorg Finnsdottir, daughter of Finn Arnesson, Jarl of Halland, a sizeable part of the latter sagas account concerns his wars with a King of Scots named Karl Hundason whose identity is uncertain. In his later years he went on a pilgrimage to Rome and he was instrumental in making Orkney, on his death in the latter half of the 11th century he was followed as earl by his sons Paul and Erlend. There are numerous problems associated with the chronology of Thorfinns life and in identifying his relationships to the southern polities of the Kingdom of Alba and his diplomacy with the Norwegian court has also been interpreted in various ways. His life has been the subject of works of historical fiction. The sources for Thorfinns life are almost exclusively Norse sagas, which were written long after the time of the events in his life they record. The main sources are St Olafs saga and the more detailed Orkneyinga Saga, much of the information the latter contains is hard to corroborate although it is a generally credible narrative in this context. Thorfinn was the youngest of the five sons of Earl Sigurd Hlodvirsson. His elder half-brothers Einar, Brusi and Sumarlidi survived to adulthood, while another brother called Hundi died young in Norway, Earl Sigurd was killed at the Battle of Clontarf on 23 April 1014. Before setting out for Ireland, he had sent Thorfinn, then aged five, to be fostered by his maternal grandfather, when the news of Sigurds death came, Thorfinns older half-brothers divided Orkney and Shetland between them. King Máel Coluim set Thorfinn up as ruler of Caithness and Sutherland with Scots advisors to rule for him. Earl Sigurd had also been a ruler of the Suðreyar but these appear to have escaped control of the earls of Orkney at the time of his death or shortly thereafter. He did well in battle, for he was both a good tactician and full of courage, joint earldoms were a frequent feature of the Norse earldom of Orkney although the Orkneyinga saga is less than explicit about how these shares were divided up geographically. Sumarlidi died in his bed not long after his father, most likely no later than 1018 and Einar took his share, Einar soon became unpopular, demanding heavy taxes and frequent military service from the farmers, and gaining little booty on his raids. He was, the saga says, a bully, whereas Brusi was well liked by everyone. The farmers of the opposition to Einars rule were led by Thorkel Amundason and, in danger of his life. He became his foster-father, hence his by-name, Thorkel Fosterer, on Sumarlidis death c.1018 the disposition of his third share in Orkney and Shetland became a matter of dispute when Thorfinn claimed it as his
6.
Olaf II of Norway
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Olaf II Haraldsson, later known as St. Olaf, was King of Norway from 1015 to 1028. He was posthumously given the title Rex Perpetuus Norvegiae and canonised in Nidaros by Bishop Grimkell and his remains were enshrined in Nidaros Cathedral, built over his burial site. He is also a saint of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The exact position of Saint Olafs grave in Nidaros has been unknown since 1568, Saint Olaf is symbolised by the axe in Norways coat of arms, and the Olsok is still his day of celebration. Many Christian institutions with Scandinavian links and Norways Order of St. Olav, are named after him, modern historians generally agree that Olaf was inclined to violence and brutality, and they accuse earlier scholars of neglecting this side of Olafs character. Especially during the period of Romantic Nationalism, Olaf was a symbol of independence and pride. Olaf IIs Old Norse name is Ólafr Haraldsson, during his lifetime he was known as Olaf the fat or the stout or simply as Olaf the big. In Norway today, he is referred to as Olav den hellige or Heilage-Olav in honour of his sainthood. Olaf Haraldsson had the given name Óláfr in Old Norse, Olav is the modern equivalent in Norwegian, formerly often spelt Olaf. His name in Icelandic is Ólafur, in Faroese Ólavur, in Danish Oluf, Olave was the traditional spelling in England, preserved in the name of medieval churches dedicated to him. Other names, such as Oláfr hinn helgi, Olavus rex and he is sometimes referred to as Rex Perpetuus Norvegiae, a designation which goes back to the thirteenth century. The term Ola Nordmann as epithet of the archetypal Norwegian may originate in this tradition and his mother was Åsta Gudbrandsdatter, and his father was Harald Grenske, great-great-grandchild of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway. Harald Grenske died when Åsta Gudbrandsdatter was pregnant with Olaf and she later married Sigurd Syr, with whom she had other children including Harald Hardrada, who would reign as a future king of Norway. There are many texts giving information concerning Olaf Haraldsson, the oldest source that we have is the Glælognskviða or Sea-Calm Poem, composed by Þórarinn loftunga, an Icelander. It praises Olaf and mentions some of the miracles attributed to him. Olaf is also mentioned in the Norwegian synoptic histories and these include the Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum, the Historia Norwegiae and a Latin text, Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium by Theodoric the Monk. Icelanders also wrote extensively about Olaf and we also have several Icelandic sagas about him, the famous Heimskringla, written by Snorri Sturluson, largely bases its account of Olaf on the earlier Fagrskinna. We also have the important Oldest Saga of St. Olaf, finally, there are many hagiographic sources describing St. Olaf, but these focus mostly on miracles attributed to him and cannot be used to accurately recreate his life
7.
Harald II of Norway
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Harald II Greycloak was a king of Norway. Harald Greycloak was the son of Eirik Bloodaxe and a grandson of Harald Fairhair and his mother was Gunnhild Gormsdatter, the sister of King Harald Bluetooth. After his fathers death in 954, Harald and his brothers allied with their grandfather, King Harald Gormson and they fought several battles against King Haakon including the Battle of Rastarkalv near the island of Frei in 955 and the Battle of Fitjar in 961. After King Haakons death at Fitjar, Harald and his brothers became kings of Norway, Harald, by being the oldest, was the most powerful of the brothers. In 961, their uncle King Harald Bluetooth of Denmark traveled to Norway, Harald moved to strengthen his rule by killing the local rulers including Sigurd Haakonsson, Tryggve Olafsson and Gudrød Bjørnsson. Harald Greycloak thus took power over the country up to and including Hålogaland, Harald established control over the trade route along the Norwegian coast. He also undertook a Viking expedition to Bjarmaland, today the area of Arkhangelsk in northern Russia, Harald soon became less dependent on support from Harald Bluetooth. In 970, he was tricked into coming to Denmark and killed in Hals in the Limfjord in a plot planned by Sigurd Haakonssons son Haakon Sigurdsson, Haakon Sigurdsson had become the Jarl of Lade after his own father was killed by Harald Greycloaks men in 961. The surviving brothers of Harald Greyhide fled the country after his death, with the death of Harald Greycloak, King Harald Bluetooth won back power over Norway and he supported Haakon Sigurdsson as his vassal king. Krag, Claus Harald Gråfell in Norsk biografisk leksikon 2, koht, Halvdan Harald Graafeld in Norsk biografisk leksikon,1
8.
Saga
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They were written in the Old Norse language, mainly in Iceland. The tales are usually realistic, except legendary sagas, sagas of saints, sagas of bishops and they are sometimes romanticised and fantastic, but always dealing with human beings one can understand. The term saga originates from the Norse saga, and refers to what is said, statement or story, tale and it is cognate with the English word saw, and the German Sage. Icelandic sagas are based on traditions and much research has focused on what is real. The accuracy of the sagas is often hotly disputed, most of the manuscripts in which the sagas are preserved were taken to Denmark and Sweden in the 17th century, but later returned to Iceland. Classic sagas were composed in the 13th century, scholars once believed that these sagas were transmitted orally from generation to generation until scribes wrote them down in the 13th century. However, most scholars now believe the sagas were conscious artistic creations, however, this clothing is not contemporary with the events of the saga as it is a closer match to the clothing worn in the 12th century. There are plenty of tales of kings, everyday people and larger than life characters, the sagas describe a part of the history of some of the Nordic countries. The British Isles, northern France and North America are also mentioned and it was only recently that the tales of the voyages to North America were authenticated. Most sagas of Icelanders take place in the period 930–1030, which is called söguöld in Icelandic history, the sagas of kings, bishops, contemporary sagas have their own time frame. Norse sagas are generally classified as, the Kings sagas, sagas of Icelanders, Short tales of Icelanders, Contemporary sagas, Legendary sagas, Chivalric sagas, Saints sagas, Kings sagas are of the lives of Scandinavian kings. They were composed in the 12th to 14th centuries, family Sagas, are stories of real events, passed in oral form till they eventually were recorded, mostly in the 13th century. These are the highest form of the classical Icelandic saga writing, some well-known examples include Njáls saga, Laxdæla saga and Grettis saga. The material of the Short tales of Icelanders sagas is similar to Íslendinga sögur, the narratives of the Contemporary Sagas are set in 12th- and 13th-century Iceland, and were written soon after the events they describe. Most are preserved in the compilation Sturlunga saga, though some, Legendary Sagas blend remote history with myth or legend. The aim is on a narrative and entertainment. Scandinavias pagan past was a proud and heroic history for the Icelanders, Chivalric sagas are translations of Latin pseudo-historical works and French chansons de geste as well as native creations in the same style. While sagas are generally anonymous, a literary movement in the 14th century involves sagas, mostly on religious topics, with identifiable authors
9.
Orkneyinga saga
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The Orkneyinga saga is an historical narrative of the history of the Orkney Islands, from their capture by the Norwegian king in the ninth century onwards until about 1200. The saga has no parallel in the social and literary record of Scotland and it is thought to have been compiled from a number of sources, combining oral legends with historical facts to tell the lives of the earls of Orkney and how they came about their earldom. The first three chapters cover text that provide the supposed origins for the Swedish and Norwegian torsmånad after Thorri, in modern Icelandic Gói is referred to as Góa and is also used as a female name. The first two chapters give a unique explanation for how Norway came to be named as such, involving Thorris sons Nór and Gór. One or two of these characters are part of Orcadian folklore today. There are examples of fictional elements – such as Earl Sigurds raven banner, the poisoned shirt of Earl Harald. The saga shows how one would become an earl in medieval Orkney. Earl Sigurd Hlodvisson had four sons, Sumarlidi, Brusi, Einar Wry-Mouth, when Sigurd was killed, the earldom was divided among Sumarlidi, Brusi, and Einar. Soon after, Sumarlidi died and his share was given to Thorfinn, Einar was a ruthless earl, and imposed harsh taxes which severely hurt the farmers. A farmers son, Thorkel, pleads to Earl Einar to lower the taxes, fearing that his pleas were only making things worse, Thorkel flees to Caithness and fosters Thorfinn for some time. When Thorfinn is old enough to claim his share of the islands, while there, however, Einar, who blames Thorkel for the uprising of the farmers, tries to kill him. Thorfinn and Thorkel sail to Norway to visit and gain the friendship of King Olaf, upon their return, Earl Brusi attempts to reconcile Thorkel and Einar by having them throw feasts for one another. At the first feast, Thorkel learns that Einar plans to ambush him, in response to this news, Thorkel kills Einar and flees to King Olaf II of Norway, who is pleased to hear that Einar is dead. After Einar is killed, Brusi takes over his share, making him hold 2/3 of the earldom, Thorfinn demands to split claim of the islands with Brusi so that they each control half, but Brusi refuses. Knowing that Thorfinn has more power and can easily overtake him, King Olaf points out that the islands were originally a fiefdom and actually belong to him, but lets Brusi continue to control his share as long as he serves him. Essentially, Brusi has surrendered his earldom to King Olaf, when Thorfinn hears that Brusi has gone to appeal to King Olaf, he decides to do the same. While there, King Olaf gets Thorfinn to also surrender his share to him, Olaf then proclaims that Brusi and Thorfinn will each have 1/3 of the islands in fee, and Einars share will stay in Olafs possession. Other landowners also encouraged the Earl to make the pilgrimage and agreed to go with him and it was agreed that Rognvald should have the most ornate ship
10.
Haakon Paulsson
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Haakon Paulsson was a Norwegian Jarl and jointly ruled the Earldom of Orkney with his cousin Magnus Erlendsson. His father was Paul Thorfinnsson, the son of Thorfinn Sigurdsson and his father and his uncle, Erlend Thorfinnsson, had ruled together as Earls of Orkney. King Magnus III of Norway took possession of the Orkney islands in 1098, Haakon Paulsson was chosen to become regent on behalf of the Norwegian prince, the future King Sigurd I of Norway, who made Haakon an earl in 1105. According to the Orkneyinga Saga, his cousin Magnus Erlendsson was initially rejected by the Norwegians rulers because of his religious convictions, Magnus was obliged to take refuge in Scotland, but returned to Orkney in 1105 and disputed the succession of Haakon. Having failed to reach an agreement, Magnus sought help from King Eystein I of Norway who granted him the joint earldom of Orkney, Magnus and Haakon ruled jointly from 1105 until 1114. Their followers then had fallen out and the two met at the Thing assembly on the Orkney mainland, ready to do battle. Peace was negotiated and the Earls arranged to meet each other on the island of Egilsay, Magnus arrived with his two ships, but Haakon turned up with eight ships. Magnus took refuge in the islands overnight, but the following day he was captured and offered to go into exile or prison. An assembly of chieftains insisted that one earl must die, Haakon killed Magnus on the island of Egilsay in April 1116. This led to the martyrdom of Magnus and the construction of St Magnus Cathedral in Kirkwall, Haakon is mentioned in the Orkneyinga saga. He is depicted as a protagonist in George Mackay Browns novel Magnus
11.
Magnus Barefoot
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Magnus Olafsson, better known as Magnus Barefoot, was King of Norway from 1093 until his death in 1103. As the only son of King Olaf Kyrre, Magnus was proclaimed king in southeastern Norway shortly after his fathers death in 1093, in the north his claim was contested by his cousin, Haakon Magnusson, and the two co-ruled uneasily until Haakons death in 1095. Disgruntled members of the nobility refused to recognise Magnus after his cousins death, after securing his position domestically, Magnus campaigned around the Irish Sea from 1098 to 1099. He raided through Orkney, the Hebrides and Mann, and ensured Norwegian control by a treaty with the Scottish king, based on Mann during his time in the west, Magnus had a number of forts and houses built on the island and probably also obtained suzerainty of Galloway. He sailed to Wales later in his expedition, winning control of Anglesey after repelling the invading Norman forces from the island, following his return to Norway Magnus led campaigns into Dalsland and Västergötland in Sweden, claiming an ancient border with the country. After two unsuccessful invasions and a number of skirmishes Danish king Eric Evergood initiated peace talks among the three Scandinavian monarchs, fearing that the conflict would get out of hand. Magnus concluded peace with the Swedes in 1101 by agreeing to marry Margaret, in return, Magnus gained Dalsland as part of her dowry. He set out on his western campaign in 1102. Magnus entered into an alliance with Irish king Muirchertach Ua Briain of Munster, into modern times, his legacy has remained more pronounced in Ireland and Scotland than in his native Norway. Among the few domestic developments known during his reign, Norway developed a more centralised rule and moved closer to the European model of church organisation. Popularly portrayed as a Viking warrior rather than a monarch, Magnus was the last Norwegian king to fall in battle abroad. Most information about Magnus is gleaned from Norse sagas and chronicles, while the later sagas are the most detailed accounts, they are also generally considered the least reliable. Additional information about Magnus, in particular his campaigns, is found in sources from the British Isles, Magnus was born around the end of 1073 as the only son of King Olaf Kyrre. The historical consensus has favoured Tora Arnesdatter, but the claims have also gained support. Anders Stølen has argued that she was a daughter of Ragnvald jarl, Magnus grew up among the hird of his father in Nidaros, de facto capital of Norway at the time. His fathers cousin, the chieftain Tore Ingeridsson, was foster-father to Magnus, in his youth, he was apparently more similar to his warlike grandfather, King Harald Hardrada, than to his father. According to Snorri Sturluson, Magnus was considered handsome and gifted in learning, although he was shorter in stature than his grandfather Harald, he was reportedly known as Magnus the Tall. Magnus more-common byname, Barefoot or Barelegs, was—according to Snorri—due to his adopting the Gaelic dress of the Irish and Scots, a short tunic, which left the lower legs bare
12.
Sigurd the Crusader
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Sigurd I Magnusson, also known as Sigurd the Crusader, was King of Norway from 1103 to 1130. His rule, together with his half-brother Øystein, has been regarded by historians as an age for the medieval Kingdom of Norway. He is otherwise famous for leading the Norwegian Crusade, earning the eponym the Crusader, Sigurd was one of the three sons to King Magnus III, the other two being Øystein and Olaf. They were all sons of the king with different mothers. To avoid feuds or war, the three half-brothers co-ruled the kingdom from 1103, Sigurd would rule alone after Olaf died in 1115 and Øystein in 1123. Before being proclaimed King of Norway, Sigurd was also styled as King of the Isles and he would pass the Earl of Orkney title on to Haakon Paulsson, a son of Paul Thorfinnsson. Many historians have viewed Sigurd and Øysteins rule as an age for the medieval Kingdom of Norway. The country was able to both in wealth and expansion, Sigurds participation in the crusades as well as gained international recognition. In 1098, Sigurd accompanied his father, King Magnus III, on his expedition to the Orkney Islands, Hebrides and he was made Earl of Orkney the same year, following the swift removal of the incumbent Earls of Orkney, Paul and Erlend Thorfinnsson. He was also apparently, made King of the Isles in that year, following the overthrow of their king by his father. Although Magnus was not directly responsible for the death of the previous King of the Isles, he was the ruler of the kingdom. This was the first time the kingdom had been under control by a Norwegian king. It is not certain whether Sigurd returned home with his father to Norway after the 1098 expedition, however, it is known that he was in Orkney when Magnus returned west in 1102 for his next expedition. While there, an alliance was negotiated between Magnus and Muircheartach Ua Briain. He was High King of Ireland, one of the most powerful rulers in Ireland, Sigurd was to marry Muirchertachs daughter Bjaðmunjo, a young Irish princess and for a short period, Queen consort. When King Magnus was ambushed and killed in Ulaid by an Irish army in 1103, upon arriving in Norway, he and his two brothers, Øystein and Olav, were proclaimed kings of Norway and would co-rule the kingdom together for some time. The expeditions conducted by Magnus were somewhat profitable to the Kingdom of Norway, as the islands now under Norway would provide wealth, defences. However the Hebrides and Mann quickly re-asserted their independence after Magnus death, in 1107, Sigurd led the Norwegian Crusade to support the newly established Kingdom of Jerusalem which had been founded after the First Crusade
13.
Irish Sea
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The Irish Sea, separates the islands of Ireland and Great Britain. It is connected to the Celtic Sea in the south by St Georges Channel, anglesey is the largest island within the Irish Sea, followed by the Isle of Man. The sea is occasionally, but rarely, referred to as the Manx Sea, the sea is of significant economic importance to regional trade, shipping and transport, fishing, and power generation in the form of wind power and nuclear power plants. Annual traffic between Great Britain and Ireland amounts to over 12 million passengers and 17 million tonnes of traded goods, the Irish Sea has undergone a series of dramatic changes over the last 20,000 years as the last glacial period ended and was replaced by warmer conditions. At the height of the glaciation the central part of the sea was probably a long freshwater lake. As the ice retreated 10,000 years ago the lake reconnected to the sea, becoming brackish, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Irish Sea as follows, On the North. The Southern limit of the Scottish Seas, a line joining St. Davids Head to Carnsore Point. It is connected to the North Atlantic at both its northern and southern ends, to the north, the connection is through the North Channel between Scotland and Northern Ireland and the Malin Sea. The southern end is linked to the Atlantic through the St Georges Channel between south eastern Ireland and Pembrokeshire in Wales, and the Celtic Sea. The Irish Sea is composed of a channel about 300 km long and 30–50 km wide on its western side. The western channels depth ranges from 80 metres up to 275 m in the Beauforts Dyke in the North Channel, the main embayments – Cardigan Bay in the south and the waters to the east of the Isle of Man – are less than 50 m deep. The Sea has a water volume of 2,430 km3, 80% of which is to the west of the Isle of Man. The largest sandbanks are the Bahama and King William Banks to the east and north of the Isle of Man, the Irish Sea, at its greatest width, is 200 km and narrows to 75 km. Unlike Great Britain, Ireland has no tunnel or bridge connection to continental Europe, thus the vast majority of heavy goods trade is done by sea. The Port of Liverpool handles 32 million tonnes of cargo and 734 thousand passengers a year, Holyhead port handles most of the passenger traffic from Dublin and Dún Laoghaire ports, as well as 3.3 million tonnes of freight. Ports in the Republic handle 3,600,000 travellers crossing the sea each year and this has been steadily dropping for a number of years, probably as a result of low cost airlines. There is also a connection between Liverpool and Belfast via the Isle of Man or direct from Birkenhead, the worlds largest car ferry, Ulysses, is operated by Irish Ferries on the Dublin Port–Holyhead route, Stena Line also operates between Britain and Ireland. The Port of Barrow-in-Furness, despite being one of Britains largest shipbuilding centres, a ferry crossing used to run between Swansea and Cork, but given the geographical limits defined above, this route crosses the Celtic Sea rather than the Irish Sea
14.
Anglesey
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Anglesey or Ynys Môn is an island off the north-west coast of Wales. With an area of 276 square miles, Anglesey is by far the largest island of Wales, Anglesey is also the largest island in the Irish Sea by area, and the second most populous island in the Irish Sea. The population at the 2011 census was 69,751, two bridges span the Menai Strait, connecting the island to the mainland, the Menai Suspension Bridge, designed by Thomas Telford in 1826, and the Britannia Bridge. A historic county of Wales and later administrated as part of Gwynedd, Anglesey today makes up the Isle of Anglesey County along with Holy Island and other smaller islands. The majority of Angleseys inhabitants are Welsh speakers and Ynys Môn, Anglesey is derived from Old Norse, originally either Ǫngullsey Hook Island or Ǫnglisey Ǫnglis Island. No record of any such Ǫngli survives, but the name was used by Viking raiders as early as the 10th century and was later adopted by the Normans during their invasions of Gwynedd. All of these derive from the proposed Proto-Indo-European root *ank-. It was also spelled as Anglesea. Ynys Môn, the islands Welsh name, was first recorded as Latin Mona by various Roman sources and it was likewise known to the Saxons as Monez. The Brittonic original was in the past taken to have meant Island of the Cow and this view is linguistically untenable, however, according to modern scientific philology. The etymology thus currently remains a mystery, poetic names for Anglesey include the Old Welsh Ynys Dywyll for its former groves and Ynys y Cedairn for its royal courts, Gerald of Wales Môn Mam Cymru for its productivity, and Y fêl Ynys. Numerous megalithic monuments and menhirs are present on Anglesey, testifying to the presence of humans in prehistory, Plas Newydd is near one of 28 cromlechs that remain on uplands overlooking the sea. The Welsh Triads claim that Anglesey was once part of the mainland, historically, Anglesey has long been associated with the druids. News of Boudicas revolt reached him just after his victory, causing him to withdraw his army before consolidating his conquest, the island was finally brought into the Roman Empire by Gnaeus Julius Agricola, the Roman governor of Britain, in AD78. During the Roman occupation, the area was notable for the mining of copper, the foundations of Caer Gybi as well as a fort at Holyhead are Roman, and the present road from Holyhead to Llanfairpwllgwyngyll was originally a Roman road. The island was grouped by Ptolemy with Ireland rather than with Britain, British Iron Age and Roman sites have been excavated and coins and ornaments discovered, especially by the 19th century antiquarian, William Owen Stanley. Following the Roman departure from Britain in the early 5th century, pirates from Ireland colonised Anglesey, in response to this, Cunedda ap Edern, a Gododdin warlord from Scotland, came to the area and began to drive the Irish out. This was continued by his son Einion Yrth ap Cunedda and grandson Cadwallon Lawhir ap Einion, as an island, Anglesey was in a good defensive position, and so Aberffraw became the site of the court, or Llys, of the Kingdom of Gwynedd
15.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
16.
Ulster
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Ulster is a province in the north of the island of Ireland. In ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a rí ruirech, the definition of the province was fluid from early to medieval times. It took a shape in the reign of King James I of England when all the counties of Ireland were eventually shired. This process of evolving conquest had been under way since the Norman invasion of Ireland, particularly as advanced by the Cambro-Norman magnates Hugh de Lacy, Ulster was a central topic role in the parliamentary debates that eventually resulted in the Government of Ireland Act 1920. Under the terms of the Act, Ireland was divided into two territories, Southern Ireland and Northern Ireland, with the passing through the province. While these six counties and two boroughs were all in the province of Ulster, three other counties of the province – Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan – were assigned to the Irish Free State. Ulster has no function for local government purposes in either country. However, for the purposes of ISO-3166-2, Ulster is used to refer to the three counties of Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan only, which are given country sub-division code IE-U. It has also suggested to have derived from Uladh plus the Norse suffix ster. The Irish name, Cúige Uladh, means the province of the Ulaid, the Ulaidh were a group of tribes who dwelt in the region. Ulaidh has historically been anglicised as Ulagh or Ullagh and Latinised as Ulidia or Ultonia, the latter two have yielded the terms Ulidian and Ultonian. Words that have used in English are Ullish and Ulsterman/Ulsterwoman. Northern Ireland is often referred to as Ulster, despite including only six of Ulsters nine counties and this usage is most common amongst people in Northern Ireland who are unionist, although it is also used by the media throughout the United Kingdom. Most Irish nationalists object to the use of Ulster in this context, Ulster has a population of just over 2 million people and an area of 21,552 square kilometres. About 62% of the area of Ulster is in the UK while the remaining 38% is in the Republic of Ireland. Ulsters biggest city, Belfast, has an population of over half a million inhabitants, making it the second-largest city on the island of Ireland. Three Ulster counties – Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan – form part of the Republic of Ireland, about half of Ulsters population lives in counties Antrim and Down. 8% to 42. 7%. While the traditional counties continue to demarcate areas of government in the Republic of Ireland
17.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
18.
Eystein I of Norway
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While Sigurd gained fame as the warrior king, Eystein was in contrast portrayed in the sagas as the peace king who stayed home in Norway and improved the country. As Eystein never engaged in warfare, considerably less information is written and known about him than about his brother Sigurd, despite his twenty-year-long reign, Eystein nonetheless gained the affection of his people, and was highly regarded by the saga writers for his deeds. Eystein and Sigurds reign became the longest joint rule in Norwegian history, Eysteins activities were especially centered in Bergen, which became an important international trade hub for fish at the time, helped by his construction projects. His activities in Bergen included moving the seat to a more central location in the city and building a new royal palace, as well as constructing churches. Eystein died of illness in August 1123, and his brother Sigurd thereby became the sole Norwegian king. Eystein was born in 1088 or 1089 as the first son of the future king Magnus Barefoot, born to an otherwise unknown mother who is only recorded to have been of low birth. Upon the death of his father in 1103 during one of his campaigns in Ireland, Sigurd was about a year younger than Eystein, while Olaf was more than ten years younger than him. Sigurd was the son who had accompanied their father Magnus on his campaign in the West. Many accounts concerning Eystein in later sagas are characterized by literary motifs, Snorri Sturluson, the Icelandic author of the early 13th century Heimskringla mastered this literary style particularly well, stylistically and psychologically. His stories includes a so-called mannjevning between Eystein and Sigurd, in which the two boast about their skills and deeds in an attempt to outdo each other. In a similar fashion, Snorri also tells a story about how Eystein managed to cure the melancholy of a friend, on his physical appearance, Snorri wrote that Eystein was the handsomest man that could be seen. He had blue eyes, his hair yellow and curling, his stature not tall. The co-rule between Eystein, Sigurd and Olaf entailed a shared kingship, and the kingdom itself was not divided into fixed borders, during the early years of their reign, Eystein is nonetheless said to have stayed mostly in Western Norway and Trøndelag, while Sigurd was in Viken. In practice, only Eystein and Sigurd ever ruled as kings, as Olaf was considerably younger and died when he was seventeen years old. The kings became very popular because of this, according to some sources, the main motivation for abolishing the taxes was to gain the support of the population for Sigurds planned crusade. In 1107 or 1108, after years of preparations, Sigurd sailed with a fleet on a crusade to the Holy Land. Sigurd arrived back in Norway in 1111, since Sigurd remained king for nineteen years after his crusade with little controversy, historian Claus Krag has considered that the domestic peace probably could be attributed equally to Sigurd. In order to contrast Eystein with Sigurd, Snorri tells a story that Eystein instead subdued Jämtland to the Norwegian crown peacefully through the use of gifts and diplomacy
19.
Thing (assembly)
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A thing was the governing assembly of a Northern Germanic society, made up of the free people of the community presided over by lawspeakers. Its meeting-place was called a thingstead, the Anglo-Saxon folkmoot or folkmote was analogous, the forerunner to the witenagemot and a precursor of the modern Parliament of the United Kingdom. The Old Norse, Old Frisian, and Old English þing with the assembly is identical in origin to the English word thing, German Ding, Dutch ding. All of these derive from Proto-Germanic *þingą meaning appointed time. The word shift in the meaning of the thing from assembly to object is mirrored in the evolution of the Latin causa to modern French chose, Spanish/Italian/Catalan cosa. In English the term is attested from 685 to 686 CE in the meaning assembly, later it referred to a being, entity or matter. The early sense of meeting, assembly did not survive the shift to Middle English, the meaning of personal possessions, commonly in the plural, first appears in Middle English around 1300. In the pre-Christian clan-culture of Scandinavia the members of a clan were obliged to avenge injuries against their dead, a balancing structure was necessary to reduce tribal feuds and avoid social disorder. It is known from North-Germanic cultures that the institution was the thing, although similar assemblies are reported also from other Germanic peoples. The thing was the assembly of the men and women of a country. There were consequently hierarchies of things, so that the things were represented at the higher-level thing. At the thing, disputes were solved and political decisions were made, the place for the thing was often also the place for public religious rites and for commerce. The thing met at regular intervals, legislated, elected chieftains and kings, and judged according to the law, the things negotiations were presided over by the lawspeaker and the chieftain or the king. In reality the thing was dominated by the most influential members of the community, the heads of clans and wealthy families, Haugating, the Thing for Vestfold in Norway, was located in Tønsberg at Haugar. This site was one of Norways most important places for the proclamation of kings, in 1130, Harald Gille called together a meeting at the Haugating at which he was declared to be King of Norway. Sigurd Magnusson was proclaimed king in 1193 at Haugating, magnus VII was acclaimed hereditary King of Norway and Sweden at the Haugating in August 1319. Main things in Sweden were the Thing of all Swedes, the Thing of all Geats, the island of Gotland had twenty things in late medieval times, each represented at the island-thing called landsting by its elected judge. New laws were decided at the landsting, which also took other decisions regarding the island as a whole, the landstings authority was successively eroded after the island was occupied by the Teutonic Order in 1398
20.
Egilsay
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Egilsay is one of the Orkney Islands in Scotland, the Island of Egilsay is lying east of Rousay. The island is farmland and St Magnus Church, dedicated or re-dedicated to Saint Magnus. Unusually for the Northern Isles, it has suggested that Egilsay may have a partly Gaelic name. The island of Kili Holm just to the north, may represent cille, the islands population was 26 as recorded by the 2011 census a drop of almost a third since 2001 when there were 37 usual residents. During the same period, Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4% to 103,702, Orkney Ferries sail from the island to Tingwall on the Orkney Mainland via Wyre and Rousay. Sir Alexander Douglas of Eagleshay Information on the island of Egilsay
21.
Easter
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It is the culmination of the Passion of Jesus, preceded by Lent, a forty-day period of fasting, prayer, and penance. In Western Christianity, Eastertide, or the Easter Season, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts seven weeks, ending with the coming of the fiftieth day, Pentecost Sunday. In Eastern Christianity, the season of Pascha begins on Pascha and ends with the coming of the fortieth day, the Feast of the Ascension. The First Council of Nicaea established two rules, independence of the Jewish calendar and worldwide uniformity, which were the rules for Easter explicitly laid down by the council. No details for the computation were specified, these were worked out in practice and it has come to be the first Sunday after the ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March, but calculations vary. Easter is linked to the Jewish Passover by much of its symbolism, in many languages, the words for Easter and Passover are identical or very similar. Easter customs vary across the Christian world, and include services, exclaiming the Paschal greeting, clipping the church. The Easter lily, a symbol of the resurrection, traditionally decorates the area of churches on this day. Additional customs that have associated with Easter and are observed by both Christians and some non-Christians include egg hunting, the Easter Bunny, and Easter parades. There are also various traditional Easter foods that vary regionally, however, it is possible that Bede was only speculating about the origin of the term since there is no firm evidence that such a goddess actually existed. In Greek and Latin, the Christian celebration was, and still is, called Πάσχα, Pascha, the word originally denoted the Jewish festival known in English as Passover, commemorating the Jewish Exodus from slavery in Egypt. In most of the non-English speaking world, the feast is known by names derived from Greek, Pascha is also a name by which Jesus himself is remembered in the Orthodox Church, especially in connection with his resurrection and with the season of its celebration. The New Testament states that the resurrection of Jesus, which Easter celebrates, is a foundation of the Christian faith, the resurrection established Jesus as the powerful Son of God and is cited as proof that God will judge the world in righteousness. For those who trust in Jesus death and resurrection, death is swallowed up in victory, any person who chooses to follow Jesus receives a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead. Through faith in the working of God those who follow Jesus are spiritually resurrected with him so that they may walk in a new way of life and receive eternal salvation. Easter is linked to the Passover and Exodus from Egypt recorded in the Old Testament through the Last Supper, sufferings and crucifixion of Jesus that preceded the resurrection. According to the New Testament, Jesus gave the Passover meal a new meaning, as in the room during the Last Supper he prepared himself. He identified the matzah and cup of wine as his soon to be sacrificed
22.
Birsay
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Birsay is a parish in the north west corner of The Mainland of Orkney, Scotland. Almost all the land in the parish is devoted to agriculture, there are various ancient monuments in the parish. Two important ancient monuments are maintained by Historic Scotland and bring visitors to the area in summer. These are the prehistoric and Norse settlements on the island of Brough of Birsay. On the western part of Mainland Orkneys north shore there is evidence of prehistoric man. The late 16th century palace was built by Robert Stewart, 1st Earl of Orkney, the date 1574 was formerly carved above the main entrance. The building has been uninhabited since the seventeenth century. It was originally adjoined by walled garden enclosures, an archery range and this building, along with the Earls Palace in Kirkwall, and Scalloway Castle on Shetland, were the main residences of the Stewart Earls of Orkney in the Northern Isles. Near the palace is the St. Magnus Church of the parish of Birsay and Harray. The seat of the diocese was transferred to St Magnus Cathedral, Kirkwall in the twelfth century. The nearby bridge may also be medieval in origin, point of Hellia Photographs Palace Ruins,1 Palace Ruins,2
23.
Kirkwall
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Kirkwall is the largest town and capital of the Orkney Islands of Scotland. The town is first mentioned in Orkneyinga saga in the year 1046 when it is recorded as the residence of Rögnvald Brusason the Earl of Orkney, who was killed by his uncle Thorfinn the Mighty. In 1486, King James III of Scotland elevated Kirkwall to the status of a burgh, modern roadsigns still indicate The City. The name Kirkwall comes from the Norse name Kirkjuvagr, which changed to Kirkvoe, Kirkwaa. At the heart of the town stands St. Magnus Cathedral, next to the Cathedral are the ruins of the former Bishops Palace and Earls Palace. The town has two museums, the larger being Tankerness House Museum, which items of local historical interest within one of Scotlands best-preserved sixteenth-century town-houses. The prehistoric, Pictish and Viking collections are of international importance, the other museum is the Orkney Wireless Museum, dealing with the history of radio and recorded sound. Apart from the historical buildings mentioned above, Kirkwall has many 17th–18th-century houses. The Kirk of Kirkwall was not the Cathedral, but the 11th-century church of Saint Olaf of Norway, Kirkwall also once had a medieval castle, which was destroyed in the 17th century. This is the form of house or souterrain characteristic of the Northern Isles. It was originally connected to a dwelling, which has since disappeared. Further west towards Grimbister is the similar Rennibister Earth House, one of the major annual events in the town is the Ba Game, held each Christmas Day and New Years Day between the Uppies and the Doonies, each team representing one half of the town. Kirkwall also has the most northerly of the worlds Carnegie libraries, the building survives, although the library has since moved to a larger building on Junction Road. Cromarty was added to the list in 1832, the constituency was a district of burghs known also as the Tain Burghs until 1832, and then as the Wick Burghs. It was represented by one Member of Parliament until 1918, when the constituency was abolished, the Orkney Library and Archive is located in Kirkwall. The composer Peter Maxwell Davies was among a group founded the annual St Magnus International Festival which is centred on Kirkwall each midsummer. Kirkwall Harbour can be seen in The Highlands and Islands – A Royal Tour, scottish film-maker Margaret Tait was born in Kirkwall, and many of her films are set there. The Simpsons character Groundskeeper Willie is said to be from Kirkwall, orkneyjar – The Royal Burgh of Kirkwall Listen to recordings of a speaker of Kirkwall Scots
24.
St Magnus Cathedral
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St. Magnus Cathedral, Kirkwall dominates the skyline of Kirkwall, the main town of Orkney, a group of islands off the north coast of mainland Scotland. It is the most northerly cathedral in Britain, an example of Romanesque architecture built for the bishops of Orkney when the islands were ruled by the Norse Earls of Orkney. It is owned not by the church, but by the burgh of Kirkwall as a result of an act of King James III of Scotland following Orkneys annexation by the Scottish Crown in 1468. Construction began in 1137, and it was added to over the three hundred years. The first bishop was William the Old, and the diocese was under the authority of the Archbishop of Nidaros in Norway and it was for Bishop William that the nearby Bishops Palace was built. Before the Reformation, the cathedral was presided over by the Bishop of Orkney, today, it is a parish church of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland, and therefore technically no longer a cathedral. The Orkneyinga Saga tells how bloodthirsty intrigue and saintly piety led to the cathedrals foundation, other accounts tell a similar, though slightly less saintly, tale. St. Magnus had a reputation for piety and gentleness, on a raid led by the King of Norway on Anglesey, Wales, Magnus refused to fight and stayed on board singing psalms. King Eystein II of Norway granted him a share of the earldom of Orkney held by his cousin Håkon and their followers fell out, and the two sides met at a thing on Orkney Mainland, ready to do battle. Peace was negotiated and the Earls arranged to meet each other on the island of Egilsay. Magnus arrived on 16 April 1116 with his two ships, but then Håkon treacherously turned up with eight ships, Magnus was captured and offered to go into exile or prison, but an assembly of chieftains insisted that one earl must die. Håkons standard bearer refused to execute Magnus, and an angry Håkon made his cook Lifolf kill Magnus by striking him on the head with an axe, Magnus was buried in the Christchurch at Birsay. The rocky area around his grave became a green field. Gunhild, sister of Magnus, had married Kol, and the king of Norway granted their son Rögnvald Kolsson the right to his uncles earldom in 1129. Earl Rögnvald eventually took a fleet to Orkney, but the islanders resisted, in addition, his holy relics and the episcopal seat must be moved there. Meanwhile, Rögnvald secretly had Paul kidnapped and shipped away, later to be murdered in Caithness, Rögnvald duly became Earl of Orkney. In 1135, Magnus was canonised, with 16 April becoming St. Magnus day and his remains were moved east to St. Olafs Kirk in the small settlement known as Kirkjuvágr, meaning church bay, now Kirkwall. Work on the began in 1137, under the direction of Kol
25.
Harald Maddadsson
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Harald Maddadsson was Earl of Orkney and Mormaer of Caithness from 1139 until 1206. He was the son of Matad, Mormaer of Atholl, and Margaret, of mixed Norse and Gaelic blood, and a descendant of Scots kings, he was a significant figure in northern Scotland, and played a prominent part in Scottish politics of the twelfth century. The Orkneyinga Saga names him one of the three more powerful Earls of Orkney with Sigurd Eysteinsson and Thorfinn Sigurdsson, thus the succession of the earldom was of great interest to the Scots king David I. Harald Maddadsson was born shortly before Rognvald Kali Kolsson took control of the Earldom of Orkney, the Orkneyinga Saga reports the official tale, that Paul had abdicated, and the rumour that he was killed on the orders of Haralds mother. Earl Paul had not been well loved by his female kin and his mother and her sister, Frakkok, had previously tried to murder him with a poisoned shirt which instead caused the death of his brother Harald Haakonsson. Rognvald represented the faction in the Earldom. It is said that Frakkok and her supporters had originally intended to advance the claims of Harald Haakons son Erlend on Pauls death, however, Matad and Margaret, with King David backing them, imposed the infant Harald Maddadson as joint ruler with Rognvald. The main threat to Harald Maddadsson and Rognvald Kali came from Erlend Haraldsson, the old conspirator, however, was soon disposed of, burned to death in her hall near Helmsdale. The Orkneyinga Saga names Svein Asleifsson as the killer, and says that he came to Caithness from the south, from Atholl, with Rognvalds blessing and this Svein Asleifsson had also been the man in whose custody Earl Paul had disappeared. In 1150 or 1151, Harald visited Norway with Earl Rognvald, during this visit Rognvald made his decision to go on crusade, as recounted at length in the Saga. After Harald returned to Orkney and Rognvald departed on his expedition, King Eystein Haraldsson, eldest brother of Ingi, during this operation he encountered Harald near Thurso and captured him. Harald was freed in return for a ransom in gold and by giving his oath to Eystein, Eystein then went on to raid the coasts of Scotland and England. Possibly as a result of Eysteins activities, King David granted half of Caithness to Haralds cousin, the result, as recounted in the Orkneyinga Saga, was a political struggle which ended with Erlends murder in 1154. Rognvald too was killed, in 1158, Svein Asleifsson was again heavily involved in this dynastic conflict. In 1153 King David died, to be succeeded by his young grandson, King Eystein too died in a war with his brothers Ingi and Sigurd which left Ingi the sole surviving son of Harald Gilli. As a result, by 1158 Harald Maddadsson was undisputed Earl of Orkney, from the death of Rognvald, Harald Maddadsson pursued a policy of supporting the enemies of the kings of Scotland, first Malcolm IV, who died young in 1165, then Malcolms brother William. An expedition to Ross by King William and his brother Earl David in 1179 may have related to Haralds activities. Two years later the rebellion of Domnall, son of Máel Coluim mac Uilleim, broke out in Ross and Moray, the rebellion was not finally suppressed until 1187
26.
Beatification
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Beatification is a recognition accorded by the Catholic Church of a dead persons entrance into Heaven and capacity to intercede on behalf of individuals who pray in his or her name. Local bishops had the power of beatifying until 1634, when Pope Urban VIII, in the apostolic constitution Cœlestis Jerusalem of 6 July, reserved the power of beatifying to the Apostolic See. The requirement of a miracle is not relevant to the canonization of those who died in martyrdom, the feast day for a Blessed person is not universal, but is celebrated only in regions where the person receives particular veneration. For instance, Saint Kateri Tekakwitha was especially honored in the United States, the person may also be honored in a particular religious order, diocese, or organization, such as John Duns Scotus among the Franciscans, the Archdiocese of Cologne and other places. Pope John Paul II markedly changed previous Catholic practice of beatification, by October 2004, he had beatified 1,340 people, more than the sum of all of his predecessors since Pope Sixtus V, who established a beatification procedure similar to that used today. The Pope himself still can preside, as happened on 19 September 2010, cultus confirmation is a somewhat different procedure, wherein the church recognizes a local cult of a person, asserting that veneration of that person is acceptable. Such a confirmation is more an official sanctioning of folk Catholicism than a step in a canonization procedure. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles. Juris Canonici et Juris Canonico-Civilis Compendium Nova Editio, Tomus Tertius, Pars Secunda List of all Blesseds in the Catholic Church by GCatholic. org
27.
George Mackay Brown
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George Mackay Brown was a Scottish poet, author and dramatist, whose work has a distinctly Orcadian character. He is considered one of the great Scottish poets of the 20th century, George Mackay Brown was born on 17 October 1921. The youngest of six children, his parents were John Brown, a tailor and postman, and Mhairi Mackay, who had brought up in Braal. Except for periods as a student on mainland Scotland, Brown lived all his life in the town of Stromness in the Orkney islands. Due to illness his father was restricted in his work and received no pension, the family had a history of depression and it is likely that Mackays uncle, Jimmy Brown, committed suicide, his body was found in Stromness harbour in 1935. George Mackay Browns youth was marked by poverty and it was from this time that he was affected by tuberculosis and he did start work in 1944 with The Orkney Herald, writing on Stromness news, and soon became a prolific journalist. He was encouraged in his writing of poetry by Francis Scarfe, after this he was helped in his development as a writer by Ernest Marwick, whose criticism he valued, and Robert Rendall. In 1947, Stromness voted to allow pubs to open again, when the first bar opened in 1948 Mackay Brown first tasted alcohol, which he found to be a revelation, they flushed my veins with happiness, they washed away all cares and shyness and worries. I remember thinking to myself If I could have two pints of beer every afternoon, life would be a great happiness, subsequently, alcohol played a considerable part in his life, although he says, I never became an alcoholic, mainly because my guts quickly staled. He was a student at Newbattle Abbey College in the 1951–1952 session, where the poet Edwin Muir. His return for the session was interrupted by the recurrence of tuberculosis. Having had poems published in periodicals, his first volume of poems. Muir wrote in the foreword, Grace is what I find in these poems, only three hundred copies were printed, and the imprint sold out within a fortnight. It was acclaimed in the local press, Brown studied English literature at the University of Edinburgh. After publication of poems in a magazine, with the help of Muir. During this period he met, and drank in Rose Street Edinburgh with, many of the Scottish poets of his time, Sydney Goodsir Smith, Norman MacCaig, Hugh MacDiarmid, here he also met Stella Cartwright, described as The Muse in Rose Street. Brown was briefly engaged to her, and began a correspondence that would continue till her death in 1985, in late 1960 Brown commenced teacher training at Moray House College of Education, but was unable to remain in Edinburgh because of ill-health. On his recovery in 1961 he found that he was not suited to this type of work and returned late in the year to his mothers house in Stromness, unemployed
28.
Peter Maxwell Davies
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Sir Peter Maxwell Davies CH CBE was an English composer and conductor. In 2004 he was made Master of the Queens Music and his compositions include eight works for the stage, from the monodrama Eight Songs for a Mad King, which shocked the audience in 1969, to Kommilitonen. He wrote ten symphonies, the first from 1973–76, the tenth in 2013, as a conductor, he was Artistic Director of the Dartington International Summer School from 1979 to 1984. From 1992 to 2002 he was associate conductor/composer with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, Davies was born in Salford, Lancashire, the son of Thomas and Hilda Davies. At age four, after being taken to a performance of Gilbert and Sullivans The Gondoliers and he took piano lessons and composed from an early age. As a 14-year-old, he submitted a composition called Blue Ice to the radio programme Childrens Hour in Manchester, BBC producer Trevor Hill showed it to resident singer and entertainer Violet Carson, who said, Hes either quite brilliant or mad. Conductor Charles Groves nodded his approval and said, Id get him in, Daviess rise to fame began under the careful mentorship of Hill, who made him the programmes resident composer and introduced him to various professional musicians both in the UK and Germany. Together they formed New Music Manchester, a committed to contemporary music. After graduating in 1956, he studied on an Italian government scholarship for a year with Goffredo Petrassi in Rome, in 1959, Davies became Director of Music at Cirencester Grammar School. He left in 1962 after securing a Harkness Fellowship at Princeton University, there he studied with Roger Sessions, Milton Babbitt and he then moved to Australia, where he was Composer in Residence at the Elder Conservatorium of Music, University of Adelaide, 1965–66. In 1966 Davies returned to the United Kingdom and moved to the Orkney Islands, initially to Hoy in 1971, Orkney hosts the St Magnus Festival, an arts festival founded by Davies in 1977. He frequently used the festival to new works. Davies was Artistic Director of the Dartington International Summer School from 1979 to 1984, in 2000 Davies was Artist in Residence at the Barossa Music Festival when he presented some of his music theatre works and worked with students from the Barossa Spring Academy. Davies is also Composer Laureate of the Scottish Chamber Orchestra, for whom he wrote a series of ten Strathclyde Concertos and he was awarded a number of honorary doctorates, including Honorary Doctor of Music from Oxford University in July 2005. He had been President of Making Music since 1989, Davies was made a CBE in 1981 and knighted in 1987. He was appointed Master of the Queens Music in March 2004 but, in a break from the tradition of lifetime tenure and he was made a Freeman of the City of Salford August 2004. On 25 November 2006, he was appointed an Honorary Fellow of Canterbury Christ Church University at a service in Canterbury Cathedral and he was Visiting Professor of Composition at the Royal Academy of Music, and in 2009 became an Honorary Fellow of Homerton College, Cambridge. Davies also received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 2002 Davies was one of the first classical composers to open a music download website, the site became temporarily unavailable after the arrest in June 2007 of Michael Arnold on fraud charges arising from money missing from Daviess business accounts
29.
Opera
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Opera is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text and musical score, usually in a theatrical setting. In traditional opera, singers do two types of singing, recitative, a style and arias, a more melodic style. Opera incorporates many of the elements of theatre, such as acting, scenery. The performance is given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble. Opera is a key part of the Western classical music tradition, in the 18th century, Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe, attracting foreign composers such as George Frideric Handel. Opera seria was the most prestigious form of Italian opera, until Christoph Willibald Gluck reacted against its artificiality with his operas in the 1760s. The first third of the 19th century saw the point of the bel canto style, with Gioachino Rossini, Gaetano Donizetti. It also saw the advent of Grand Opera typified by the works of Auber and Meyerbeer, the mid-to-late 19th century was a golden age of opera, led and dominated by Richard Wagner in Germany and Giuseppe Verdi in Italy. The popularity of opera continued through the era in Italy and contemporary French opera through to Giacomo Puccini. During the 19th century, parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe, the 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles, such as atonality and serialism, Neoclassicism, and Minimalism. With the rise of recording technology, singers such as Enrico Caruso, since the invention of radio and television, operas were also performed on these mediums. Beginning in 2006, a number of opera houses began to present live high-definition video transmissions of their performances in cinemas all over the world. In 2009, an opera company offered a download of a complete performance. The words of an opera are known as the libretto, some composers, notably Wagner, have written their own libretti, others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists, e. g. Mozart with Lorenzo Da Ponte. Vocal duets, trios and other ensembles often occur, and choruses are used to comment on the action, in some forms of opera, such as singspiel, opéra comique, operetta, and semi-opera, the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue. Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of, or instead of, the terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail below. Over the 18th century, arias were accompanied by the orchestra. Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagners example, though some, the changing role of the orchestra in opera is described in more detail below
30.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
31.
Faroe Islands
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The Faroe Islands, also spelled the Faeroes, is an archipelago between the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic, about halfway between Norway and Iceland,320 kilometres north-northwest of Scotland. Its area is about 1,400 square kilometres with a population of 49,188 in 2016, the Faeroe Islands is an autonomous country within the Danish Realm. The land of the Faeroes is rugged, and these islands have an oceanic climate, windy, wet, cloudy. Despite this island groups northerly latitude, temperatures average above freezing throughout the year because of the Gulf Stream, between 1035 and 1814, the Faeroes were part of the Hereditary Kingdom of Norway. In 1814, the Treaty of Kiel granted Denmark control over the islands, the Faroe Islands have been a self-governing country within the Kingdom of Denmark since 1948. The Faroese have control of most domestic matters, areas that remain the responsibility of Denmark include military defence, the police department, the justice department, currency, and foreign affairs. However, as they are not part of the customs area as Denmark, the Faroe Islands have an independent trade policy. The islands also have representation in the Nordic Council as members of the Danish delegation, the people of the Faroe Islands also compete as national team in certain sports. In Danish, the name Færøerne may reflect an Old Norse word fær, the morpheme øerne represents a plural of ø in Danish. The Danish name thus translates as the islands of sheep, in Faroese, the name appears as Føroyar. Oyar represents the plural of oy, older Faroese for island, the modern Faeroese word for island is oyggj. In the English language, their name is sometimes spelled Faeroe, archaeological evidence shows settlers living on the Faroe Islands in two successive periods prior to the arrival of the Norse, the first between 400 and 600 and the second between 600 and 800. Scientists from the University of Aberdeen have also found early cereal pollen from domesticated plants, archaeologist Mike Church noted that Dicuil mentioned what may have been the Faroes. He also suggested that the living there might have been from Ireland, Scotland or Scandinavia. A Latin account of a made by Brendan, an Irish monastic saint who lived around 484–578. This association, however, is far from conclusive in its description, Dicuil, an Irish monk of the early 9th century, wrote a more definite account. 800, bringing Old West Norse, which evolved into the modern Faroese language, according to Icelandic sagas such as Færeyjar Saga, one of the best known men in the island was Tróndur í Gøtu, a descendant of Scandinavian chiefs who had settled in Dublin, Ireland. Tróndur led the battle against Sigmund Brestursson, the Norwegian monarchy, a traditional name for the islands in Irish, Na Scigirí, possibly refers to the Skeggjar Beards, a nickname given to island dwellers
32.
Magnus Cathedral
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St. Magnus Cathedral is a ruined cathedral in the village of Kirkjubøur on the island of Streymoy in the Faroe Islands. Bishop Erlendur started construction in about the year 1300, however, the building was never completed, because it was never roofed. The cathedral remains in a state to this day. St. Magnus Cathedral is the largest medieval building in the Faroe Islands, during 2002-2004, a wooden shed was erected around most of the ruin, giving it enough shelter to dry out, before work could begin on preservation. The shed drew considerable criticism because of its looks, during the research into how to preserve the ruin, a conclusion was reached. No outward reconstruction would be made, and instead ongoing preservation work would be implemented, in addition, all horizontal surfaces, where water could seep in, would be soft capped with mortar and clay before being topped with sod and grass. Today considerable headway has been made, large sections of the shedding have been removed and work is expected to be finished in the not too distant future. While it is hoped that the St. Magnus Cathedral will be accepted as a UNESCO World heritage Site, pictures of the ruins of the St. Magnus Cathedral were featured on a series of Faroese stamps in 1988
33.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
34.
St Magnus-the-Martyr
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St Magnus the Martyr, London Bridge is a Church of England church and parish within the City of London. It is a Grade I listed building, the rector uses the title Cardinal Rector, being one of three clerics in the Church of England to use the title Cardinal. St Magnus lies on the alignment of London Bridge between the City and Southwark. The ancient parish was united with that of St Margaret, New Fish Street, in 1670 and with that of St Michael, Crooked Lane, the three united parishes retained separate vestries and churchwardens. Parish clerks continue to be appointed for each of the three parishes, St Magnus is the guild church of the Worshipful Company of Fishmongers and the Worshipful Company of Plumbers, and the ward church of the Ward of Bridge and Bridge Without. It is also twinned with the Church of the Resurrection in New York City and its prominent location and beauty has prompted many mentions in literature. One biographer of Eliot notes that at first he enjoyed St Magnus aesthetically for its splendour, the church is dedicated to St Magnus the Martyr, earl of Orkney, who died on 16 April in or around 1116. He was executed on the island of Egilsay having been captured during a struggle with his cousin. Magnus had a reputation for piety and gentleness and was canonised in 1135, St. Ronald, the son of Magnuss sister Gunhild Erlendsdotter, became Earl of Orkney in 1136 and in 1137 initiated the construction of St. Magnus Cathedral in Kirkwall. The story of St. Magnus has been retold in the 20th century in the chamber opera The Martyrdom of St Magnus by Sir Peter Maxwell Davies, the identity of the St Magnus referred to in the churchs dedication was only confirmed by the Bishop of London in 1926. Following this decision a patronal festival service was held on 16 April 1926, the 900th anniversary of the death of St Magnus was marked with a Pontifical High Mass and Solemn Pontifical Vespers on 16 April 2016. In the 13th century the patronage was attributed to one of the saints by the name of Magnus who share a feast day on 19 August. For the next century historians followed the suggestion that the church was dedicated to the Roman saint of Cæsarea, added at least two churches with Danish names, Olaf and Magnus. However, there is no evidence to suggest that any of the mediaeval churches in the City of London had a Roman foundation. Nonetheless, these manuscripts may preserve valid evidence of a date of foundation in the 11th century, archaeological evidence suggests that the area of the bridgehead was not occupied from the early 5th century until the early 10th century. Environmental evidence indicates that the area was waste ground during this period, colonised by elder, following Alfred the Greats decision to reoccupy the walled area of London in 886, new harbours were established at Queenhithe and Billingsgate. A bridge was in place by the early 11th century, a factor which would have encouraged the occupation of the bridgehead by craftsmen, a lane connecting Botolphs Wharf and Billingsgate to the rebuilt bridge may have developed by the mid-11th century. The waterfront at this time was a hive of activity, with the construction of embankments sloping down from the wall to the river
35.
Christopher Wren
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Sir Christopher Wren PRS is one of the most highly acclaimed English architects in history. The principal creative responsibility for a number of the churches is now commonly attributed to others in his office. Other notable buildings by Wren include the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, the Wren Building, the main building at the College of William and Mary, Virginia, is attributed to Wren. Educated in Latin and Aristotelian physics at the University of Oxford, Wren was a notable anatomist, astronomer, geometer and he was a founder of the Royal Society, and his scientific work was highly regarded by Isaac Newton and Blaise Pascal. Wren was born in East Knoyle in Wiltshire, the surviving son of Christopher Wren Sr. and Mary Cox. Christopher Sr. was at time the rector of East Knoyle. Their son Christopher was born in 1632 then, two later, another daughter named Elizabeth was born. Mary must have died shortly after the birth of Elizabeth, although there does not appear to be any surviving record of the date, through Mary Cox, however, the family became well off financially for, as the only heir, she had inherited her fathers estate. As a child Wren seemd consumptive, although a sickly child, he would survive into robust old age. He was first taught at home by a tutor and his father. After his fathers appointment as Dean of Windsor in March 1635, his family spent part of each year there. He spent his first eight years at East Knoyle and was educated by the Rev. William Shepherd and it was a tough time in his life, but one which would go on to have a significant impact upon his later works. Some of Wrens youthful exercises preserved or recorded showed that he received a grounding in Latin. According to Parentalia, he was initiated in the principles of mathematics by Dr William Holder, who married Wrens elder sister Susan in 1643. His drawing was put to use in providing many of the anatomical drawings for the anatomy textbook of the brain, Cerebri Anatome, published by Thomas Willis. During this time period, Wren manifested an interest in the design and it was probably through Holder that Wren met Sir Charles Scarburgh whom Wren assisted in his anatomical studies. On 25 June 1650, Wren entered Wadham College, Oxford, where he studied Latin and it is anachronistic to imagine that he received scientific training in the modern sense. However, Wren became closely associated with John Wilkins, the Warden of Wadham, the Wilkins circle was a group whose activities led to the formation of the Royal Society, comprising a number of distinguished mathematicians, creative workers and experimental philosophers
36.
Australian Navy Cadets
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The Australian Navy Cadets is a voluntary youth organisation owned and sponsored by the Royal Australian Navy. Together with the Australian Air Force Cadets and Australian Army Cadets, the organisation was founded in the early 1900s and officially recognised under the Naval Defence Act in 1910. Prior to 1973, the organisation was known as the Australian Sea Cadet Corps, and was administered by the Royal Australian Navy. After 1973, the Navy assumed full responsibility for the Corps, the Australian Government review, Cadets The Future recommended a final name change to Australian Navy Cadets in 2000. From 1942 until his death in 1952 HM King George VI was the Admiral of the Sea Cadet Corps, activities can include, but are not limited to, navigation, communications, first aid, drill, maritime history, firearms proficiency and adventurous training. There are 91 Training Ships across Australia, with a membership of over 400 staff and 2,200 cadets. However,2012 reporting suggested membership has fallen drastically to about 1,600, the ANC adheres to a rank structure similar to the Royal Australian Navy, with cadets having the opportunity to progress from the rank of Cadet Recruit to Cadet Midshipman. Each unit has a complement which lays out how many cadets the unit is allowed to carry, Training camps and examinations are held for promotion in rank. The structure and organisation of the Australian Navy Cadets is based on that of the Royal Australian Navy however additionally features a community involvement component. Ranks of the Australian Navy Cadets are divided into Staff ranks, volunteers do not become staff until appointed by the ANC. Each state had a Senior Officer Naval Reserve Cadets who answered to the LNA or Local Naval Authority usually the Commanding Officer of the establishment on which the NRCHQ of that state resided. A Cadet Liaison Officer, usually a RANR Officer, was situated in HMAS Cairns, HMAS Moreton, HMAS Watson, HMAS Lonsdale, HMAS Encounter, HMAS Huon, the CLO had responsibility for the liaising between the NRC and RAN in their state. There was no national HQ or national staff until the ANC was established in 2001, prior to 2001 the ANC did not have the title or position Director General ANC, instead the overall Commanders position was called Director of Reserves Navy which was a RAN – RANR position. Cadets learn teamwork and leadership skills, and put these into practice at regular weekly parades, Cadets also have the opportunity to attend training camps for the purpose of promotion in rank, standard training, or to gain additional qualifications. TS Hobart, a band unit, also offers musical activities as well as the normal cadet curriculum. All ANC units can participate in sea rides on Royal Australian Navy ships as part of the Twinning program, as the ANC is part of the International Sea Cadet Association, the opportunity is present for members to go on exchange programs with overseas cadet groups. The ANC/Young Endeavour Voyage Scheme is a program for Australian Navy Cadets aged 16 and over, focused on building leadership, teamwork. This scheme is being sponsored by the RAN and extends to 24 Australian Navy Cadets, sponsorship covers all voyage fees, airfares and accommodation
